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REVIEW

mm

LEMJE^NMONS

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

(PUUWI

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of Justice, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome. President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Corp.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela.

OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
PARANJPYE Dr. R. M., former Minister of Instruction in Bombay, Member of the Council

of the Secretary of State for India.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, at the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office.

The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation,
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Doctor Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director.

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Dr. G. Noxon

de FEO, Giuseppe GlMENO, Jose Marfa

de LAVALLAZ, Maurice JORDAN, H.

Apollonio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. JANUARY 1932 N. 1

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CIMEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

- LEAGUE OF NATIONS —

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, U - ROME

LB I of

»n h JL w

INDEX

Page

Walther GiJNTHER — What we can expect from the Educational Sound Film . 3

A. G. BRAGAGLIA . — " Orlando Furioso ", Cinematic Poem 11

C. P. Hankin. . . — An Exhibition of Mechanical aids to learning 30

/. /. E. C. ENQUIRIES

Young peoples impressions of War Films 37

China and the I. I. E. C 49

LEGISLATION

Film Censorship and Educational Films in China 51

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The French Committee of the I. I. E. C. — Social Problems of the Cinema —
Technical instruction and Professional Orientation — Educational Ci-
nema in Brazil — Dominion Educational Film Association Inc. Toronto,
Canada — Cinema and Protectionism 57

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS

The Film in the World's Life — Documentary Films — Cinema and General
Culture — Legislative questions — Cinema and Labour — Cinematographic
technique — Various 69

SOME INTERESTING ARTICLES 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY 80

WHAT WE CAN EXPECT
FROM THE EDUCATIONAL SOUND FILM

by Dr. Walter Giinther.

Before answering this question we must agree as to what we expect
from educational films generally and first of all as to a definition of this type
of film.

In the past, through a lack of precise ideas on the subject educational
films were defined thus : — " Educational films are those which have been
thus named by the competent authorities ".

The practical difficulties of making a distinction in this matter are
clearly indicated by Oscar Kalbus in his book (1922). He writes : " Submit-
ting the educational film to a short consideration here, I will make no dis-
tinction in cinematic material between that which is intended to produce
scientific results and that which is designed to demonstrate them, whether

(Editor). — Mr. Walter Giinther, our eminent collaborator, deals in his article with
a complex problem presenting difficulties of technical, financial and instructional orders.

Sound projection equipment is at the moment too expensive to be installed in schools.
Through the help of some Mycenes it might in some schools be made possible but this is
no general solution. Nevertheless there is a visible tendency towards reduced prices in
all kinds of sound equipment, favoured by a stimulated demand and the consequent mass
production and also by technical improvements which, by simplification, have reduced fac-
tory costs. So much for the economic side of the question.

From a strictly technical point of view, it must be noted that few schools have rooms
entirely suitable for sound projection. Until this matter has become simplified this it re-
main one of the most formidable obstacles to the employment of sound films in schools.

And from a pedagogie point of view ? it may be said that this question is no longer asked.
There is no question of substituting film for master, mechanising the school. On the con-
trary, the master will be as necessary as ever to give explanations and prevent misunderstand-
<•*> ings.

In any case, from all the opinions in papers and books having to do with the Cinema and
Education, it seems that it may be considered as the master's most precious help.

We will publish during the year answers from 700 Italian and 200 Belgian schools to the
questions of a didactic character included in the general questionnaire issued by this In-
stitute and already known to our readers. We may say that when they replied to those quest-
H

5

the film be destined, for use in Universities, schools, popular education or
the instructional section of an ordinary cinema programme ; I see them as
educational films ".

In the examination of educational films the following are determining
factors : —

" All films, regardless of length, which are destined or adapted for
teaching or instruction or any other educational work in any educational
programme should be considered as educational films.

' Thus, all films destined for use in schools generally, in professional
schools, in universities or in any other educational or instructional film
institution, recognized by the State and submitted to its control or in private
educational institutions for young people, which without official recognition
work under an educational programme, such as, popular universities and
professional schools.

"In this section may be placed, in a general way, instructional establish-
ments of all kinds charged with popular, scientific and artistic formation,
recognized and under the control of the Ministries of Commerce and Trade,
Public Assistance, Agriculture, Internal Affairs (Police Schools). In this
same category may likewise be placed schools for officials, popular Univer-
sities of all kinds, schools and courses for professional education and pop-
ular educational associations, workpeoples ' Universities, and all kinds of
different cultural societies in as much as they work on an educational pro-
gramme ".

One might well say that this definition is nothing more than a mere
exposition of the objects of the educational film ; and this is, exact for the
term " educational film " implies first the intention of the producer and
then the valuation of his effort by an official and competent jury.

Even this is not very definite for the categories into which we are ac-
customed to place various films are absolutely artificial.

We generally speak of theatrical films, propaganda films, instructional
films, cultural films, cartoons, differentiating between them with out realiz-

ions the children had seen few sound films but they were enthused at those they had and
seemed convinced of their value in teaching.

Teachers often think the same, more especially in recent American and English experi-
ments which have given convincing results. From Mr. Giinther's interesting article and
from these few notes there derives the dual necessity for the reduction in price of sound
equipment and its simplification. In this way its installation may come within the compass
of all schools, universally. All will be gainers thereby, students and masters.

— 5 —

ing that the method is not rational, in fact it is no method at all. Sometimes
we classify films with regard to their intention (teaching), sometimes with
regard to their nature (theatrical) ; or quite as often we get out of the difficulty
by placing them under a general title (cultural films). In any case there is
no question of establishing categories on a fixed basis. Actually we can
only divide films thus : entertainment films (it matters little whether this
end is attained by photography, drama, or cinematic tricks), propaganda
films such as they are : documentary films or travel films, newreels, film
reviews and finally films which have the intention of instructing.

The educational film may be subdivided. Many people have an un-
clear idea of the educational film because the potential public is so varied.

One may understand by " educational Film " that which teaches some-
thing, but a film may do this without its having been intended by the pro-
ducer. A typical example of this is " Nanook ", conceived originally as
an advertising film (for the fur trade). It did not answer the purpose so it
was transformed into an excellent education film. The same might be said
of the film of a novel by Selma Sagerlof which, by its excellent presentation
of the life of Swedish peasants, is of definite instructional value. There was
no intention of producing this effect which may outlive the other aspects of
the film.

The term, ' school film " has as yet no meaning. The school should
not only instruct but also educate. Is the educational film a teaching film ?
In this way one comes to the distinction between the educational film and
the teaching film.

In Universities and other institutions of higher learning, mention has
been made of research films. These films are meant to standardize research
processes and to record results. They are documentary in their exposit-
ion of research method and instructional in their description of results
obtained.

Given the great difficulties of this problem, we will do well to confine
ourselves to the above consideration.

The necessity of a programme based on all educational work seems es-
sential for it implies important considerations as to the contents and form
of educational films. The programme to which a film conforms is then the
essential point and the programme should not be altered to suit the films
available. If we ask what teaching films we may use in a rational course of
study, if we take the programme of the course as a foundation and the film
as an element which may be introduced into it as a means of attaining the

— 6 —

end, the use of the film becomes exceptional and we have nothing more to
do with it here.

This use of the film turns it into an object and it is no longer a means
of teaching. The film as a teaching object is an important problem of the
future of which there is a great deal to be said.

Conceived as a means of teaching, the silent film enables one to include
in a programme things which it might not be possible to demonstrate other-
wise.

Distance in space is a geographical conception, distance in time is an
historical conception, momentary absence may concern any object.

How should we consider sound as the complement to the image ?

The silent film only brings to teaching special things which could not
be demonstrated by any other means.

From a methodical point of view, there is one condition which must
necessarily be of supreme consequence to the producer, the master should
direct audibly the projection of the film, emphasizing essential points and
allowing matters of secondary importance to pass without comment. The
sound film has in the first place given itself the task of doing away with this
audible comment on the part of the teacher and of explaining itself while
the problem of what is a good teaching film is as yet still unsolved and its
possibilities undetermined.

In the silent film an attempt was made to replace explanations by sub-
titles, to bring forward certain words by a mark or by the internal order of
the sentence and it was thought that by this type of emphasis stress might
be laid upon the subsequent pictures.

In film cartoons, the teacher's pointer was replaced by swiftly moving
points, lines, exclamation marks and arrows. It was admitted that these
methods evoked normal perception and normal comprehension.

Great efforts were made to be as explanatory as possible and to cry out
in the subtitles ; the essential thing was the film itself and the spectators were
regarded as of secondary importance.

From this application of the silent film was determined the idea that the
teaching sound film was a sequence of images accompanied by an explanatory
text instead of subtitles and other usual signs.

Various people concerned with teaching at once expressed the fear that
lectures would become entirely mechanical.

I do not think that this is to be anticipated. The idea of a lecture ac-
companiment by an incompetent person is bad in itself but far worse is the

— 7 —

thought of the resuscitating of old films and synchronizing them wth
lectures. The lecture itself must also be explained, developed and adapt-
ed by a teacher who knows the schedule for the particular group of
spectators.

Just as it was necessary in silent teaching films to eliminate the theat-
rical type of title, unsuitable on account of both form and over suggestive
content which were contrary to methods of teaching requiring an effort of
understanding on the part of the spectators, in the teaching sound film it is
essential to eliminate commentaries by incompetent persons.

In silent films we could only use the image for teaching and so in sound
films we must use the sound, it is the essential item, it underlines move-
ment and the other organic film elements and brings them into reality.
We must use only exact and necessary sounds, explaining the image and
completing the living element in the film.

Let us make this clear by an example.

Let us take the forest for instance. We should certainly agree as to
the images of which this film might be composed, but what about the sound ?
A stag, the mountain stream, the wash of the river, birds singing here and
there, the charcoal burners, the woodmen, perhaps a traveller, perhaps also
the noise of the forest, a storm, the creaking of the trees under the weight
of snow. We might have the image with its natural sound. But from a
methodical point of view, it is obviously nonsensical to describe the life of
a forest through the lips of a single woodman, traveller, landowner or charcoal
burner who is ignorant of the larger aspect of forest life. I do not wish
to be misunderstood. The woodman, the charcoal burner and the other
men that live in the forest, should not be called upon to describe the entire
life of the forest but simply the 'art which they personally play in it. The
woodman should not be an orator, he should simply describe his existence,
his job, the work involved and his manner of doing it. And therein is only
a small part of the existence of the forest as a whole. In the Roumanian
film " Tanzende Holzer ", by U. F. A., the commentary has been elim-
inated — and rightly for the images make such an impression that words
could only serve to weaken it.

There might well be a commentator in the form of an old woodman,
but in what language would he speak? A woodman in the Black Forest
would onviously speak a dialect which Northern Germans would find dif-
ficult to understand. And the same thing applies to other local inhabitants.
The sound should come from those who actually act in the film.

- 8 —

The bird that sings in the tree, the tree creaking in the wind is in the
image and the image is the conductor of action and should remain so.

The sound film should not try to interpret our feelings when we see a
film whose meaning is already conveyed by sight and sound. The com-
mentator is the spectator already initiated.

If the film is shown to a public composed of children or people who are
ignorant of the scenes it represents, there will always be a special commenta-
tor in the shape of the master of the class. In other words, sound will only
issue from those actors that appear on the screen, birds, men, streams, etc.
The spectator can always see the film again and the master explain difficult
points.

We must then take into account two effects of the film, the reproduc-
tion of living actions and the creation of certain feelings in the spectator.
Sound intensifies, increases the possibilities of action and it is thus that the
woodman and huntsman may be considered as an integral part of the
forest.

Subsequently the commentator may enlarge and explain the subject
to his class by ordering the events, emphasizing essentials and noting anal-
ogies. It is the task of the school to teach the ordering of ideas and if it
does not do so, it fails.

In this field, the idea of competition plays no part, nor can it ever do
so seriously.

Even with the first bad sound films, with incompetent lectures syn-
chronised on them, the work of the school was always that of ordering
ideas, explaining the film to the class and helping its members to understand.

The poorly conceived sound film increased this part of school work ;
instead of supplanting the master it merely obliged him to work constantly
in order to balance the bad influence of some of the films.

The evidence behind this point of view will be clear to the reader if
he brings to mind that in this matter the mentality of the child must be
considered. An attempt is made to teach it a new fact. The mind of a
child is open to many influences.

To begin with, the family circle exerts over the child a continual in-
fluence which is only suspended by schools hours ; afternoons and evenings
passed at home, parents, brothers and sisters are the chief elements. Then
comes school life, amusements, the road to school and little friends, all
things that act on the child outside the sphere [of the school. Thirdly,
friends, shop windows, advertisement posters, playgrounds, theatres, concerts,

books, walks, etc. A fourth environment is the school where there are two
kinds of influence. The primary influence that the school wishes to exert
directly by means of a certain curriculum and secondary influences resulting
from the personality of the masters and fellow pupils and other things.
There are some people who would give a greater importance to the second
group of influences. The sound film should be brought into use in both
kinds of influence and more especially in the first where the action is pre-
planned.

We will doubtless ask ourselves what we really want of the sound film.
We might reply, to see and to hear. Thus may be developed two human
functions which are too little exercised, and at the same time the knowledge
prescribed by the programme may be absorbed.

The apparatus, the arrangement of the room, the limited time available,
the impossibility of speaking or explaining actually during the projection
of sound films makes the teaching sound film of little practical use at the
moment, of even less use than the silent film.

The inconvenience is particularly great when it is necessary to resort
to a projection hall outside the school itself.

It is therefore essential that the teaching sound film should avoid dull-
ness, it should grip the pupil and inspire his mind to work as the film pro-
ceeds. From experiments conducted during the past year on children,
young people and adults, it appears that the strongest impression is convey-
ed when the sound film suddenly becomes silent. The greater part of the
film : Himatschal ", for instance, was synchronised with music.

The labours of the expedition, whether it climbs or descends, whether
it is in difficulty or all goes well — it matters little for there is always the
music. Th music evokes a certain rythym ; for instance, when steps are
hacked out with an ice pick. It is not my intention to judge the music
here, it is the method that interests me. Thus I permit myself to say that
the music from a methodical point of view is false in many parts of the film,
for the young spectators, at least it is always false when particularly difficult
feats of mountaineering are shown, when the mist comes and finally when the
summit is reached. If only the music were eliminated it would be quite
another film, it would grip the spectator, above all in certain passages where
there would be absolute silence. This shows that greater concentration is
possible when only one medium is used.

For purely psychological purposes those passages which are to be em-
phasized must be brought to the fore. As in the sound film emphasis

— 10 —

can be varied only by controlling the volume of the sound or dispensing
with it, we can only pronounce ourselves in favour of it suppression.

But this should not lead us into a pre-arranged order of sound and
silent passages in a film, 20 feet silent, 30 feet sound, 50 feet silent, and so
on. Such a scheme is not possible for it is a matter which is in the hands
of the producer.

The film " Tanzende Holzer " on the subject of Roumania is one of
the best in existence, certain parts are truly moving, it matters little that it
has been post synchronised with the noise of sliding wood ; it would per-
haps be preferable if the principal scenes were kept entirely silent. The film
would be more gripping and moving.

A film cannot be made into a teaching sound film simply by the addition
of a synchronised musical score or a running commentary.

It is well known that fixed projections have never given birth to a
film, at least a teaching film, even with the addition of titles. A teaching
film is not made with signs, numbers and explanations. And a sound film
cannot be made upon of old silent films with these additions or any odd
music.

The school expects something quite different from the sound film. The
example of a volcanic erruption is perhaps particularly apt here. It is a
subject which can be rendered visually and artistically, consequently, to
render it completely on the screen these two aspects should be united, with-
out having explanations from a guide and an accompaniment of Italian music.
It is not even necessary to hear the little Vesuvian railway, above all at the
moment when the subterranean noises occur. If the film becomes silent
when the devastation caused by the erruption, the destruction of trees, walls
and bridges are shown, everything that can will be shown in a faithful pic-
ture of reality and the effect will not be lost.

What is important in the teaching sound film, the opinion of an
honourable lecturer, the more or less effective harmony of musical instru-
ments ? We want reality. The greater impression of reality which the
sound film can produce through sound and image and the better it knowns
the effects of silence the more efficacious it will be.

It has not been my intention to treat the subject exhaustively or to
establish a doctrine for sound films. I have only wished to give my per-
sonal views which may possibly be of use to producers.

{From thz German).

"ORLANDO FURIOSO", CINEMATIC POEM

by Anton Giulio Bragaglia.

Ariosto, the cineist.

Whoever has cultivated Ariosto and read his " Orlando Furioso " will
certainly have remarked for himself without any suggestion on my part the
truly cinematic character of this poem. For in order to do so it is only ne-
cessary to examine those qualities which literary criticism is wont to look for
in this and many other chefs d'oeuvres.

As for us anti-literary gentlemen, who are content to know just enough
of reading and writing to fill our immediate needs, when we read Orlando it
is purely and simply for our pleasure and we feel convinced that in writing
this poem Ariosto has no other end in view.

He scarcely thought of literary criticism and he was less concerned than
some people may think in creating a string of allegories and attaining all those
other objects with which literary cntiscism credits him. He merely wished

M. Bragaglia, with his pyrotechnical verve and with that representational sense which
makes him a leader in avant-garde theatre, tells us of the cinematic temperament of Ariosto
and the inexhaustible resources of " Orlando Furioso " for the daring ' Regisseur '. The
same could be said of other works of Renaissance writers, so full of incomparable images so
powerfully drawn that when interpreted by the pencil of Gustave Dore they find a truly
extraordinary suggestive force.

We have named Dore. We may take note of his illustrations of the Divine Comedy,
Don Quixote, and Gargantua, or, largely different, those of the Bible. Surely the cinematic
quality of works which have inspired one artist with the force to produce so many faithful
illustrations is not to be decried ?

In approaching Ariosto in this way, Bragaglia opens up a new field of artistic and in a
sense educative cinema — an attractive field ; but its appeal to cineasts is almost a challenge.

Let us hope that there will be ' regisseurs ' brave and capable enough to take it up by
adapting Orlando and other great works for the screen.

But there is one point in Bragaglia's article that we should like to raise, not so much with
reference to Bragaglia's view-point but because we should like to see the subject discussed in
the Review. Bragaglia says quite frankly that the cinema and the Theatre have nothing to
do with historic truth. We know that historic truth is often too intangible a myth for
us to be scandalised by his statement, however we think that at those points where it may be

— 12 —

to place a variety of stirring episodes in a tale that would not prove too bor-
ing to the public.

We the anti-literary faction, enter today into the views of Messer Ludovic
who, although a great literary man, owed nothing to literature. What does
it matter to us if Agramante symbolises the innocence of youth and Angelica,
the beauty and vanity of women, that Bradamante personifies true friendship,
Fleur d'Aubepine, shameless passion — that Sacripante represents blind
love and Hippogrippa, natural appetite ? Of Horace Toscanella's explana-
tions we should only accept that which would make of Malagigi the person-
ification of magic. Not being literary men we see things from the angle
of our own aesthetic preferences, which of course make literary men of us, but
in their own way. If we too choose to give ourselves up for a moment to
the game of interpretations we can make some that will be starthngly new.
We may well maintain that Merlin, the Magician, symbolises the Cinema,
whose soul is precisely the magic lantern, which is magic because Merlin
would have is so.

We can also very well maintain that Ariosto was a poet who has to have
recourse to words through lack of the necessary trick apparatus to produce
those effects which in literature are called prodigies and which are ordinarily
attributed to fairies.

In the whirlwind of suppositions, spiritual and moral problems without
number that critics attempt to exact from Orlando, one fact endures, that the
magic lantern in incontestably the device of Merlin the Magician ! The magic
lantern, that mechanical abuse of the marvelously theatrical, divine gift to
men which procures for them a sort of daily bread of poetry. This tenth
Muse is descended from Merlin the Magician who lived in a cave, like Vulcan
from whom Venus is descended, the other divinity who holds a high place in
the works of Ariosto.

Instead of losing ourselves in idle speculation or in search of allegories,
hidden meanings, or veiled ideas, let us consider the poem as we see it.

grasped it should be respected and that in any case deformations should not be increased by
the addition of purely fantastic matter.

But it is a fact that from Dumas Pere to Michel Zevaco, from Ponson du Terrail to Paul
Feval, not to speak of the fictitious biographies so fashionable today, historic truth has been
outraged without such violent protest as has been directed against the historical liberties taken
by the cinema.

These different treatments have undoubtedly their respective reasons, but today we wish
only to state the problem and to invite those who have something of interest to say on the sub-
ject to avail themselves of the hospitality willingly offered them in the pages of this Review.

— 13 —

I am not going to undertake to show how cinematic Ariosto is, for it is
more than obvious. I will try rather to show that Ariosto is least himself
when he is least cinematic. Anyway, it will be sufficient to bring to mind the
fact that his theatre, all derived from Latin authors and stuffed with pseudo-
Aristotelian formulas, is weighed down by such a mass of rhymes that it
paralyses the most fertile imagination, even that of Ariosto himself !

Ariosto, Dramatic Author.

It would therefore be useless to look in the juvenaha, in those laboriously
devised plays, got up for the amusement of the court, produced and acted
by himself, for the prodigiously original and novel Ariosto, the great fore-
runner, in his chimeric visions, of that dramato-romantic element, so trium-
phant today in the epic grand guignol of the Cinema. I mean in the ad-
venture films a la Robin Hood — wild cinematic visions of mythology and
the northern sagas.

The ideal of chivalry which is so nobly alive in Ariosto, lifts the fantasy
of the poet into the marvelous and the sublime and, even when covered
with a thin coating of courtly spirit and humour, is always full of enthousiasm
and life. This ideal is absent in his theatrical works.

These latter which are inspired by Classical examples both as regards
the names and situations of the characters were considered by contemporary
critics as the height of perfection in original " erudite theatre " and in as much
as they departed from stylistic abstractions and fixed traditional patterns.

In fact from the very beginning Ariosto's work never ceases to evolve,
to transform itself progressively, passing from the translation of old plays to
the composition of learned theatre, deriving purely and simply from Classical
models, and from these finally to plays that are really and truly his own,
but which, as others have observed, bring to mind through situations, charac-
ters, and even titles, the comedies of Plautus such as Moslellaria or Aulu-
laria and those of Terence such as the Andria or the Heautontimoroumenos.

In spite of the stamp of modern times which he gave to these plays in
the acting and improvisation, this new elaboration of old theatrical motifs
is hardly important enough to make us believe that Ariosto really put his
true self into these exercises.

What is theatrical (in the new cinematic sense of the word) in the thea-
tre of Ariosto is difficult to collect for there is very little of it.

— 14 —

At grips with the theatre, the fantasy of the poet is obscured, because it
is caged in. The craft of play- write kept Ariostos imagination within
bounds. In his time the theatre was only theatrical in sacred mysteries and
profane actions of popular mediaeval origin.

The Imaginative and Visual Origi-
nality of the Poem.

There is then very little that is theatrical in the " erudite theatre ".
The truly modern theatrical Ariosto, the incomparable creator of images which
follow one another in a daring cinematic rhythm, is miraculously revealed in
" Orlando ". The fantasy of Ariosto breaks down all barriers, it is truly repre-
sentative of the spirit of the Renaissance in its Olympian severity, in the clas-
sic order of its form and at the same time it abounds in a profusion of actions,
descriptions and masterstrokes of theatre, scenes from melodramatic and
mythological films.

The learned ones, Pio Rayna at their head, have taken the trouble to
try and discover the sources of Orlando which they pretend are to be found
in the first place in " Orlando Amando " by Boiardo, from which he has cer-
tainly borrowed the epic characters and the idea of a large number of differ-
ent episodes. As for us, we see in the poem so novel a painting of people
and places, such originality of line and touch in the fantastic portrayal of
marvellous adventures, so original a mise-en-scene that we stand seized with
an admiration, which, in spite of the age of the work, makes us consider it
from a modern and surrealist point of view. These inventions full of light
and colour are more alive than reality itself.

The pretended epic tendencies sought out by Gioberti in " Orlando ", his
conclusions and those of many others on the irony, caricature and humour
in this marvellous tale, hardly interest us, for, on the plainest of evidence,
Ariosto created for the pleasure of creating. He invents pictures in terrify-
ing tones and then harmonious embroideries on the theme of dead chivalry
and he opposes the two, with a perfect understanding of their different char-
acters, to the new methods of war resulting from the use of masses of infantry
and artillery. He does it all smilingly but not without a certain regret.

It may be that Ariosto wished also in the poem to flatter courtly taste and
more particularly the house of Este, but, as de Sanctis very justly remarks,
all that is subordinate to a pure ideal of art for arts sake, to the cult of the beau-

- 15 —

tiful forms which inspire end sustain his efforts in a work which is singularly
representative of the spirit of the Renaissance, reaincarnated in a priceless
epoch of knight errants who live a life of fantastically imaginative adventure.
The whole is provided with a constant supply, of Ariosto's fine theatrical
scenery, for in " Orlando ", words create pictures.

With this technique and this art of a truly paradoxical genius, Ariosto,
showing consummate ability as a producer and man of the theatre and as an
imaginative painter, gives himself over to fantasy, working in dazzling col-
ours on a backing of canvas, legends and traditions which have come down
to him, interspersed with scenic actions treated apart, without any worry
about deepening his knowledge of the romances of chivalry and the Round
Table with a deal of pedantry.

Two painters can try and paint the same apple : it is the personal vision
of the artist that matters, not the object represented. It is for that reason
that Ariosto, although he treats matter that is far from new, deriving from Bo-
iardo, obtains characteristically novel effects and that on account of his cine-
matic mentality. We know what that means !

•In this connection we must remember, amongst the happiest natural
talents of Ariosto, his consuming passion for the theatre, his undeniable tal-
ent in his laborious re-writing and his classical comedies and above all
his ability as director of production, particularly noticeable when he was
superintendant of the court theatre, a charge given him by Duke Alfonso 1 st
after he had quarreled with Cardinal Hyppohte d'Este in refusing to accom-
pany the latter to Hungary.

The fact that he directed, some even say constructed, a permanent thea-
tre in the Ducal Palace, confirms us in the idea gleaned from the perusal of
the poem, that Ariosto was a naturally and marvellously gifted man of the
theatre, of the modern theatre, full of action and colour.

For that matter the originality of the Hendecasyllabics, accented on the
antipenultimate syllable, the metre used by Ariosto in his comedies, the
happy portrayal of characters sometimes brought to life by a trait of vibrant
humanity, the liveliness of the dialogue, the clever arrangement of the scenes,
his decided taste for dramatic discoveries and the most startling situations
generally, his qualities of an accomplished actor, all these indicate a certain
basic mastery of the theatre and its effects.

The whole drama of Orlando reveals in a higher plane his qualities
of theatrical technician and producer : he is the marvellous and magic creator
of hallucinations and dreams, a daringly fantastic cineist.

— 16 —

Visual Aspects of the Story.

To give intense and original life to a poetic world, enlivening it with the
breath of imagination and descriptive faculty, such is the task of the regisseur.

It is truly with the eye of a regisseur that Ariosto saw the violent reverses
of fortune that form the groundwork of his poem.

If one wished to give it a complete cinematic treatment, it would have to
be done in several episodes and several days would be required for its pro-
jection, so plentiful is the subject matter.

It would certainly be no light work to garner from " Orlando " all its
visual elements in order to construct a scenario. All is action in this poem,
which means to say that all in Cinema. If a daring scenarist were to under-
take to extract from " Orlando " the continuity of a film, he would run into
a regular wasps nest.

In any case such a task would require an intelligent scenarist and one
with literally a strong heart, a real cineist who would cut and hack at the story
to stop it lingering and to make it keep up a racing pace. If one were to use
all the cinematic material that there is to be found in the story one would
never get to the end of it.

However, the film in several episodes is no longer a la mode, and the
maximun projection time should not exceed three hours. The most gifted
scenarist would therefore have to be careful over this question of length. It
is supposed to be easy to make one film out of ten others, but no one takes the
trouble to say at what point one is most likely to go wrong.

I found myself in just this sort of difficulty when I was adapting Don
Quixote for the theatre, for the particular kind of theatre which interests
me, twenty or thirty little scenes following one another, differing as regards
both time and place, scenery that is changed rapidly in full view of the au-
dience as in films.

This extract from the life of the Sad-faced Knight for marionette thea-
tres was judged to be full of action and amusing but for me it was a kind of
via Crucis in tewenty-two Stations. And how difficult it was to have to leave
out many fine scenes.

In order to adapt " Orlando " for the screen one would have to become
quite resigned in this matter. It is definitely there, the mediaeval representa-
tional technique, the technique which I have examined on various occasions
in my books on the art of the theatre and cinegraphic character. And what
better technique have we invented since ?

— 17 —

Characters.

Taking up Boiardo's tale, Ariosto again presents knights and melodrama,
theatrical highspots of love and daring deeds, in a stage manner which con-
tained much of the previous century and much of that which was to come.

Ariosto promptly set to work on his out-of-date find, Orlando Amando,
and produced, in an atmosphere of legend and dream, a mixture of irony and
profound knowledge of human character, all so much alive that it gives us
the illusion of reality and so arouses in us that interest which only reality can
arouse.

" Orlando ", a tale of marvellous adventures, begins with the presenta-
tion of the characters and continues with explanatory stories in the extremely
lively groundwork in the principal action, itself a series of rapid sketches.

Douglas Fairbanks is certainly Count Orlando. Who better than Doug'
could recreate the prodigious knight ? We have only to think of him
in " The Sign of Zorro " and " The Gaucho " when he was defender of a
town and the protector of the weak and lowly.

The beautiful Angelica is the fascinating oriental, the apple of discord
in Charlemagne's camp, the stirrer-up of human passions, nothing like the
cold enchanteress of Boiardo's original. Ariosto makes of her an erring and
adventurous woman, as is found generally in old chivalry, but a woman eter-
nally feminine, charming enough to inspire the love of many heroes and
throw Orlando into a frenzy when he is deceived. Here is a feminine nature
that suits us ; Angelica has no family, one does not known who she is and that
is just what is needed in a film.

To what actress could we give this part of Angelica? Amongst the
stars of the Cinema I cannot think of one who would exactly fill the bill,
classic form, the beauty of an earthly goddess, extremely seductive in
motion and rest. Maria Carmi ? Priscilla Dean ? Perhaps, they are neither
of them quite what is wanted. Emile Ghione might make a Ferrau with his
thin, fierce face or Roy d'Arcy could take that part.

Just as every historical figure has found his approximate self in the fea-
tures of some cinema actor, so every memorable or legendary event has found
its equivalent in film melodrama.

Thomas Ince, the creator of cowboy pictures might well be one of the
directors of " Orlando " and he could certainly find physical counterparts
for many of the characters. Perhaps he would think of Wallace Beery for
Rodomonte. Since Ariosto wrote " Orlando " there has been nothing new

Ice ing.

— 18 —

of the kind. When we consider, that all the Rodomontes have come from
Rodomonte and all the coxcombs of the Cinema from Zerbino, son of the
king of Scotland, we sum up the whole matter. Zerbino is the prototype of
every handsome Valentino just as Rodomonte is that of all grandiloquent
heroes and Gradasso that of all braggards. All these types can be found in
the Cinema of today.

The spirit of adventure forces Rinaldo to ask if there are any blows to
be struck in the defence of honour. What a question ? What Quixotic zeal,
one might say. What Cinema hero does not long to strike such blows ?

Cinematic Ariosto.

The wit and comic sense that de Sanctis sees in Anosto's tale of comic
incidents in his own life, his ways of relieving the chagrin to which his un-
ruly spirit, bowing under the yoke of service, subjects him, are characteristics
which may be found in the poem. They are faithful mirrors of the Renais-
sance athough they are veiled in fantastic hyperbole and are all the more
cinematic on that account.

But it is with a gift of self-sufficiency and absolute seriousness that the
poet sticks to his own world, false on the surface but nevertheless humanly
true.

It is thus that the creatures of the Cinema appear to us today, fantastic
and removed from our world, but none the less alive and real in their own
imaginary state.

The poem may seem sceptical and cynical, or at least indifferent to the
ethics of life, religious and patriotic, but the perfection of its art, the finish
and careful sculpture of its details show that the author's soul is violently
passionate.

The world of chivalry swept clear of the mist of the middle ages is here
lit up by strong daylight, its mysteries, miracles, its shades and dark corners,
its superstitions and its terrors are dissipated in order to give Relief to the
subject.

And there is a truly Italian conception of art. A great artist of fertile
imagination, this creator of the first scenario flooded with Latin mediter-
ranean sunshine is the magic evoker of an extraordinary reality, presented as
if it were an ever day affair in a calm statement of facts.

This work, unlike those of Cervantes, Berni or Pulci, is not one of

19

exaggerated caricature. Chivalry is not laughed at, the material is dom-
inated [and form is given to a subject which appears false to our modern
perception, but the sincerity of the poem is evident and the poetry is
felt.

Additionally, Orlando " does not merely offer us sketches but entire
complex series of original and finished pictures. Pictures full of form and
movement, from a harmonious chivalric world, alive through a thousand sto-
ries, deeds and episodes all strung together on one thread — heroism — sense
of honour — the spirit of adventure and the passion of love.

This thread throughout the film is what we would call in the language
of the Cinema " montage ".

You would seek vainly, said de Sanctis, in Anosto's poem, for a unity
conforming to the old rules of Aristotle and Horace (We may show our teeth
at these two real enemies of the Cinema).

If you wish to see " Orlando " with modern eyes, traditional literary
and dramatic criticisms must go by the board and with them the pretended
necessity for unity of action and the whole idea of an absurd dramatic con-
struction in which the secondary episodes must be grouped off symetrically
around the principal subject.

The adaptation of " Orlando " for the Cinema or theatre would indeed
be a task if it proposed to reduce Agramante's enterprise to a logical and well
ordered sequence of action.

Paris is far off.

Charlemagne and the christian ideal which he personifies appear only
occasionally and are not taken too seriously.

Most important are the novelty of the episodes and the extraordinary
number of marvellous and surprising deeds. The Cinematic ideal is founded
more upon a sense of the marvellous than upon comic accent.

The narrative of the poem is not incoherent, illogical, or helter-skelter,
it is simply " surrealist ". The number of fine threads which are woven
together beneath the gaze of the spectator are all held firmly in the poet's
hand and his fantasy creates reality.

The existence of a framework and an ideal plot in the poem is not be
doubted, but it is all so paradoxically and minutely composed, scenes are
interrupted in the most amazing manner but this does not upset the reader
who is enchanted by the quiet succession of images.

A keen curiosity is stimulated by the constant succession of novel deeds,
alternatly serious and burlesque in character, sometimes passionate, sometimes

— 20 -

cynical. This constant change of scene and action is precisely what makes the
poem the work of a good scenarist.

The present conception of the " avant-garde " in art is founded on the
marvellous whether it be called a studied effect or a discovery is immaterial.

When the futurists, in their manifesto of the synthetic theatre, boast
that " they have done away with technical preoccupation, the appearance
of truth, logical sequence and gradual preparation, and when Marinetti wri-
tes that he has created " entirely new mixtures of a serio-comic grotesque
character " and that he has " introduced unreal characters into real environ-
ments ", liberty of poetic fantasy has been happily brought back into our
epoch and the conception which enabled Ariosto to reach his fantastic height
has been renewed.

The " wireless fantasy " of Marinetti from which our Imagism, Expres-
sionism, Abstractionism, Ultraism, Orphism and many other "-isms " which
emancipate the illogical imagination, leaves behind the banality of everyday
life and allows the mind to wander freely. All these modern schools do not
differ from Ariosto simply because they do not resort to magicians and fai-
ries to join up the gaps between logically unconnected incidents, to account
for supernatural effects, and mental phenomena.

The moderns have simply ceased to apply for a poetic license on magical
grounds and now they do so on the ground of poetry itself.

But is must be remembered that while our modern surrealists have found
the way of fancy free smoothly paved for them throughout the centuries, it
was not so simple for Ariosto.

Magic or Camera Tricks.

The Cinematic elements of Orlando are immediately apparent. But,
besides magical effects, all closely allied to the magic lantern itself, it is im-
possible to ignore the coincidence of the two intentions, astounding, and
charming the reader that is the basis of Ariosto's poetic representation.

The heroism and prodigious bravery exemplified on the screen by the
daring and agility of Fairbanks the marvellous prowess of Tom Mix and the
monstrous feats of strength performed by Maciste may find their counterparts
in the exploits of Orlando, Renaud and many others. Nor are Marfisas lack-
ing in the Cinema, they are always to be met with in sporting and exploration
films.

And Bayard, the new Bucephalus, the intelligent generous steed that

— 21 —

shies at Sacripante but behaves quietly enough with Angelica, is he not
re-incarnated in Tony, Tom Mix's mount ? His tricks are those of circus
horses or music hall animals. How many times have we seen Tony charge
and bite to defend his master. . . and then there is that scene where he unties
his masters bonds with his teeth and so sets him free.

The slight of hand, horsemanship, balancing and tightrope tricks of
the amusing but nevertheless serious characters in Ariosto bend in the wind
of the poet's malicious imagination. (He plays the same tricks himself on
a very much higher plane). Doralice's horse " or d'improvviso spicco in aria
un salto — che trenta pie [fu lungo e sedici alto " (leapt suddendly to a
point thirty feet distant rising sixteen feet in the air). Here between times is
a vision of Paris menaced by the conquering moors. The city rises up like
a ghost in the mind of the reader. He would perhaps preferred to have
amused himself by thinking of a tumultuous new babel, pulsating with life
even without the Eifel tower and he might have been tempted to confound
the Paris of Charlemagne with that of Louis XIV or the Revolution.

Historical Films ?

The historical inaccuracies and license of the Carolingian period —
Charlemagne was supposed to have conquered England before William the
Conqueror for instance — allow Ariosto to create variations on the real facts
in an amusing and truly cinematic manner, variations which, for the art of the
theatre, are essential in anti-archaelogical historical cinema. The theatre
is not obliged to respect archaeology, on the contrary the widest historical
license is legitimately used on the stage today. Even tragic authors disdain
to subject poetry to historic truth. The aim of the theatre is not the recon-
struction of history but theatrical poetry, which for me exists not only in the
spoken words but in the scenic materials, the electric lamps, the costumes and
above all in the personalities of the actors. Ariosto knew this perfectly well
and he cared little for the pedants.

But what are we supposed to be doing, are we examining the cinematic
qualities of Ariosto or reviewing those past cinematic productions which have
been made in the manner of Ariosto or in that of the old legends, sources
of " Orlando " yesterday and the Cinema today ?

The fact is that the Classics of the Cinema, with the exception of the
comic films of Linder and Lesque, are generally " historic ". In the Cinema,

— 22 —

the classical heroic romance is historic ; the modern romance is a film of
exploration. These historical films, commencing with the first productions
of Guazzoni are nearly all Italian and are now about ten years old. They
were all inspired by ancient fetes and historical mythology of a chivalric nat-
ure. They derive from those jousts and tourneys in which the strongest
and most skillful received the prize from the hands of their respective ladies.
Of course, in the sporting world of today, knight errants, firearms, love,
courtesy, daring exploits and bravery are much in evidence. The latter is
almost a subject for betting and the successful sportsman bears the title of
champion just as in the time of Barletta's challenge.

Scenic Reality.

The care which the poet takes to interest the senses of the reader by
descriptions of nude women, arbour love, lascivious details, etc., finds its
equivalent today in the steps taken by every producer to ensure a sensual
interest in his film, for it is upon this factor that commercial success so largely
depends. Besides sensual images of great suggestive power Ariosto also has
recourse to the pathetic. In fact one can say that in " Orlando Furioso "
there lies a film ready to be cut.

Enchanted palaces, mysterious gnomes, gorgeous visions, haunts of
delight, human animals, superhuman heroes that even surrender their gla-
cial virginity to young girls, objects gifted with the most extraodinary occult
powers, all these components of Ariosto's created reality are seen as cine-
matic poetry. From false history to exaggerated scenery, nothing lacks. In
poetry the description of places is not a faithful painting but honest to good-
ness scenography. An example in the second Canto the shining castle of
polished steel where Roger is held captive seems like an armour plated fort,
a modern terrestrial battleship

The scenography of Canto 34 brings to mind the melodramas written
rather after the time of " Orlando " and deriving their substance from it.
Certain scenes from Ludovici Bernaccini stand out quite clearly.

From a cinematic point of view, the adventures in the enchanted palace
of the Magician Atlantis (Canto 12) seem to me quite admirable. Ariosto s
enchanted palaces cry out for the cunning of architects and jewellers to bring
them life. For they shine like gems set in Italian gardens enchanted and
caressed by an eternal spring.

Marvellous halls with immense tables, sinister Sardanapalian banquets,

— 23 —

magnificient and triumphant old debauchees, the whole reminiscent of old
biblical, Roman and oriental historical films. And at the same time jousts,
battles and hunts, demonstrate in rapid changes of scene the curious methods
of this most gifted and fantastic cameraman. There are even forecast of
the submarine film in Canto 8. Scenes at the bottom of the sea in which huge
molluscs and fish appear are characteristic of modern spectacular revues
and also of microcinematic aquarium films, showing fabulous submarine
flora and fauna. There is another vision which Ariosto had before our
moderns.

For cinematic reasons of temporal unity (and for the satisfaction of.
Aristotle) flight in Ariosto is always effected on the backs of flying animals.
Thus we see St. John, The Evangelist, accompanied by Astolfo on his way to
the moon in Elius' car drawn by four winged coursers.

And the Hippogryph, is it not a most admirably cinematic animal,
as it circles lightly and majestically over the Isle of Alicino ? One cannot
help thinking that it is an airplaine disguised as a beast.

" Lighter than air " is a modern term invented by Ariosto. It was in-
deed the prima facie of early aeronautics with its primitive gas balloons. In
Ariosto it is no imaginary bird, grotesque flying animal — the Hippogryph —
nor merely an evil and horrible animal like Dante's Harpies, that puts to
flight Bayard's steed, but a machine endowed with an original personality,
with the well defined function of conforming at once to the rules of Classical
aesthetics and the stringent prescriptions of the fable, that is to say the repre-
sentational facilities of the epoch, the place and the action itself. Indeed,
besides its function as a " marvellous machine ", the Hippogryph often ful-
fils the role of the panoramic camera head and the travelling lense. In short
it is used as other mowing objects are used in films.

Mysterious appearances and disappearances are essential in a fantastic
film and Orlando is not lacking in them. For example : the squadron of
leaves which is blown away by the wind. The disappearance of the Magician
and his enchanted palace in Canto IV is really an old Pathe screen trick of
twenty years ago. The magic lantern itself is in evidence more than once,
projection within projection, like a stage within a stage. In Canto III it is
a real magic lantern which shows the genealogy of the Este family in a series
of slides. It is the same thing when the ghosts of future descendants of Bra-
damante appear, suggesting the cinematic treatment of a tragic saraband,
a fantastic danse macabre, a film of the unborn by Jean Epstein passing be-
fore our eyes.

— 24 —

Magic lantern projections and sudden magical effects form the essen-
tial cinematic method of Ariosto.

The Cinema has its " Schiifftan " process and Ariosto has his omni-
potent magic rings.

In Canto XXII, when Atlas, the magician transforms, Astolfo, he perform
a real feat of Fregohni rnagic.

In glancing through the poem, the modern cineist may well rejoice in the
sublime madness of its wealth of mysterious appearances and disappearances.
What could be more extraordinary for instance than the false messenger which
the monk necromancer causes to come out of a mysterious book in order to
separate Orlando and Circassian who are fighting under unfair conditions ?

In the affair of the magic ring (Gyges' ring of the old legends) there is
enough to madden a cameraman and his director.

The difficulty is of photographing that which is invisible and intangible.
In visual terms appearing and disappearing are equal to existing and not
existing. The visibility of things suggests to the imagination their magic
invisibility, like unmatenalised spirits.

And that brings us around to the astral aura of the "Golem", the Man of
Clay — , Joey May in the " Indian Grave " or the Robot in " Metropolis ".

In fact we have not gone much further than Ariosto.

Amongst the most remarkable prodigies brought about by the Magic
Ring, one may note the scene in which Roger, hunting for Angelica who
has rendered herself invisible by putting the ring in her mouth, vainly em-
braces the empty air. It is like a scene from Well's " Invisible Man " which
has already been filmed.

Supernatural gifts go with prodigies. He who might find amidst so
many episodes and images, the possibility of adapting this poem for the
screen, would be forced to admit that the powerful expression of the literary
poetry in it is made up of both picturesque visions and musical sound. In
searching for the origins of melodrama with all its choreography in Romantic
line and Classic resonance one might at the same time study the purely
theatrical aspect of "Orlando Furioso". Its is the theatrical temperament
which gives no much relief to his characters in the action and such a wealth
of exhuberant expression.

His poem is at once a dazzling palette and a gigantic orchestra of wails,
cries, clarion calls on a background of battle sounds.

And in all this there is the mastery of human passions contained in the
intense and lyrical synthesis which is part of the essentially theatrical char-

— 25 —

acter of the work. In no scene does the poet neglect sound, above all in the
famous " paysage " where the arid silence of nature is sometimes startled
with terrible noises as in the first Canto during Angelica's flight. In Canto
VI there is even a kind of jazz band concocted of all sorts of strange instru-
ments.

However, the sound characters are generally horns, they put monsters
to flight, guide knights, announce fetes, lead men into battle and break in
on silences.

Origins of the Cinema in Ariosto.

Nature, its picturesque beauty, the sea and its imposing serenity, the
horrors of gusty winds and tempests form the basis of the poem.

Why is Orlando then more cinematic than theatrical ? Because it consists
almost entirely of " exterior " conceptions.

It is really a whole series of films joined up. Angelica wanders day and
night and finally finds herself in a fresh wood watered by two streams and
carpeted with tender grass and enamel-like flowers. This is an image which
has been much abused but it could be splendidly renewed in the magnificence
of luxurious growth by some talented photographer or lighting expert.
Bushes of vermilion roses, flowering plants, great shady oaks reflected in
ponds unvisited by the sun, image reminiscent of certain shots from the
' Wedding March " or Lubitsch's " Student Prince ". Into this Eden comes
Sacripante, a dreaming knight, king of Circassia, come into France for love
of Angelica, whose escort he is.

Valleys and forests succeed each other rapidly in the same stanza (the
32nd of Canto I) where there are two double changes of scene.

Or again, when Renaud sees again his fierce steed Bayard but cannot
regain possession of him, Angelica " flees through terrifying and dark forests,
unfriendly places, lonely and wild ". — How many images in these few words!
— the terrible countryside — the horror of a person shrinking from dreadful
sounds — Angelica's terror as she is relentlessly pursued — all resolve into a
most formidable impression.

Ariosto really saw the splendour of his " paysages ", often forests of
oaks and hazels enlarged and strangely lighted by his fantasy, just as today
in the Cinema artificial light is used at night in the country to dramatize
nature and alter its forms and aspects.

The cineist can glean much documentary knowledge from the highly

— 26 —

condensed descriptions of Ariosto. In a film, short sequences would ob-
viously be cut in here and there notably where the poem offers chances of
comparisons and analogies.

It would be gratifying to see the director of an Orlando film seeking
his inspiration in old Sicilian prints. For in many of the scenes of the poem
Sicily is suggested, like in the Isle of Alcino where an eternal spring constantly
brings out the flowers and ripens the fruit and whose picturesque fauna
bring to mind the Terrestrial Paradise by Breughel de Velours. This king-
dom has as a matter of fact been worthily portrayed by Dosso Dossi in copper
engravings which decorate the 1 556 edition of the poem printed in Venice.

It is all a false world in which the poet has not the least belief. He
jokes about it. Some wear themselves out hunting for the hidden allegorical
thought in Anosto's original invention and commenting upon it. As far as
we are concerned what is important is to notive the richness of the images,
so amazingly suggestive to those who wish to bring them into being.

* * *

From Charlemagne's camp at the foot of the Pyrenees where the men of
France and Germany are assembled (this presents a superb opportunity for
cinematic vision even if it is conveyed simply by a single 'pan' shot of
tents covering the bed of a valley) to the siege fof Paris, powerfully represent-
ed in grandiose and tragic scenes, culminating in the superb barbarity of
Rodomonte who, a new Nimrod, puts the town to sack by fire and the
sword, in single combats and fierce hattles all intensely dramatic, in swift
camera movements and impressive sound. To produce a battle or single na-
val engagement of the poem, methods quite different from those used in Ben-
Hur for instance would be required. And that is not to speak of the nu-
merous storms like that in which Renaud is obliged to fight on his way to
England (Canto II) or that which in Canto XIX shows Marfisa and his com-
rades at the mercy of the elements for four whole days. The latter is remins-
cent of certain scenes in the film work of Murnau. Storms are certainly
one of Anosto's strong points.

The lamentable tale of Olympia, the wife pitilessly abandoned on a
desert island also furnishes an excellent subject for classical cinematic scenes.

Certain fabulous powers demand clever camera tricks. Roland's madness
brings to mind Fairbanks in " Robin Hood ".

From the very first Canto, Roland casts down his arms, like Don Qui-
xote in the Sierra and hangs them from the branches of neighbouring trees.

- 27 —

What a cinematic vision ! Before shepherds, petrified with fear, Orlan-
do, " Furious " indeed, plucks up the trees like weeds, because, love is
madness. Such is the rampant Hercules ; nothing stops him because he is,
in his madness, invulnerable. Once this principle is admitted there is noth-
ing easier than to make Orlando perform the most amazing deeds which are
of course the most cinematic.

Canto XXX contains a fight which presents magnificent cinematic oppor-
tunities. It is the night attack of Agramante's camp in which Roger is in-
jured — wounds — shouts — clarion calls — elephants — rivers of blood
and fires. Fire is an essentially theatrical element, not only as concerns its
direct effects but also in its reflections which try the skill of the lighting experts.

In Canto XL as in Fairbank's " Black Pirate ", fire in galleys — burning
wreckage — and flaming projectiles are obviously called for during Agra-
mante's escape.

Like Dante, Ariosto is profoundly aware of the importance of artificial
light. It is generally believed that in their times theatrical performances
were held only in daylight, an error resulting from an insufficient knowledge
of the stage technique of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

One has only to read the " Dialogue of Theatrical Art " by Leone de
Sommi, now in the Rossian Library at Parma, to be convinced that coloured
light was employed as early as 1534 on the stage and was actually used by
Leone de Sommi himself whom we now consider to be the forerunner of
modern stage methods.

Poetic distortions of reality obtained by coloured light were in Ariosto 's
time purely in honour of painting. In the preceding centuries painting was
closely [connected with the stage and nearly all scenic composition and
design was inspired by it.

Ariosto was then well acquainted with magic transformations effected
by means of lighting tricks. He also shows his feeling for artificial light
in the way on which he gets the maximum possible effect from the shadows
produced by a camp fire in one of his descriptions as well as from torches,
flaming projectiles, illuminating both foreground and background both in
and out of doors.

A Hundred Films.

Exaggeration of chivalric manners carried to the point of parody cor-
responds to a very modern taste.

The Imagination jumps, shies, gallops along, leaps obstacle after obstacle

— 28 —

without fatigue, thanks to the charm of poetic license and the exquisite ca-
price of the author. To the latter 's fantasy there are added our own vague
impressions and all in so light a dream that we are deep in it without knowing
it. The careless agility of the scene shifting and the surprising actions com-
bine to astound us. Ariosto's work is a tissue woven with scenic surprise
which constitutes magic itself.

It is from this point of view that the epic romance of " Orlando " seems to
me to be anti-literary and anti-psycological. Ariosto is anti-literary in the sense
that he is concerned with the very substance of the objects and actions which
he wishes to represent. He does not simply compose poetic theatre, he invents
theatrical poetry, straight off and without a pause, he has such a wealth of
facts and actions to represent and describe.

The romantic poem by this poet-producer and empassioned dramatic
author of the early days is a representation in different planes. In episodic
order, the action doubles up on itself, splits up into a great number of different
times and places. This manner, purely theatrical, is patently inspired by
the mediaeval mysteries which were still acted as biblical representation in
Ariosto's time — simultaneous actions going on in multiple stages contem-
poraneously and joined by bridge passages, invented for the purpose.

The concise nature of the speeches, the " coups de theatre ", the changes
of scene, the headlong and rapid succession of events, all give to Ariosto's
work an obviously theatrical character. There are many episodes which have
all the characteristics of popular films where all ends well. In sort, one can find
in Ariosto an infinite number of films, love films, films of adventure, historical
films, fantastic films and aviation films. For the latter, the drawing by
Gustave Dore showing Astolfo flying over most of Europe and Africa astride
a Hippogryph would serve as an a excellent poster advertisement.

If we, men of the theatre in an epoch when it is quickening its pace in
order to avoid being left far behind by the youthful Cinema, recognize a
theatrical manner such as that of Ariosto which hastens scenes and actions,
it is that this manner is perfectly cinematic.

Additionally Ariosto's characters are already wearing make up, delicate
or wild, gracious or accentuatedly virile according to the type. Certain of
the make-up are even entirely exaggerated in order to reserve for actors
and spectators the surprise of seeing a white wig slip from under a
helmet .

In the matter of " montage ", Ariosto is above all a clever and elegant
composer of images. He knows how to alternate the pathetic and the gro-

— 29 -

tesque, the heroic and the idyllic, and how to give to each scene its requisite
length.

There is no risk of making a literary film out of " Orlando " such as there
would be with " Jerusalem Delivered ". One might be sure of making the
most cinematic of films, and the more so because Ariosto is also an electrician
of supreme merit. He well knows how to light masses and to make a castle
stand up out of the dark night ; he knows too how to make the most of ro-
mantic moons shining through rifts in heavy tragic clouds and those that
glitter through the light mist. He profits from fires and sunsets, the blinding
rays of magic bucklers, the shining of armour, the rich colour of velvets, hu-
man hair and all those things that can enhance the value of suggestive light
and shade. In short he takes proper care of ligh thing effects. He knew as
well as we do that lighting is everything.

(From the Italian).

AN EXHIBITION OF MECHANICAL AIDS TO LEARNING

by G. T. Hankin.

During September 1931 the British Association for the Advancement
of Science was celebrating its centenary and at the same time paying tribute
to the memory of Michael Faraday, to whose researches Science and Industry
of the last hundred years owe an incalculable debt.

In connection with these celebrations it seemed apposite to organise
an exhibition of mechanical aids to learning, in particular of the film and the
wireless, which we owe as much to Faraday as we do the electric light and the
electric tram. An exhibition, the second of its kind in London, was there-
fore organised by a joint committee of the British Association, the British
Institute of Adult Education and the British Commission on Educational
and Cultural Films. It was divided into four sections : (1) projectors and
films ; (2) gramophone and radio ; (3) episcopes and lantern slides ; (4) a gen-
eral section. A short description of the first of these sections will prob-
ably be of interest to the readers of the International Review.

The noticeable feature of the exhibition of apparatus was the attention
that manufacturers are now obviously giving to the needs of the scientists
and the teacher O. The microcinematographic camera, the portable pro-
jector, the sixteen mm. sound-projector, the daylight portable projector, the
non-inflammable film, the reduction in weight and the fool-proof nature of
the apparatus exhibited showed marked progress since the exhibition of last
year.

Again the low price of the 16 mm. sound projector was a revelation to
many of the visitors. Probably if a really substantial demand were to arise
the manufacturers would find it possible to lower the price still further. In
that case the talking film might come within the means of many schools and
universities to whom at present the expense of installation has seemed so
prohibitive that the educational possibilities have not appeared worthy of

(1) The detailed catalogue of the various exhibits containing both names of exhibitors and lists
of the films shown is m the Library of the Institute.

— 31 —

consideration. On the other hand, the demonstration of the use in tele-
vision of the new Modulated Arc, with a screen two feet by five, indicated
the further possibilities of instruction by radio plus television as an eventual
rival to the talking picture.

To the engineer and mechanically-minded this side of the exhibition
afforded convincing proof of the adaptability and inventiveness of the British
manufacturer. But to the teacher and the administrator, the films actually
exhibited in three cinemas and the discussions upon their pedagogic value
gave practical proof of the possibilities of this educational medium. A talk-
ing film showing Faraday at work in his primitive laboratory posesses ob-
viously both topical and historical value. But probably the most novel
of the many educational and cultural films exhibited was a talking film intend-
ed to assist the teaching of English, produced by British Instructional Films
with the assistance of Mr. Lloyd James, lecturer at the Institute of Oriental
Studies in London. It tells the story of a student from Ceylon who had
mastered successfully the separate vowel sounds of the English language but
still found himself misunderstood in ordinary conversation with English
people. He goes to an expert, who demonstrates the difference in rythym
of the two languages both practically and on the blackboard, and indicates
also the jaw-movements necessary for producing ordinary spoken English.
The student carries out the directions successfully after one or two failures.
The film closes on the scene of the student triumphantly demonstrating his
newly acquired knowledge in the streets of London.

The discussion which followed the first display of this experimental
filrnwas illuminating. Clearly it was a revelation to the distinguished Orien-
talists, professors and phoneticians who took part, of the possibilities of a
talking picture produced with full collaboration between educationist and
film expert. Of criticism there was little ; of technical criticism still less ;
of admiration, abundance.

Mr. Lloyd James is at present broadcasting to English schools a course
of Radio lessons on English pronunciation. The speech of an experimental
class and of a controlled class has been recorded on gramophone disks at the
beginning of the course. Similar records will be taken at the end of the year
to test, against the controlled class, the progress made by those who have
taken the lessons. It would be of extraordinary interest and value if similar
experiments could be carried out with students making use of talking films
as an aid in learning a foreign language.

This experimental teaching film arouses thoughts in other directions

— 32 —

than that of instruction in modern languages. For the phonetician, the
ethnologist and the future historian, accurate records of speech can now be
made available, records which will allow the scientist and the historian of the
future not only to hear the voice but also to see the accompanying facial
movements and indeed the gestures. The matter is now under consideration
of the I. C. E. at Rome. It is clear that the value of such records would be
enormously increased if the scientists of all countries could come to some com
mon agreement as to the type of record to be made upon the talking film
which would be of the greatest permanent value in the various branches of
science concerned.

- 33

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36

II' Hal Exhibition il limlial It

AT

VENICE

1932

APRIL 28th to NOVEMBER 4th

The " Biennial „ at Venice is the largest and most important permanent
exhibition of Modern Art in the world

Sixteen Nations have pavilions

ITALY

GERMANY - BELGIUM - DENMARK - SPAIN - UNITED

STATES - FRANCE - GREAT BRITAIN - GREECE

HOLLAND - HUNGARY - JAPAN - POLAND

SWITZERLAND - TCHECO-SLOVAKIA

and the U. S. S. R.

= THE XVIir" BIENNIAL 1932 =

will present large personal exhibition of the works of Pablo Picasso and Ignacio
Zuloaga. And retrospective exhibitions of Giov. Boldini, F. P. Michetti, V. Gemito,

E. Menet, C. Meunier, etc.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CONTEMPORARY ART

April 30 - May 4

INTERNATIONAL COURSES IN MODERN ART

by eminent critics and authors. June and October
Mugust

First international Cinema Festival

September

Second international Festival of Music

Traditional Venetian Fetes ~ Travel facilities

/. /. E. C. Enquiries

YOUNG PEOPLES' IMPRESSIONS OF WAR FILMS

The elaboration of I. l.E.C. enquiries and the entire legislative section of the
Review are in the hands of Dr. GlUSEPPE DE Feo, Councillor at the Court of Appeal,
appointed representative of the Ministry of Justice at the I. I.E.C.

AVANT-PROPOS

The question of war films and their influence on young people is still
far from having been properly discussed. The I. I. E. C. has dealt with it in
this Review both in signed articles and in editorial notes but these could
naturally form no definite conclusion. The question is too large for decisive
treatment in newspapers or ordinary Reviews. As we said in our June is-
sue, it is possible that the International Commission of Intellectual Cooper-
ation (League of Nations) may be persuaded to deal with the matter throughly
and examine all its aspects.

It seems to us opportune to note the results of an enquiry held in the
pages of the Revue du Cinema, Paris, and commented upon in The Eclair
of Montpellier (issue of May 11th, 1931) by Pierre Emsey. This enquiry
purposed collecting the opinions of various well known people on the value
of war films. It was absolutely non-official and was not fully representative
of opinion throughout the world of the Cinema but was of incontestable
value in that, with the names it contains it gives good idea of the effect war
films have upon the public minds.

M. Pierre Emsey very rightly remarks in this connection that the true
war film has no thesis nor is it partial but in it, war, while represented as a
destroyer of men, is also connected by the author with those men who do
their duty without comment and find some slight satisfaction in the fact
that they know war will destroy them. They are neither proud nor too
humble, warriors nor cowards, heros conscious or not, in fact simply men with
all the complexity which Montaigne has attached to them.

Such is M. Emsey 's opinion on what the war film should be. Let us

- 38 —

now see what the well known people questioned by the Revue have to say
on the matter ;

M. Marcel Ayme : " humanity has lost nothing of its instinct for bloodshed. In bull
fights, the delirium of the crowd at the moment of death is highly suspect and quite likely,
if the ancient gladiatorial combats were revived today, they would not lack enthousiastic
crowds. Talk can do nothing against this instinct ; in the last hundred and fifty years there
has been more talk of fraternity and more bloodshed than ever before ".

Henri BARBUSSE : " War films have a much smaller pacific effect than one might be tempted
to believe. They excite the spirit of nationalism, put forward the idea of vengeance and repri-
sals. They must be looked at from this point of view ".

Emmanuel Berl : " psychologically speaking, war films may have an effect exactly op-
posite to that expected ".

Jean Richard BLOCH : " thinking that we act wisely we risk doing something extremely
foolish ".

Albert CREMIEUX : " It is my opinion that these films have not the least consequence of
any kind ".

Doctor G. Dumas : The effective action of war films, however intense it may be, can have
no great positive or negative effect ".

Luc DliRTAIN : " the terrible image of war should walk beside contemporary civilisa-
tion like an uninvited guest, a terrible menace ".

Elie Faure : " I do not think that war films, however vividly they paint the horrors of war-
constitute useful propaganda for peace. On the contrary they are propaganda for war. The
character of Aztec art with its chopped up corpses, joined with bloody mortar, of Polynesian
art with its cruel composite monsters, of Hindu art with its atrocious Kali bathing in the blood
of victims, scenes of child massacres that cover the walls of Italian crypts, scenes of blood
realistic, even real, by modern masters, Tintoretto, Rubens, Callot, Goya, Delacroix, none
of these have mastered the fury of our instincts ".

Paul Morand : " When a war film is well made it can only make people want to fight ""

Jacque Spitz : " And now I if must answer I will say that, as war does not depend upon
individual psychology, pacific influence of the individual can never bring about peace ' .

As for Pierre Emsey, he is not quite certain of the pacific effects which
war films may have.

But any conclusive judgement in the matter would seem for the moment
to be unobtainable.

In the meantime the I. I. E. C, wishing to contribute in a purely prac-
tical way to the discussion, presents the results obtained in an enquiry held
amongst the schoolchildren of Italy and Belgium, two countries that have
recently been at war.

— 39

ITALY

Character of the Enquiry.

This part of the enquiry, held by the I. I. E. C. in schools, concerns Italy, which has
provided the first complete group of answers. The other results of this enquiry as con-
cerning the remainder of the countries that have assured the I. I. E. C. of their collabo-
ration in this practical work dealing with the effects of the cinema on young people, wi"
be pub'ished as they come to hand at the Institute.

Thus, having examined in its many manifestations the phenomena of cinema fati-
gue, as derived from the answers of thousands of children and adolescents (1), the I. I.
E. C. has attacked a problem of a particularly delicate nature and from which child psy-
chologists may draw conclusions themselves of an equally delicate nature ; it is the prob-
lem of war films and the impressions and sentiments that they awake in children, young
people and adolescents of both sexes and belonging to different classes.

In " The Social Aspects of the Cinema ", published by the 1. 1. E. C. in 1930, the
results of an enquiry made in 1928-1929 in the schools of Bradford, England, in order to
ascertain the impression of war films on children, were examined. These impressions
were gathered together and commented upon by Mr. C. N. Wilson of the League of N -
tions Secretariat in " Recueil Pedagogique " (July, 1929).

The enquiry was limited to 25 schools of which 17 were primary (six of them profes-
sional), six secondary and two high. Out of 1,737 answers obtained, 1,149 (of which
598 were from boys and 551 from girls), answered the questionnaire reasonably.

In " Social Aspects of the Cinema " an objective criticism of the method used in
this enquiry was made. One of the chief objections was that the enquiry was not on a
sufficiently large scale for general conclusions on the attitude of young people to war to
be drawn. For appreciable results it was necessary to extend the range of such an enquiry
to different centers and districts in different countries, which took part in the war or
remained neutral.

The quantum itself in the Bradford enquiry was at fault. Indeed it is obvious that
out of a population such as that of the United Kingdom, 1,149 answers represent very
little. It may well be asked how answers from the North and South of England, Scot-
land, Wales and Ireland would compare with those obtained in the Bradford schools.

An enquiry cannot be considered complete unless it is wide and deep ; if not, the es-
sential is lacking, the possibility of proceeding to objective comparisons. The I.I. E. C.
has endeavoured in its enquiries to fulfill these conditions ; this enquiry has been started
simultaneous! in several countries ; the number of questionnaires distributed was for-
midable, and the number of replies obtained has never before been equalled in this type
of enquiry.

The statistical data with regard to Italy, the only data ready for publication areas
follows :

(1)1.1 E. C. Review : December 1930, Jan- and Fek 1931 .

— 40 —

Provinces covered by the enquiry and selected from the North, Centre and South
of Italy -27.

Answers returned — 25,042.

Answers discarded as being negative replies from children, who are not in the
habit of visiting the cinema — 5,381 .

Answers eliminated because they give no exact reply to the questions asked — 3,931 .

Answers wholly or partly positive, or anyhow useful for the purpose of the enquiry
- 15,730.

Accordingly the replies deserving study included 1 5,730 boys and girls between the
ages of fifteen and twenty-one, belonging to 742 different schools (elementary, secondary'
high schools, technical schools and vocational classes) and taken from a total urban and
rural population of more than twelve millions, and comprising every possible degree of
intellectual development.

Mr. Wilson's enquiry was directed towards ascertaining the impressions made upon
children by six groups of films numbering altogether twenty-one. It was therefore
very difficult for the spectator to form any original, or more or less original, idea of war
as a social and biological phenomenon, a factor of undoubted importance in the world's
history, and on that very account necessitating the fullest possible freedom on the part
of the children to express their own opinions.

To restrict the young people to a number of specific films is a\ the same time a good
thing, and a bad thing. It is good if the enquiry, as in the case of Mrs. Mary Alten.
Abbott's " Thief of Bagdad ", aims at ascertaining the particular impressions, or ideas
suggested by the film in question and not at achieving any definite results. Its, how-
ever, a bad thing if the enquiry is used as a basis of generalisations. A film may, or
may not, be technically and artistically ecellent and may for these, or other reasons,
make different impressions of a purely subjective value. The film may be tolerated,
enjoyed and appreciated in very different degrees. The subjects of the exmination may
have seen other films, even films of the same kind, which may have had quite contrary
effects upon their minds. Thus an enquiry whicn is limited to a specific group of films
cannot be called complete.

The Institute's question No. 21 was very simple, as it only enquired of children
" What do you think of war films ? " " What thoughts and feelings do they stir in you ?

The children were therefore free to answer as they wished, and the enquiry left
room for every kind of war film — documentary, historical, dramatic or purely enter-
tainment films. The child, whether he had seen one or a hundred different films, was
asked to record his individual impressions.

* * *

During the process of analysing the replies friends and collaborators of the Institute,
who as suchha d ample opportunity of checking our methods of work, raised certain ob-
jections to which we should like to reply briefly :

— 41 —

(a) As already stated, there were 15,730 positive answers, giving wholly or partly
the ideas of the children on the question of war films.

At the same time the number of opinions expressed is not of course the same as the
number of answers sent in. No. 21 of the questionnaire contained two separate questions ;
some of the children replied to both, and some to the first or second question only. Others
again failed to synthetise their views, and expressed various ideas, more than it was possible
to summarise, but which are nevertheless required for statistical purposes to be taken
separate account of.

Hence the necessity, having given the figures for statistical purposes, of examining
nd weighing these individual opinions separately. It is far from our wish to restrict
what they say to a few arbitrarily summarised proposals, but rather to reproduce as fully
as possible views sometimes ingenuous, but more often definite and precise.

(b) Reference was made to the possible direct or indirect influence of tne teacner.
No sucn influence was exercised. The circulars accompaying the questionnaires, and
otner circulars issued by the Ministry of Education to local educational authorities set
forth the duty of the teachers in categorical form. The questionnaire was to be regarded
as a spontaneous composition by the pupil not on a single subject, but on a series of short
topics, which presupposed a series of short answers. The teacher's duty was confined
to reading the questions before distributing them, giving necessary information, and then
collecting the replies and forwarding them to the competent authorities without any other
notes than the name of the school, and his own name.

That these duties were faithfully discharged is shown beyond any manner of doubt
by an attestation of the teachers themselves, and by the facts as we know them. All the
teachers declare that, in accordance with the rules embodied in the questionnaire and in
the circulars, they left the children completely free to say what they thought, and made
no suggestions of any kind, but simply forwarded the answers exactly as they stood.

As regards the facts, the teacher's suggestions were obviously more likely to influence
the younger children — those between ten and twelve, and children in rural districts ;
older children and young people living in closer contact with city life may be presumed
to possess greater independence of thought, and were in a position to resist any possible
suggestion.

We therefore reproduce in full two specimen pages, chosen from among the thous-
ands of answers in the possession of the Institute, one of them relating to an elementary
class in a country town, and the other relating to an elementary class in a small village.
The diversity of replies from pupils in the same class is very clear proof of the absolute
freedom left to the children.

If it were not so, suggestions from the teacher would have prompted the 3,931
children who have not answered the questions on war films, to fill up the questionnaire
instead of writing " I have never seen one " or " I cannot answer this ". These remarks
all the more noteworthy when emanating from a class in which other children have
given positive replies.

42 —

WAR FILMS

Province : Sicily Number of positive replies 28

School: Form. 4. Girl's elementary school No positive replies " 4

Commune : Ragusa (Sicily) Total number of pupils 32

Age of pupils : 10-12.

First part of question.

I like war films '. 7 children. (Parents' occupations
1 retail tradesman, 4 artisans, 2 farmers).

I do not tike war films" . 16 children; (Parents occu-
pations, 6 artisans, 6 farmers, 2 employees, 1 re-
tail tradesman).

/ do not much care for war films " 1 child, whose
father was an artisan.

Second part of question.

They make me cry. It is sad to see so many people
kilted ". 3 children. (Parents' occupations : 1
retail tradesman, 2 artisans).

They encourage patriotism ". 3 children. (Pa-
rents' occupations : 1 retail tradesman, 2 arti-
sans).

/ am moved by death and bloodshed ". 1 child,
the daughter of an artisan.

They make one sorry for chidren who lose their
fathers ". 4 children. (Parents' occupations :
3 farmers, 1 artisan).

/ do not like seeing people killed ". 1 child, the
daughter of an artisan.

They fill the mind with sad thoughts ". 1 child,
the daughter of an employee.

1 / do not like to see children losing their fathers .
1 child, the daughter of an employee.

' / should like to be a nurse ". 2 children, both
daughters of artisans.

' They make one feel so helpless " 1 child, the daugh-
ter of a farmer.

' / shudder at seeing men killed ". 1 child, daughter
of a farmer.

' My thoughts are with the wounded, but 1 should be
afraid to untertake to nurse them ". 1 child, the
daughter of a farmer.

43

WAR FILMS

Province : Venetia.

School : 5th. Form. Mixed elementary
school.

Number of positive answers

13

Commune : Torre di Mosto.

Age of pupil 10-12

First part of question.

Boys.
" / like them ". 1 child, the son of an artisan.

" More such films ought to be made to illustrate our
victories in the War ". 1 child, the son of an
artisan

" They accustom us to the sad realities of life, and
to the idea of national service ". 1 child, the son
of a farmer.

Girls.

They teach us to be grateful to our brothers who
sacrificed their lives for their country ". 4 children
(Parents' occupations : 3 artisans. 1 employee-

They stimulate patriotism and accustom us to the
idea of national duty in case of need ". 2 children
one the daughter of an artisan and the other of a
farmer.

They are fine, but very moving ". 1 child, the
daughter of a farmer.

They accustom the mind to scenes of slaughter and
therefore encourage cruelly ". 2 children, one the
daughter of an employee, the other of a farmer.

/ like them ". 1 child, the daughter of an artisan

Second part of question.

Boys.

Enthusiasm for our soldiers' valour and desire to
emulate them ". \ child, the son of an artisan.

They make me think of the price paid for our great
victory ". 1 child, the son of an artisan.

/ think of the sacrifice of so many youug lives, and
our duty to follow their example if needed ". 1
child, the son of a farmer.

Girls.

" / think that war is cruel, but sacred if it is fought
for the defence of the country " . 2 children, daugh-
ters of artisans.

They accustom the mind to the necessity of bloodshed
due to war ". 2 children, daughters of artisans.

" They make me think of our soldiers who died for
their country ". 2 children, one the daughter of
a framer, the other of an employee.

" They arouse in me sad feelings "• 1 child daughter
of a farmer.

" Gratitude to our heroes ". 2 children, one the
daughter of a farmer, the other of an employee

— 44 —

(c) A close study of the questions and answers prompted in one of our critics
lowing question : " Do you think then that the replies given reflect the views of the
family and thus of the child's environment ?

It may be said with some approximation to the truth that this is the case with the
smallest centres and in the country districts. A child of ten or a village boy can hardly
be expected to have formed an opinion of his own, but will be expressing in a few
simple words the views of his parents, friends or surroundings.

This very fact, however, increases the value of his statement. For whereas it would
be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to distribute a questionnaire to adults on such a
scale, a means has thus been found of directly ascertaining the opinion of a whole sec-
tion of the population on the subject of war-films. The older children, on the other
hand, may be presumed to be expressing views of their own based on experience, especi-
ally those living in large urban districts.

Further, as regards obtaining the views of a whole population and not of a small
minority, any errors will be smaller than those arising out of the promptings and sugges-
tions of the teacher, which would have the drawback to reflecting only the teacher's own
opinion.

The same is indeed inevitably true of all such enquiries. Who can be sure, for
example, that the Wilson enquiry was free from suggestions by teachers or environment ?

For purposes of enquiries, as for statistical purposes, a single fact or a single figure
is insufficient to constitute a phenomenon. Such fact or figure may be the artificial
or erroneous result of unknown factors or different systems of calculation. Only the
general body of facts or the sum of figures are valuable.

(J) The remark made about the discrepancy between the total number of po-
sitive replies and the total individual opinions of the pupils applies also to the occupa-
tions of the parents. The questionnaire included a special column for this information,
the purpose being to make the enquiry as objective as possible by embracing not only
the professional or working classes, but the whole population. The statistics, therefore,
are compiled from answers given the by children of workmen, peasants, employees,
professional men, employers, " rentiers " and tradesman, — all the social classes,
in fact.

At the same time, some of the answers fail to give the information asked for. Some
have forgotten to fill in the column, while others have written merely the world " orphan
In the latter cases it would have been useful to be told the mother's occupation, if alive,
or the occupation of the father in his lifetime. Some of the children furnish these par-
ticulars, others do not. The result is an unavoidable discrepancy between the number of
replies and the number of occupations. Some 13% of orphans give no exact information
as to the occupation of their dead parents.

(To be continued).

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CHINA AND THE I.I.E.C.

In devoting a number of pages in this issue to the subject of Chinese Cinema legis-
lation, we are convinced that we are offering our readers a most interesting study.

Few persons know, we are sure, that the Nankin Government studies with the
greatest interest all sides of the Cinema problem both in as much as it is necessary to
preserve the masses from influences judged to be pernicious and also in as much as
it is desirable that the Cinema be used as a means of popular education.

Our Institute follows the action of the Nankin Government very keenly and the
more so because there hans been official collaboration between them.

Besides the direct relations established with the Foreign Office — to which we
are indebted for our present information — other relations exist between the Nankin
Government and this Institute throught the L. 0. N.

When the Nankin Government applied to the General Secretary of the L. 0. N.
for information as to what help it might expect from Geneva with regard to the re-
organisation of schools in China, our Institute was asked to give a general outline of
the role which the Cinema might play in such a re-organisation.

And this role is of the greatest importance, considering the psychological char-
acteristics of this great Asiatic people, the ideographic character even of its writing,
the considerable extension of analphabetism, the necessity for a vast, organic and system-
atic work of propaganda, of hygiene, of social prevention, of agricultural development,
etc . . . quite apart from the definite role of the Cinema in education itself, the
lifting up of the intellectual level of the masses.

In January 1931, the International Commission of Intellectual Co-operation
decided that an expert in educational Cinematography named by the I. I.E. C. should
go to China, accompanied by others named by the I. C. I. C. itself in order to make
aquaintance with the various authorities and find out exactly what direction the
Chinese Government wish to take.

In agreement with Prof. Gilbert Murray, president of the I. C. I. C, Sig. Alfred
Rocco, president of the I. I. E. C. named Baron Alexander Sardi of Rivisondoli, an
eminent political personality who has for years been concerned with educational Ci-
nema, as expert. The Director of the I. I. E. C. was prevented by serious illness from
accompanying M. Sardi on this mission but he edited with him an organic and prac-
tical proposal to be submitted to the Nankin Government which might later be subject
to definition and development with the help of competent delegates and, naturally,
on an international basis, given the interest which all countries producing educational
films will certainly find in so large and extensive a proposal, in the Chinese world.
During the completion of Sardi s mission, relations between the Institute and the
Nankin Government become more intense. The Chinese Minister of Education has
recently informed the Institute of the Constitution of a National Educational Film
Centre in November last. This fact shows that the idea is becoming concrete and the
great prospect comes nearer reality.

4 — Ice ingl.

— 50 —

The I. I. E. C. is very glad of it. Everything at its disposal, its knowledge of the
various aspects of the Cinematographic problem, its relations with producers, its prac-
tical experience, all is willingly placed at the service of the Nankin Government.

Owing to the exceptional importance of this problem we will return to it again
shortly.

Of course, when M. Sardi returns we shall press him to give our readers his im-
pressions on what can be done practically in China, on his first contacts with the author-
ities in Nankin and on the results of his first work of generic propaganda in favour
of the educational Cinema and popular education. The I. I. E. C. has the intention
of continuing this work started by M. Sardi to develop it in the full conscience of duty,
holding itself at the disposal of all governments and public and private administra-
tions so that educational Cinema may in reality become what for many years it has been
in our fervently propagandist minds, a formidable instrument for the spiritual progress
of humanity.

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Legislation

FILM CENSORSHIP AND EDUCATIONAL FILMS IN CHINA

In the January 1931 issue of this Review
was published incomplete information on
Film Censorship in China, taken from an
article in the Exhibitor's Herald World of
Chicago (No. 3, July, 1930). The prin-
cipals inspiring Chinese censorhip, the orga-
nization of the board and its working were all
examined in this article, from the point of
view of producers and distributors, hence
the incomplete nature of the information.

Today, thanks to helpful communications
from the government at Nankin, we are
able to give complete information on this
subject.

There is one consideration, elementary
perhaps but not fully understood by produ-
cers and distributors which gives to the
ruling of the Chinese government a very
particular character.

It is only recently that China has awa-
kened from a torpor resultant of its amazing
civilization dating back to the Emperor Yu,
founder of the Hia Dynasty, twenty-two
centuries before Christ. A civilisation un-
equalled by the barbarous westerners and
perhaps never surpassed. It must never
be forgotten that the Chinese were acquaint-
ed through Lao Tse and Confucius with
the moral precepts, which are the basis of
younger religions, long before the Christian
era.

China slept amidst her magnificent art,
philosophy and literature as if exhausted
from the effort of creation and thought of
her fine intelligences.

Her national river, the Yang-Tse-Kiang
of geographers, the Blue River of artists
and popular fantasy continued to pour down
from the Tibetian mountains ; and the heavy
junks, laden with goods, made their way on

the stream, now smooth, now rough. But
the colossal Empire slept as if never to
awaken.

However the spirit of revolution was
there. It suddenly revealed itself to the
stupified and anxious Westerners and from
disordered and confused beginnings grew
into reality. Life, ceaselessly renewing it-
self shook the people from their sleep and
awakened the national conscience. Today
civilisation is renewed in a great manifesta-
tion of will. Across inevitable early errors
and the enthusiasm of the masses, the future
is being prepared. China cannot fail with
her ancient and glorious traditions.

One side of this awakening is shown in
the interest which the Nankin government
has in a great modern invention, the cinema.
The rules and regulations issued prove this
interest and the cinematographic industry
is obliged to take notice of it, for in this
awakening there are unknown and possibly
menacing facts.

However great China's desire to free her-
self from foreign influence in all spheres
may be, her local cinema industry is not
developed to the point of self-sufficiency and
western producers and distributors should
not lose sight of the following essentials :

(1) to avoid wounding the sentiments,
the manner of living and thinking of a coun-
try that is throwing its weight into the
world balance ;

(2) to avoid showing subjects which
might give a bad impression of western
peoples.

It is certainly not in showing films of
the shabby side of western life that we may
construct a model for the Chinese.

In no case should films be more strictly

52

controlled than when they are destined for
foreign peoples.

Instead of showing easterners those sides
of western life which would help them to do
us credit we teach them to despise us. We
may under certain conditions circumstances
permit the local projection of films which
do no credit either to the Cinema or to
ourselves. Our manner of life and though,
our mutual knowledge and our auto-critical
faculties enable us to distinguish in matters
in which the distant foreigner would be
powerless.

If there are distributors who do not take
heed of these things, the various governments
should forbid the exportation of films which
might prejudice us in the eyes of distant
peoples.

Rigid selection is then the essential con-
dition of mutual understanding.

A missionary in China, much interested
in the work of the Institute, has told us of a
typical result of showing certain films to
undiscerning people. In a Chinese town, a
family was one day found suffocated by gas
escape. At first this was thought to be
only a tragic accident but in several days
the same thing happened to several families.
The police then held an inquest. Investi-
gation showed that the cases of suffoca-
tion were actually murders committed by
servants in imitation of what they had seen
in a Western film.

This story amidst many others shows the
necessity for extreme care in selection. The
greatest attentions should be given to remov-
ing examples bad for simple people. Chinese
legislation tends precisely this way and it
is to be congratulated upon its tendency
to influence a type of production harmful
both to eastern and western peoples.

* * *

FILM CENSORSHIP LEGISLATION

Chinese Cinematographic Legislation con-
sists of the following : —

Law of November 3rd 1 930 constituting
the Film Censorship Committee.

Regulation of February 3rd 1931 putting
the above law of November 3rd 1930 into
execution.

Internal Regulations of the Film Cen-
sorship Committee of the same date.

General Regulations. — No foreign or
Chinese film can be shown within the boun-
daries of the Republic without having been
submitted to the Film Censorship Committee
at Nankin and thus obtained a certificate.

Demands for Certificates are made in
duplicate on forms with the following in-
dications : —

(a) title and subject of film (if foreign
original title with translation must be given)

(b) number of parts, reels, and length

(c) cost of film

(d) place and date of production

(e) names and other essential facts
enabling the identity of producers and ac-
tors to be established

(/) name and address of applicant and
other particulars of identity.

Censorship Committee. Its Composition. —
Article 3 of the law prescribes that film con-
trol be exercised by a Film Censorhip Com-
mittee composed of seven persons, four
named by the Minister of Education and
three by the Home Office. Representatives
of the Propaganda Office of the Central
Kouomintang may be called upon to give
expert advice to the Committee. By article
2 of the regulation giving force to the law,
it is the duty of the Minister of Education
to elaborate the internal arrangement of the
Committee itself and to submit it to some
person particularly competent in the mat-
ter.

The duties of the Committee are : —

(1) to view films of Chinese or foreign
production

(2) to issue projection certificates for
the Republic and exportation certificates

(3) to ban films which deserve to be
banned on moral or political grounds or
for other reasons based on the particular
mentality of the people of the Republic,
and to penalize those who offend.

The Committee elects from its members

— 53

a permanent secretary, charged with current
administration and routine, who is at the
same time president of the Committee it-
self. This secretary has two aides and a
technical expert at his disposal.

Article 4 of the Regulations of the Com-
mittee points out the fact that its members
are not remunerated, with the exception of
the permanent secretary, his aides and the
technical expert who receive a certain sal-
ary.

All the members of the Committee should
always be present at projections of films.
In case of being legitimately prevented, the
Minister should be informed so that a sub-
stitute may be sent.

The Committee must present a report
of its activities to the Ministries every three
months. By article 7 of the Internal Reg-
ulations it may propose modifications of its
own structure to the judgement of the Min-
isters concerned who may decide the manner
after taking expert advice.

Temporary Regulations. — Article 12 of
the enforcing Regulations stipulates that
all projection certificates issued by author-
ities previous to the institution of the pre-
sent Committee must be submitted for
exchange for a new certificate. For this
it is only necessary to send a formal demand
containing a resume of the film together
with the old certificate.

Application for these new certificates
should be made, according to the regulations
within three months after the institution
of the law and the new Certificate will then
be valid for a term of three years dating from
the date of issue, not of the new Certificate
itself, but of that for which it is exchanged.

The Working of the Committee. — When
the Committee raises no objection to a film,
on any of the counts to be mentioned below,
it grants the projection certificate. This
certificate can be without conditions if the
film is considered entirely harmless or con-
ditional if the Committee judges that certain
parts may be modified without spoiling the
logical or artistic qualities of the film. If
local education authorities object to films

passed by the Committee they have the right
to ask it to examine the film again, and if
it should see the objection has foundation
it may cancel the certificate. It can also
cancel certificates granted to films which
have subsequently undergone modification.
In this connection Article 9 of law stipulates
that as such modifications may completely
change the nature of a film they must be
followed by a completely new projection of
the film before the Committee. The deliv-
ery of the Committee certificate is accom-
panied by the return of the synopsis of the
film which was sent with the original demand
officially sealed.

The certificate must be screened before
each projection of the film.

Reasons for Banning Films. — Article 2
of the law divides motives for banning into
four groups :

(a) are forbidden, in the first pice all
films susceptible to ridicule the Chinese
race or to wound its dignity especially by
comparison with Western peoples.

(b) also films inspired by ideas contrary
to the moral and social principles on which
Chinese life is based.

(c) also, in general, films which, in the
judgment of the Committee, are likely to
harm morals or disturb public order.

(d) and finally, for social and religious
reasons those films which may promote
superstition or heresy are forbidden.

Duration of Projection Certificate. — Par-
ticular note must be made of the fact that
under Article 7 of the law, projection per-
mits granted by the Committee are valid
for only three years. After this time the
film should again be shown to the Commit-
tee. In case of loss or destruction of the
permit a new one should be applied for.

In our note to an article in this Review
(January 1931) we brought to mind the fact
that even since March 1930, this Review
has insisted on the importance of limiting
the validity of film censorship certificates.

54 -

We may observe in this connection that the
life of a film is so dependent on its technical
and topical value, that is to say, upon cir-
cumstantial conditions, above all as concerns
cinematography. Thence the necessity of
preventing the circulation of films which
are out of date from every point of view and
may give a poor opinion of the technical,
artistic, intellectual and moral evolution of
the cinema.

States which limit the validity of Cen-
sorship Certificates are still rather rare.
For the Orient, Article 7 of the Chinese law
is particularly remarkable.

Censorship Fees. — Article 12 of the
Chinese law exempts all National products
from censorship charges, but imposes a fee
of 10 dollars per 500 metres (or fraction)
on all foreign productions.

Other fees are fixed by Articles 5 and 7
of the regulations.

The certificate itself is charged 2 dollars
plus a stamp duty of one dollar. Each
copy of a film requires a separate certificate
and the same costs are involved in each
case. In case of loss or destruction, dupli-
cates are charged at the same figure.

Auxiliary Organs. — According to Article
10 of the law and Article 24 and 25 of the
Regulations, the Committee may appoint
one or more persons to inspect cinemas.
These persons may, upon production of
identity papers, ask the distributors and
cinema managers to show their projection
certificates and to show them the original
copy of the film as approved by the Com-
mittee. The latter may also grant the
facility of exercising this control to local
educational authorities.

Film Exportation. — Article 8 of the Reg-
ulations concerns exportations of films. It
attempts to prevent films made in China by
Chinese or Foreign companies from giving
a false or prejudicial view of Chinese life
and customs.

All films for exportation must be submit-
ted to the examination of the Committee,
even when the latter has authorised their
projection within the country. In the lat-

ter case the demand for the exportation
permit should be accompanied by the pro-
jection certificate. The delivery of the
exportation permit entails the same fees as
the projection certificate.

Penalties. — A fine of a maximum of 300
dollars may be imposed : —

(a) upon whosoever offends against
the provisions laid down in the law or its
regulations as concerns cinematography with-
in the boundaries of the Chinese Republic.

(b) upon whosoever exports or triys
to export a film without authorisation.

Penalties in these offences are applied
by the police at the instigation of the Com-
mittee.

EDUCATIONAL FILMS

As a result of a resolution approved by the
Permanent Executive of the Kouomintang
in March 1 93 1 , certain measures have been
taken to ensure the organisation of educa-
tional Cinema in China on a methodical
and legal basis.

In the first place, the creation of a cen-
tral Commission of Educational and Instruc-
tional Films was deemed necessary, to which
end the following resolutions were directed: —

(a) The Commission reserves the right
to regulate at will educational Cinema in
China and the means to popularise it.

(b) The Commission is composed of
seven or nine members : — - The President
of the Propaganda section of the Kouom-
intang, the Minister of Education and the
Home Secretary, permanent honorary mem-
bers and the others are named by the per-
manent Executive of the Kouomintang
and are chosen from persons competent in
the matters of popular education, instruc-
tion and cinematography.

(c) An Executive Committee, formed
of members of the Commission and elected
by it, is charged with the conduct of current
business.

(d) The Commission has at its disposal
various services, split up into sections and

— 55

sub-sections. All these services together
form the Central Institute of Cinema at the
head of which is placed a President, elected
by the Central Executive of the Kouomint-
ang upon the recommendation of the Com-
mission. Heads of sections experts and
secretaries are engaged according to the
work to be done and are chosen by the
Commission on recommendation from the
various heads of sections.

(e) The Commission should meet twice
a month, all decisions with regard to it
should be taken by the Central Executive
of the Kouommtang.

What is expected of the Commission. —
Such is the administrative and bureau-
cratic organisation of the Central Commis-
sion of Educational Cinema. Here are its
" raisons d'etre „ and the means at its dispo-
sal : —

The general principle adopted in matters
of Educational Cinema is that all produc-
tions should be inspired strictly by the
teachings of the founder of the Chinese
Republic, Sun-Yat-Sen and should conform
to those rules which the National Govern-
ment may think fit to formulate.

The General Section, the Technical
Section and the Production Section of the
Central Cinematographic Institute, should,
according to the originators, be created and
ready to commence work at once.

An initial credit of 40,000 dollars Mex.
was granted to the Commission whose nor-
mal monthly expenditure should not exceed
8000 dollars.

The Commission's task during the first
six months of its existence consists in the
collection and production of original films
of educational and even dramatic nature and
to form a capable staff specialised in artistic
production. After these first six months
the Commission should proceed with the
construction of an experimental studio and
workshop for camera construction. This
second part of the Commission's programme

should be accomplished in four months at
the outside and for it the Government
should provide a further credit of from
150,000 to 300,000 dollars Mex.

At the same time the Commission should
undertake various studies and proceed
with the necessary preparations for a large
" National Cinema Theatre and well
equipped studios. The Central Institute
of Cinematography should provide qualified
staffs for these.

In the formation of the Central Commis-
sion of Educational and Cultural Cinema it
was envisaged that the funds available might
not be sufficient, given the size of the pro-
posed task. In this event it was admitted
that the production of scenarios prepared
by the Commission might be confided to
private companies which might derive from
them a certain commercial profit without
departing from the course shown by the
directors of the Commission. The latter
should provide both producers and prin-
cipal actors.

Finally as concerns foreign propaganda,
the Commission were authorised to make
use of China's official diplomatic represent-
atives.

As we have said above, all these resolutions
were taken in March 1931. Given the size
of the task accorded to the Commission and
the time allowance, it is scarcely possible
to know what has as yet been accomplished.

However, all Chines legislation on Film
Control and Educational Cinema is worthy
of the closest attention. Considering these
in connection with the Educational Cinema
movement in Japan, of which we have al-
ready written in this Review, it is apparent
that the Orient is taken a growing interest
in these matters and wishes to contribute
to the general improvement of theatrical
cinematographic production and to use the
Cinema as a means of culture and progress.

56 -

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General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
52-123 - 52-124

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Telegrams : ==

ANONIMA PITTALUGA

Works

R O M E : < Cities », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — SI, Via Macerata (outside Porta S . Giovanni).
TURIN: ii Posuiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES: 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : halafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10

Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel. : 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel.:
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef . :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel.:
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel. :
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

IBHB1

Information and Comment

THE FRENCH COMMITTEE OF THE 1. 1. E. C.

One of the principal aims of the Rome Institute is to bring about an International collabo-
ration in matters of Educational Cinema which may be rendered more efficacious by the
efficient coordination of national interests of this kind.

The general programme of the I. I. E. C. includes the consideration of all questions
having to do with the Cinema as an instrument of cultural value, popular education and
instruction. For this reason there exist a large number of public and private institutions inter-
ested in its activities and it is necessary for the I. I.E. C. to devise some method of linking
up all these interested parties. For it is only in this way that duplicate work and misunder-
standings can be avoided and the great task of the Institute fulfilled : by national coordination
of Cinema interests.

As far as public institutions are concerned this coordination has already been effected.
All relations between these institutions in the various countries and the I. I. E. C. pass through
the Foreign Office of the country concerned, more precisely through that department which
deals with League of Nations matters. A similar coordination should surely exist in the world
of film production and consumption, the latter being composed of a vast number of people
who deal with the problems of cine-education with the greatest interest, intelligence and
competence.

Such coordination seems all the more necessary in view of that part of the Institute's work
which concerns film documentation, research and propaganda which should be decentralised
and spread out through organisations working in national spheres. It is obvious that such
special work will be better done by those living in the locality and therefore understanding
more completely its needs and possibilities. Their work will obviously be more rapid and
more useful.

At the beginning of 1932 — during which year the I. I. E. C. intends to extent its sphere
of positive activity — The International Review of Educational Cinema is happy to be able
to announce the official constitution of the French Committee of the International Institute
of Educational Cinema. This committee, born of the enthousiastic and friendly initiative
of M. Charles Delac, President of the French Syndical Chamber of Cinematography and
its Dependant Industries, who has also helped the cause of the Educational Cinema as a
director, has been officially recognised by the French Government and has been formed of
well known people representing all those organs and institutions which are interested in the
work of the Institute.

The French Committee — to whom the Review extends its heartiest greetings — has
already commenced its work and has shown from the performance of its first duties the extreme
importance of its collaboration in matters of French film market information for producers
and consumers and in a general way in all those matters of coordination mentioned above.

M. Charles Delac and M. Benoit-Levy have been confirmed in the Offices of President
and Secretary of the Committee respectively and the other members are as follows : —

— 58

MM. BARRIER, Academic Inspector, Joint
Diretor of Primary Education at the
Ministry of Public Instruction ;

Benoit-Levy, Producer of educational
films ;

BoNVOISlN, Director of the Central
Committee of Family Allocation ;

Bruneau, General Secretary of the
permanent Commission of the Nat-
ional Congress of Educational Cinema;

Cavallon (Dr.), Head of the Depart-
ment of Prophylaxy of Venereal
Diseases at the National Office of
Social Hygiene ;

Chaix, President of the Touring Club
of France ;

Chataigneau, Head of the Department
of French Institutions Abroad at the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;

Chataigner, President of the Profes-
sional Asociation of the Cinemato-
graphic Press ;

CoiSSAC, Director of " Cineopse ", Cor-
respondent of the I. I. C. E. ;

Comandon (Dr.), Sectional Director at
the National Office of Inventions, Scien-
tific and Industrial Research ;

CUNY (le Commandant), of the Cen-
tral Committee of the French Red
Cross ;

David, Foreign Trade Advisor ;

Debrie, Corresponding member of the
I.I.C.E.;

Delac, President of the French Syndical
Chamber of Cinematography ;

DEVINAT, Chef de Cabinet at the Home
Office;

DEVRAIGNE (Dr.), President of Maternal
Insurance ;

DuLONG, Secretary to the Embassy,
Sectional Director in the French
Service of the L. O. N. at the
Foreign Office ;

MM. Drillien, of the Ministry of Com-
merce ;

Grunebaum-Ballin, General Secretary
of the Higher Council of Cinemato-
graphy ;

FociLLON, Professor of the Sorbonne,
Member of the Administrative Council
of the I. I.E.C.;

GlGODOT (Commandant), of the Pro-
paganda Bureau of the Air Ministry ;

Labbe, of the Undersecretariat of the
Beaux-Arts ;

Lebrun, Assistant Director of the
Museum of Pedagogy ;

LECLAINCHE (Dr.), of the Ministry of
Public Health ;

Luc, Joint Director of Technical In-
struction, A'linistry of Education ;

LuMIERE, Member of the Institute, Mem-
ber of the Administrative Council
of the I. I. E. C. ;

Martin, General Secretary of the
Federation of Regional Offices of Edu-
cational Cinema ;

NoiROT, of the Ministry of Merchant
Marine ;

Panafieu (de), Secretary to the Em-
bassy, Editor in the French Service
of the L. 0. N. at the Foreign Office ;

PlQUENARD, Director of Labour at the
Ministry of Labour ;

Reymond (le Chanoine), Director of the
Catholic Cinema Committee ;

Roux-Parassac, Cinematographic Lec-
turer, Corresponding Member of
the I. I.E.C.;

VALLAT, Director of the National Tourist
Office;

VlBOREL, General Secretary of the
Propaganda Commission of the Nat-
ional Office of Social Hygiene ;

VuiLLERMOZ, Writer.

We most sincerely hope that similar committees may be shortly formed in all countries
as centres of fundamental activity.

And the expression of this hope leads us to formulate another, that a congress may in the
near future be held at Rome consisting of representatives from all the national centres in order
to complete the work of International collaboration in matters of the Cinema.

59

SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE CINEMA

The conference held last October at the
I. I. E. C. by the International Council of
Women (Cinema Commission) to which the
last number of the Review was devoted,
attracted the attention of governments, com-
petent bodies and producers to the necessity
of excercizing a severe control over films in
order to avoid their becoming a corruptive
influence instead of a salutary one from a
moral and spiritual point of view.

Almost at the same time Mr. Raphael
permanent delegate of Greece at the L. 0. N.,
presented a report in which he examined
the criminal statistics in his country and
noted eight cases of precocious crime in
adolescents (14 to 18 years) which were
attributed to the pernicious influence of
certain crime films. These young criminals
wished to do in their own lives what they
had seen on the screen.

An enquiry made by the Metropolitan
Police (Home Office) and limited to Athens,
Piraeus and Salonica produced the following
statements :

1 . The high percentage of crime films
and war films in the programmes ;

2. that these were shown almost exclu-
sively in popular halls but that superior
films of the same kind were also successful
in de luxe halls ;

3. that despite the very small prices
charged at popular cinemas, the proprietors
reaped a substantial profit.

Mr. Raphael observes that youthful spec-
tators are especially interested in the means
adopted by criminals in these films to stave
off police pursuit and avoid detection. Sce-
nes of escape and fighting, so prominent in
adventure films, excite the young spectator
and incline to make him commit mechanic-
ally the actions seen on the screen.

It is true that most of these films end in
triumph for the police, victory of good over
bad, but this result, introduced at the end
of so many brilliant exploits scarcely affects

the general suggestive effect on unwary
youth.

The Greek Government has not failed to
take vigorous legislative measures regulating
the admission of young people to cinemas
and controlling the films themselves.

But, as Mr. Raphael observes, if such mea-
sures have given all the satisfaction that
could be expected from them, it is never-
theless to be hoped that these repressive
measures may be supplemented by some
positive action giving " impulse to good ".

These observations have their importance.
The question to which they have reference
was raised at the Rome conference of the
I. C. W. It had already been dealt with in
this Review and more fully in " Social
Aspects of the Cinema ", an I. I. E. C. publi-
cation (March 1930). In this volume were
impartially gathered the opinions of those
who consider the cinema as corruptive and
demoralizing and also the opinions of those
who consider that the faults of the Cinema
in this respect have been exaggerated and
that it should, on the contrary, be given
credit for educating socially.

We will not repeat the various arguments.
For the I. I. E. C. the fundamental point
lies less in the value or character of the films
shown than in the necessity of considering :

1 . The possibility of educating the
public morally and spiritually so that it may
itself distinguish between good and bad,
vulgar and inspiring ;

2. The possibility of establishing objec-
tively the educative or anti-educative signif-
icance not only of the film, but also of all
other methods of thought diffusion and
knowledge spreading ; newspapers, theatres,
books, etc.

Indeed although the cinema is charged
with many crimes, other forms of amusement
have not been subject to the same scrutiny
in this respect.

Before the Cinema existed in its present

- 60

dramatic form, those interested in public
morality and child defence attacked the
crime pages of the press. Should the Ci-
nema wipe out these previous attacks ? It is
logical and necessary that all enquiries into
precocious crime should treat all possible
sources of influence in order to arrive at a
real idea of the Cinema's influence in im-
morality and crime.

It is probable that such an objective enquiry
would not end in a decisive condemnation
of the Cinema.

As for the " Cinematographic Education "
of the people, especially of young people,
which should lead the public to better judg-
ment of films ; it is essential to note in the
first place that adventure and crime films
have their greatest success in countries
where there is little or no Cinema production
and where attendance is small. For distri-
butors in these countries are obliged to import
cheap films of doubtful quality or rather
out of date.

Thus with a lack of superior productions
to balance the moral effect of these poor
films, the public taste has fallen very low.

Additionally, when national production
fails or is not large enough, there is no means
of establishing a production code such as
exists in America.

The principal cause of the bad effects
now noticed lies therefore essentially in the
necessity on the part of the distributors to
present sensational films in order to make
money.

How may this be remedied ? In those
countries where production is non-existent
or insignificant, the authorities should excer-
cise a vigorous and severe control of films and
intervene both to ban really dangerous films
and to distinguish between those which are
suitable for adults and minors.

In those countris where production meets
demand, or at least competes with the
foreign product, it is the duty of civil
authorities and all those who have child
welfare at heart, of the government itself to
intervene and oblige producers to maintain
a certain moral level in production. In
general this is an inevitable effect of
competition.

It is this way that the public taste forms
slowly but surely and the public becomes
critical, deserting those halls where the films
are behind the general evolution of " Cine-
matographic conscience ".

These are in our opinion the facts of the
problems. However the pages of this Review
are open to all those who wish to express
their thoughts in the matter.

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION AND PROFESSIONAL ORIENTATION

At the International Congress of Technical Instruction held recently in Paris, the quest-
ion of the use of the Cinema in professional Orientation was of the greatest interest. This
was augmented by the general report tendered by M. Jean Benoit-Levy and the subsidiary
national reports by Herr Burberg (Germany), M. Hiernaux (Belgium), B. Rava (Italy), Spa-
cek (Tcheco-Slovakia) and Madame Leone Bourdel (France).

M. Benoit Levy also gave information on the U. S. A. and on England from a report
by Mr. Fairgneve before the British Geographical Society.

Edited by a producer specialised in educational films the general report on the Cinema
in Professional Orientation, Apprenticeship and Technical Instruction, formed a basis on
which the Congress discussed the question of professional instructional films, fully, earnestly
and practically, taking into consideration the practicability of various cinema systems (sound,
silent, standard and sub-standard film). The discussion ended in the adoption of the reso-
lutions which follow. These impress the I. I. E. C. with their importance and with the
ever increasing confidence which is placed in the Institute in National and International
circles as the authorised centre of Educational Cinema.

61

Resolutions adopted by the Confecence

1. — That a centre be formed in each coun-
try, a sort of National Institute of Cinema
as applied to Technical Instruction and Pro-
fessional Orientation having the following
functions :

(a) to study the film needs of Profession-
al Orientaticn and technical Instruction and
to keep up to date the already existing film
catalogue of suitable films :

(b) to collaborate in making films with
due regard to advances in teaching and Ci-
nema technique:

(c) to constitute a psychological reasearch
committee to control results obtained and so
constantly improve this new method of in-
struction.

2. — That the permanent centre of Instruc-

tional and Professional Cinema at the 1. 1. E. C.
which is occupied with the centralisation of
information concerning existing films may be
used as a liason body between the various
National Committees in order to facilitate
international collaboration.

3. — That a sub-standard format of film be
adopted in order to facilitate the distribution
of films.

4. — That the various governments take
steps to ensure the use of non-fiam films at
all educational projections.

5. — That the various governments encour-
age as much as possible the projection of
films dealing with professional Orientation
and Technical Instruction in particular by re-
ducing taxation in this field.

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN BRAZIL

One of the principal reasons for which
this review exists is to make known the
advances of educational and instructional
films in the various countries, advances
which testify to the growing power of this
form of educational culture.

Today in a special number of " Escola
Nova " of San Paolo, devoted to educational
cinema, we find evidence of the interest of
the Brazilian school directors in the educa-
tional screen and of the importance which
they accord to its use in schools.

We find in an article by Mr. Laurent
Filho, Director General of Education, infor-
mation of the greatest interest. Mr. Filho
speaks of a commission composed of Mr.
Valencio de Barros, Galaor de Aranjo and
J. de Oliverra Orlandi, charged with the
study of educational cinema in all its aspects.
The first results of this commission are
considerable : a film library composed of
a fair number of interesting films suitable
for primary education has been formed by
the Board of Education ; more than fifty
educational institutions are equipped with
projectors ; educational film production has

started at San Paolo ; plans are out for the
formation of the San Paolo Institute of
Educational Cinema, which will serve as
a centre for all individual production effort
and the distribution and use of educational
films.

These first results, Mr. Filho remarks, do
not represent the solution of the whole prob-
lem. They merely show that a good start
has been made. Perseverance is necessary
because the task is long and difficult but if
other countries have succeeded there is no
reason why Brazil should not.

These words of Mr. Filho prove that our
Brazilian friends do not lose sight of difficul-
ties in their enthusiasm and that they are
determined to overcome them.

This special number of " Escola Nova
contains other interesting articles, clear, pre-
cise, and profound studies on the subject of
the cinema applied to different kinds of
education.

The Brazilian movement in favour of
educational cinema began with the exhibition
of projectors at Rio de Janeiro in August,
1929, about which Prof. J. Serrano wrote in

62

the October 1930 number of the Review.
At this exhibition a large quantity of infor-
mative literature was distributed, projections
and demonstrations of projectors were given
to schoolmasters and other interested parties.

In short this Exhibition helped greatly to
create a favourable attitude to the cause
served by the I. I. E. C. and it has found
clever and active supporters amongst Bra-
zilian intellectuals.

DOMINION EDUCATIONAL FILM ASSOCIATION INC.,
TORONTO, CANADA

This Canadian-organized association will
serve as a national " clearing house " of edu-
cational film and slide information, etc., with
headquarters at Toronto, and branches in
the Provinces.

The new Association has, as one of its aims,
the promotion of a more intensive applica-
tion of the 16 mm. educational film in the Can-
adian schools and universities, as teaching
aids, correlating with existing courses of study.

Film and slide circulating operations will
be undertaken as far as possible in conjunc-
tion or collaboration with various Govern-
ment departments, including the Federal,
Ontario, and Quebec Motion Picture Bureaux,
and academic administrations throughout
the Dominion.

The formation of the Association was
prompted by many encouraging expressions
of opinion obtained from outstanding acad-
emic and citizenship sources. It is hoped
that through this national medium, educa-
tional film adjustment and extensions will be
made which will measure up to the progress
that has been made in other countries along
these lines. It is also hoped that some affi-
liation with the International Educational
Cinematographic Institute and the National

Academy of Visual Instruction will be arrang-
ed in due course.

* * *

Mr. R. B. Shaw, of Toronto, Canada, is
perhaps the most active exponent and ad-
vocator of visual education in Canada at the
present time. He is responsible for the Can-
adian educational film movement which
has resulted in the founding of the Dominion
Educational Film Association.

No one has been more instrumental than
he (Mr. Shaw) in awakening interest, in Can-
ada, in the value of visual education, especi-
ally in connection with school and univer-
sity work. His efforts, involving considerable
time and personal expense, have been entire-
ly voluntary, since he has had neither film
nor equipment connections of any commer-
cial nature. AmateEr 16mm. cinematography
has been a hobby, however.

It is hoped that Mr. Shaw's long and energ-
etic attempts to raise the standard of educa-
tional films in Canada, and to obtain their
proper academic appreciation, will bear fruit
in the activities of the new Dominion Edu-
cational Film Association of which he is the
founder.

CINEMA AND PROTECTIONISM

On all sides the nations are raising
tarif walls, limiting imports to a minimum,
with the aim of setting up independent
systems of universal economy.

We cannot discuss, the fitness, vanity
or folly of these actions which are of course
mutual, in these pages.

We wish merely to stress the importance
of the cinema in them. It may be remarked,
however that it is used in a section where
national politics are understandable and clear,
that of the defence of the national product.
Here the cinema occupies an important
position.

63

" Today's Cinema ' of London, announ-
ces that three thousand English cinemas
will project a film entitled " Buy National
Products ". This campaign — a larger or
more complex was probably never known
in the history of the cinema — has been
organized under Government auspices. It
is estimated that the film will be seen by
more than 13.000.000 people in the course
of a few days. Having regard to the per-
suasive influence of the screen it may well
be imagined the huge effect that so vast a
campaign will have.

It is much in the same way that the So-
viet Government circulates such films as

" Enthusiasm " and " The Symphony of
the Don Basin " in Russia as propaganda for
national production and the accomplish-
ment of the " Five year plan

Returning to England, we find the Duke
of Connaught advocating national products
in the Gaumont sound news and other
similar examples.

This goes to show the increased confidence
placed in the cinema day by day in National
life and from this private and public circles
should understand that the cinema is not
merely an entertainment but a means of
persuasion amongst the most powerful of
our times.

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Review of periodicals and newspapers

THE FILM IN THE WORLD'S LIFE

Social Aspects of the
Cinema.

The European has undeniably lost much of
his prestige with coloured races. And
this is disastrous, when one considers that
the prestige of white men and especially
white women greatly facilitated their civilis-
ing work. This loss of prestige may be
attributed to various causes (too rapid and
badly assimilated education, exaggerated
liberty of the press, etc.), but it is prin-
cipally due to the Cinema and more pre-
cisely to those sensational and demoralizing
films which after having poisoned the world
for the last 20 years penetrated into the
most distant tropical countries. Irrepar-
able damage in this respect has been done
in Asia, but there is yet time to save the
80 millions of Africans that at present live
under English, Belgian, Italian and Por-
tuguese rule to whom the Cinema is prac-
tically unknown. A uniformity of action
in this matter is of the greatest importance
and it would be advantageous if the prob-
lem were handed over to the League of
Nations which is concerned with the well
being of native populations. Such are
the ideas given in an article signed Hes-
kett Bell entitled " The Terrible Influence
of the Cinema". (Le Monde Nouveau, Pa-
ris, No. 6, 1931).

Speaking to the Edinburgh Rotarians,
Mr. John Grierson deplored the artificial
character of screen life, and wished that
films giving an exact impression of the
intellectual, scientific, industrial and com-
mercial life of Great Britain, might be
made. (Today's Cinema, London 21 -X-
1931).

Concluding a profound study of the in-
fluence of the Cinema on youth, Dr. V.

Rappaport agrees that the Cinema has a
bad influence in very few cases only. (To-
day's Cinema, 24-X-31).

In an article entitled " Good News" , Mr.
Mario Ramperti assures us that optimism
is the American's only enviable quality
from the European's point of view He finds
that Optimism, considered as a mode of
life, does not lack a certain moral distinction.

Europe should not therefore permit her
theatre and Cinema to become pessimis-
tic, but encourage them to become op-
timistic. To this end the principles of
censure should be radically altered, tears
and not kisses should be banned. (L Am-
brosiano, Milan, 31-X-31).

An Oakland (Cal.) Cinema proprietor
states, after investigation, that cinema ma-
tinees for children are attended princip-
ally by women, who represent 85 % of
the spectators ; only 3 % are children. (The
Film Daily, 2-XI-31).

A law against crime films has been placed
before the State Legislature of New York.
More than 13000 American Cinema Prop-
rietors have agreed not to sign contracts
for crime films. (Deutscher Feuilleton
DlENST, Berlin, 5-11-31).

Mr. Will Hays, a considerable influence
in American Cinema politics, has refused
to go back on his decision to ban all gang-
ster films. Films made before the ban
are included in it, so that there are at the

6* — he ingl.

70

moment three productions that have cost Croydon Borough Council rejected Sun-

altogether 1 million dollars which cannot day cinema shows by 29 votes to 28. (The
be shown. (Le ClNEOPSE, Paris, dec. 1931). Times, London, 24-11-31).

A film of " The Wet Parade " by Upton
Sinclair has been shown in the U. S. A.
It shows the consequences of alcoholic
abuse in the old saloons and also on the
other hand, the bad effects of Prohibition,
in the matters of political corruption and
new types of drunkards. (Il ClNEMA Ita-
LIANO), Rome, 10-11-31).

The Rev. I. B. Goodliffe, of Liverpool
thinks that adults go to the cinema, simply
for amusement and do not pay great heed
to what they see. Children however tend
to confuse extravagant screen life with
reality. (Today's Cinema, London, 10-11-31).

Child cinema attendance has always
concerned Child Welfare Workers. An
enquiry made in the U. S. A. shows that
rural children frequent the cinema more
than town children in a proportion of 8
to 12. (Variety, New York, 17-11-31).

Religion and cinema.

The French Catholic Film Committee
will give shows at the Salle Pleyel where
selected films of a social and religious char-
acter suitable for all classes will be shown.
(Agenzia-Film, Rome, 22-10-21).

Judea Film has produced a sound film
in Yiddish and English called " The Voice
of Israel ". (The Film Daily), New York,
4-11-31).

A film on the Jesuit Order has been made
in Madrid to illustrate activities in scien-
tific, educational and politico-constitutional
domains. The Vatican is stated to have
greatly contributed to the documentation
of the film. (THURGAUER ZEITUNG, Frauen-
f eld, 6-11-31).

A film illustrating the history of the 26
Japanese martyrs has been shown success-
fully in Japan. This film, directed by
M. Hyrayama for the Mitzu Co. of Kyoto,
destroys many prejudices existant in Japan
against the Catholic Church. (OssERVATORE
Romano, Vatican City, 25-11-31).

To keep young people amused, the Rev.
E. Pratt, of Saunthorpe, gives religious
film shows in his chapel. (The Daily
Film Renter, London, 26-11-31).

In Switzerland a film showing the artistic
beauties of the Vatican and some great
religious ceremonies at St. Peters has been
successfully shown. (PoPOLO E LlBERTA,
Bellinzona, 27-11-31).

Mr. O. L. Bodenhausen has projected a
film of his travels and missionary work in
India for the benefit of missionary societies,
(The Educational Screen, Chicago, Nov.,
1931).

The " Christian Association " of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania has organised, un-
der the direction of the Presbyterian Minister
Monroe G. Everett, some projections on
the life of Christ. In this way congregations
were increased by 80 % in five weeks.
(The Educational Screen, Chicago, Nov.
1931).

Cinema and politics.

The " Geneva Association " for the L. 0. N.
informs us that several films on the different
activities of the League are at the disposal
of educational and cultural Institutions.
The address of the Association is C/o M.
le Pr. Haessig, 1 1 Chemin de Grange-
Canal, Geneva. (Today's Cinema, London,
2-11-31).

— 71

Marcel l'Herbier has written a scenario
for a film on future war called " The Love
of the World". (The Film Daily, New
York, 8-11-31).

In a Gaumont sound item, the Duke
of Connaught spoke on behalf of English

national products. (Today's ClNEMA, Lon-
don, 14-11-31).

In England the C. E. A. (Cinema Exhib-
itor's Ass.) have protested against films
dealing with current politics on box office
grounds. (Todays Cinema, 14-11-31).

DOCUMENTARY FILMS

Vostokino" has made a film called " at the
Extreme Limit " showing the Trans-Cau-
casian regions bordering on Persia and
Turkey, where no films had previously been
taken. The same firm has organised an
expedition into the extreme Orient to take
the first Soviet Colour film called " Chinese
on Soviet Soil ", (Les Nouvelles Sovie-
TIQUES, Moscow, Sept., 1931).

" General Electric " have made a docu-
mentary film, " The Life of Edison ". (The
Film Daily, New York, 20-11-31).

The documentary film section of Sov-
kino have constructed a film laboratory
train, where development, printing and
cutting of short subjects may be carried
out. Equipped with a qualified technical
staff the train can produce 24 hour prints
(Les Nouvelles Sovietiques, Moscow,
25-X-31).

Mr. M. A. Wetherell has made in Africa
a documentary of the life of Livingstone,
the explorer. (The Daily Telegraph,
London, 2-XI-31).

Under the auspices of the American Geo-
graphical Society, a film showing the exis-
tence of the Great Wall of Peru has been
shown in New York. The wall was con-
structed 2000 years ago to stem Zucan in-
vasions. (New York Times, 5-XI-31).

M. R. Rychner during a voyage of seven
months across that continent. (The New
York Herald, Paris, 9-XI-31).

Captain R. A. Bartlett gave a lecture at
the Engineering Auditorium, New York,
on the Bartlett-Norcross Arctic Expedition,
illustrated by a film on explorer's life. (The
New York Times, New York, 12-XI-21).

American Major L. G. Barbrook, at
Guayaquil, Ecuador, last November was
preparing to leave for Cuenca in order to
make a sound film on the native life and the
Fauna of the Andes. (The New York TlMES,
New York, 15-XI-31).

" British International Pictures " have
organised an expedition of 500 persons to
go to Africa. A base will be established at
Timbuctoo and a film will be made on the
Gouere and Yafoula tribes. (Today's Cl-
NEMA, London, 19-XI931).

" Vita Film " has made a documentary
on aviation called " Opening Wings ". (The
New York Herald, Paris, 21-XI-31).

Cines are making a documentary-artis-
tic film called " The Clocks of Italy ".
(La Rivista Cinematografica, Turin,
30-XI-3I).

" The Real Africa " is the title of a docu- Amongst many documentary sound sub-

mentary made by Baron Gourgaud and jects made recently, by Talking Picture

11

Epics, " Hell Below Zero ", A film on " The Magellan of the Air ", is the title

Equatorial Africa by Caruth Wells, is of a documentary film on Dr. Hugo Eckner

remarkable. (The Educational Screen, and his Zeppelin. (Movie Makers, New

Chicago, November, 1931). York, November 1931).

CINEMA AND GENERAL CULTURE

Teaching Films.

Amongst Kodak teaching films " A Ca/z-
fornia Trip ", " Exploitation of Pacific Coast
Forests " and " Friends in the Bird World ",
are notable. (BlLDlENST, Prague, August
September 1931).

From October 1st to 4th there was held
at Buffalo a congress during which the im-
portance of visual education auxiliaries in
teaching chemistry was stressed. (The EDU-
CATIONAL SCREEN, Chicago, October 1931).

The Hispano-American Cinema Congress
gave rise to a study of Soviet activity, above
all as concerns the Cinema and culture. In
this connection was mentioned " The Mir-
acle of the People ", a sound film showing
the demolition of the Cathedral of Saint
Saviour for the erection in its place of the
Palace of the Five Year Plan, with an au-
ditorium holding 1 5,000 people. (VanGUAR-
DIA, Barcelona, ll-X-31).

For two years 60 Chicago schools have
been equipped with 16 mm. projectors
and 50 with standard projectors. Teachers
profess themselves fully satisfied with the
Cinema as a teaching aid, even in Geometry.
(Le Courrier du Cinema Educateur,
Lille, November 1931).

The educational film department of Re-
search Products have made four new natural
history films. (The Educational Screen,
Chicago, October, 1931).

At the University of Boston, Prof. L. J.
Fish has started a course for teachers on

Visual Education Methods in Commercial
Science. At the Morris High School,
New York, Prof. J. V. Sullivan has begun
a similar course for teachers on Visual
Teaching Methods. At the Congress of
New Jersey Mathematical Teachers held
last October at Upper Montclair, M. Aaron
Bakst gave a lecture on The Employment
of the Cinema in Teaching Mathematics.
(The Educational Screen, Chicago, Octo-
ber 1931).

Mr. A. W. Reitze foresees the formation
in every village of a body charged with the
duty of procuring all necessary visual aids
to better education. (The Educational
Screen, Chicago, November 1 93 1 ).

Eastman Teaching Films have made three
new subjects (16 mm.) called "Bolivia",
"Spiders", and "Fishing". (The Educa-
tional Screen, Chicago, November 1931).

A show of educational films was held at
the Holborn Restaurant, London, for holi-
day students. More than thirty national-
ities were represented. (Josy Journal,
Cairo, 18-XI-31).

" The Silk Worm ", is the title of a film
that was projected before the staff of the
Popolo d' Italia. Besides its instructional
value, the film is said to be excellent propa-
ganda of silk culture. (Il Popolod' Ita-
lia, Milan, 20-XI-31).

In 1932, Fox Movietone will make a
hundred teaching films, historical, scien-
tific, psychological etc., especially for middle

73 -

and high schools. (The Film Daily Ren-
ter, London, 24-XI-31).

M. le Dr. Comandon, President of the
National Office of Research and Inventions,
presented a report on the employment of
the Cinema in higher education to the Nat-
ional Congress of Cinema Teaching, rec-
ently held in Paris. (RECHERCHES ET INVEN-
TIONS, Paris, November 1931).

The Zentralausschuss fur Landlichtspiele
(Rural Cinema Committee) has published a
list of available films concerning domestic
economy, hygiene, electricity, agriculture,
botany, insect pests, etc. (Das Land, Ber-
lin, December, 1931).

Scientific Films.

M. Bodenstien, Prague dentologist, has
made a film on a new method of treating
tooth roots. This is the first film of the
kind to be made in Europe. (PRAGER Tag-
BLATT, Prague, 16-X-31).

The first showing of a film demonstrat-
ing the progressive development of the
heart and the circulation of a chicken from
the embryonic state, took place at the
New York Academy. This film has facil-
itated the solution of certain hitherto un-
solved medical problems. (The New York
Times, New York, 31-X-31).

At the October meeting of the Mathem-
atics Section of the New York Society for
the Experimental Study of Education, a
film on " The Role of the Imagination in
the Study of Geometry " was shown with
great success. (The Educational Screen,
Chicago, November 1931).

In order to put several Cancer films in
free circulation, The American Journal of
Cancer has created a New York office under
the direction of Mr. F. C. Wood. A first
film, " Cancer and the Skin " has already
been made ; two others, " Cancer and the

Bones " and " Cancer Research " will soon
be ready. (MoviE MAKERS, New York,
November 1931).

At Yale University a sound film on psy-
cho-physiological experiments permitting
control of the intellectual development of
children, has been made. This film, of
great interest to psychologists and psychia-
trists, has been made up of small sequences
taken at different times. (Le CouRRIER
du Cinema Educateur, Lille, I-XI-31).

At Moscow a scientific film entitled " The
Fight for Life " illustrating Darwinism has
been shown. (Il ClNEMA ITALIANO, Rome,
10-XI-31).

Ted Browning, M. G. M. producer, is
making a film on the life of abnormal beings,
more precisely, of " Monsters " shown in
circuses. (L'Ami DU PEUPLE, Paris, 14-XI-
1931).

At the XLIVth French Congress of
Oto-Rhino-Laryngology held at Paris last
October, Dr. A. Soulas lectured on the teach-
ing of bronchoscopy and bronchotherapy,
showing that for endoscopy there is no better
method than that of the animated drawing
owing to the difficulty of following all the
movements of the operator during an oper-
ation. (La Presse Medicale, Paris, 18-XI-
1931).

Dr. Carlos Henser of Buenos Aires and
Dr. Lewis G. Cole at the meeting at the
St. Louis Society of Radiology made in-
teresting observations on two perfected
methods of obtaining, by means of X rays,
cinematographic views of the arteries, sto-
mach and intestines. (The New York
Herald, Paris, 4-XII-31).

A sporting doctor, after having radio-
cinematographed the heart of the champion
walker Nurmi declares that this organ in
the Finn is three times as strong as that of

74

an ordinary man. (Il GlORNALE Dl SlCI-
LIA, Palermo, 11-XI-3I).

Hygiene Films.

Evangelistic Leagues have combined in
the production of a film called " Der Grosse
Strom ", which shows that the health of

mothers is essential to the health of the race.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 29-X-31).

Rowland Rogers Production with the col-
laboration of the New York City Office of
Hygiene, have made a film on hair Hygiene
entitled " Red Head ". (MOVIE MAKERS,
November 1931).

LEGISLATIVE QUESTIONS

Laws - Taxes - Customs
Duties - Preference.

The Cinemas of Groningue, Holland,
shut their doors as a protest against taxes
of about 33.7 % of receipts levied on them.
Upon the reduction of these to 20 % they
reopened. (The ClNEMA, London, 22-X-
1931).

In view of the effect of the economic
crisis in the German film industry, Dr. Hein-
rich Noll of Berlin proposes that " artistic "
films be relieved of entertainment tax sub-
ject to the approval of the competent offi-
ces in Berlin and Munich. Mr. Noll thinks
that any increase in entertainment tax would
answer neither to the spirit of the law nor
to the interests of the national film industry.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 31-X-31).

In answer to the demand of cinema pro-
prietors the Mexican government has sus-
pended the application of the new customs
duties on films. (The Daily Film Renter,
London, 2-XI-31).

The Public Finance Commission cfeated
by the Hungarian Government to promote
State economy will propose the refusal of
all further guarantees in favour of the fund
for the development of a national cinemato-
graphic industry. This fund was largely
drawn from importation duties on films and
therefore Hungarian exhibitors are hopeful
that Parliament may adopt the proposition.
(KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, 14-XI-31).

Author's Rights.

In a case between M. Lara and M. Hugon,
the Third Tribunal of the Seine established
by sentence on the 7th of July 1931 that the
recording of music on a sound film is equiv-
alent to publication from the point of view
of author's rights. (Il DlRITTO Dl AuTORE,
Rome, July, August, September 1931).

During its meetings of last October in
Lausanne, the Central Committee of the
Society for Swiss Feminine Suffrage, took
amongst other decisions that of naming a
commission of Film Censorship, of sending
a memoir on the Cinema to all Police Direct-
ors and of projecting the suffragette film
" The Minors Bench ". (Le MouVEMENT
FEMINISTE, Geneva, 17-X-31).

Speaking of crime films, M. L. Langlois
declares himself in theory against their cen-
sure, for according to him, one must know
vice in all its aspects in order to know virtue.
(Le Cinema Suisse, Montreux, 18-X-31).

The Manchester Watch Committee have
prohibited the public showing of a Para-
mount production. " The Clock Murderer "
because of its too vivid character. (The
Daily Film Renter, London, 23-XI-31 ).

The Berlin censure has banned the French
Operetta film, " Marnselle Nitouche " on reli-
gious grounds. (Today's Cinema, London,
27-X-31).

s

75 -

The German version of " The Big House '
has been forbidden in Roumania. The Bu-
charest Censure has been prompted to this
action by the present state of agitation in
the country during which scenes of rebel-
lion might have a bad effect. (La ClNEMA-
TOGRAPHIE FRANCAISE, 31-X-31).

In order to obtain a more uniform cen-
sorship, a committee has been formed in
London consisting of members of the County
Council, the County Association and Munic-
ipal Corporations. (The Daily Telegraph,
London, 4-XI-31).

A decree of the Tcheco-Slovakian Minister
of Commerce prescribes that all foreign
films presented to the Censure must be ac-
companied by an importation certificate.
(KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, 14-XI-31

Cinema Statistics.

In Germany the entertainment tax re-
turns for films, amounting to 75 millions in
1929, was only 63 millions in 1930 and it is
predicted that it will be even lower in 1931.
(The Bioscope, London, 28-X-3 1 ).

From recent Polish statistics, at Varsovy,
a town of about one million inhabitants, the
cinema registered, in September 1931,
1,032,838 spectators, theatres 60,173; con-
certs 1 1 ,884, various artistic shows 26,023 ;
sports meetings 208,563. (Agenzia Film,
Rome, 30-X-31).

In the U. S. A. in the first months of
1931, 92 foreign films were shown (most-

ly Euroopean) as against 86 in 1930.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris,
31-X-31).

In 1931 the Japanese film industry pro-
duced nearly 700 different films of different
kinds. (The Film Daily, New York,
l-XI-31).

In 1931 the exportation of American films
to Germany decreased by 40 % . (The Film
Daily, New York, 5-XI-31).

Distributors of American films in Europe
anticipate a decrease of 5 % in receipts from
the preceding year. The total decrease
since the introduction of talking films is
20%. (La Cinematographie Francaise,
Paris, 7-XI-31).

According to R. K. 0. statistics there are
12,000 wired halls in the U. S. A. (The
Film Daily, New York, 16-X-31).

According to information furnished by
M. Estory to the Sub-Standard Film Con-
ference held recently at New York, there
are at present 300,000 16mm. projectors
and 100,000 9mm. projectors at present in
use in the U. S. A. in schools and private
homes. (ClNEFILO, Lisbon, 14-XI-31).

According to German information there
are 816 millions of francs invested in the 240
registered French cinema companies. By
the addition of sums privately invested the
total amount invested in the French Cinema
is more than one and one half milliards.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 7-XI 1-31).

CINEMA AND LABOUR

The Woodbury Training School of Bos-
ton has instituted a course of 20 lessons in
the Art of Seeing. Students at these cour-
ses are asked to draw what they have seen
on the screen. (The Educational Screen,
Chicago, October, 1931).

The Reading Iron Company have made a
film for schools on ironwork. (The Educa-
tional Screen, Chicago, October 1931).

At the conference held on October 3rd
1931 at Berlin in order to organise an Inter-

76 —

national Labour Association, which was
attended by delegates from Germany, Den-
mark, Holland, Austria, Poland, Sweden
and Switzerland, the attention of those pre-
sent was particularly drawn to the Cinema
as a means of propaganda. A project of
exchange of all films useful for the orga-
nisation of labour was made. (SoLIDA-
RITAT, Zurich, 15-X-31).

Dr. A. Winstanley has made a film on
the prevention of accidents in mines. It
will be projected in all Scottish mining cen-
tres. (The Cinema, London).

The River Don Works of Sheffield state
that steel workers understand their jobs
better when they have seen how to do them
on the screen. For this reason films of this
nature are included in local cinema pro-
gramme. (The Daily Film Renter, Lon-
don, 9-XI-31).

At the congress of German film producers
held in Berlin on October 26, 1 93 1 , it was
universally accorded that, in the interest
of the industry, the production cost of films
must be lowered to suit current economic
conditions. The following resolutions were
adopted : reasonable reduction of wages of
principal actors ; 20 % reduction of wages
of other actors ; abolition of all intermediary
commissions, secretaries, etc., reduction of
excessive wages of technical and artistic
staff, including producers, cameramen and
orchestra leaders. For the application of
these resolutions a special office was to be
created at the Spitzenorganisation of the
German film industry. (Film-Atelier, Ber-
lin, 2-X-31).

The Spitzenorganisation has decided that
no film may be projected in Germany if
it does not conform with the new tariff of
reduced production costs. Cinema prices
will be examined by delegates of the Pro-
ducers Association and in case of abuse
these delegates may appeal for judgement
to the Spitzenorganisation. (LlCHTBILDBUEHNE,
Berlin, 5-XI-31).

The Franco-Swiss Chamber of Commerce
has sent a commission to America charged
with the examination of the working condi-
tions at present in force in the American
cinema industry. (VARIETY, New York,
27-X-31).

A decrease in admission prices is general
in all large American cities. Without ill
effects for the managements, who state that
returns are actually larger through greater
attendance. Reduced rentals are also pre-
dicted. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 10-XI-31).

The Association of German Film Print-
ing Directors held recently at Berlin decided
to reduce the price of copies by 6 pfennings
the metre which indicates an appreciable
reduction in rentals. (LlCHTBILDBUEHNE,
12-XI-31).

" Dacho ", staff organisation of the Ger-
man film industry has arranged for its
members to produce films on their own ac-
count. The co-operators are divided into
two groups, the first containing scenarists,
composers, producers, architects, camera-
men, orchestra leaders and actors and the
second all other kinds of staff employed.
In addition to a daily wage the members of
the first group who make a film together
divide among themselves 50 % of the net
profits, those in the second group are paid
at a fixed wage. The remainder of the profit
is paid into the common fund of the Dacho.
(Oesterr. Film Zeitung Vienna, 14-XI-31).

The Silesian Association of Cinema
Proprietors, following the practice in other
large German towns have adopted in Bres-
lau a system of fixed prices. The cinemas
of the town have been divided into five
classes and the minimum admissions have
been fixed at 1 mark for 1st class halls and
50 pf. for fifth class halls. The number
of minimum prices seats is proportional to the
total number of seats. Programmes must
not exceed two and a half hours in length.
If a programme includes two sound films,
the second should not exceed 1 ,600 metres

77

in length. (FlLM KuRIER, Berlin, 25-XI-
1931).

A delegation from the National British
Association of Theatre Staffs has registered
a protest with the Board of Trade against
the establishment of American Studios in
England. (The Daily Telegraph, Lon-
don, 9-XII-3I).

Supported by the French Government,
the Syndical Chamber of Cinematograpy
has organised an office for propaganda and
exportation of French films. (Le Film
Sonore, Paris, 31-X-31).

A group of well known Spanish writers
amongst which are Benavente, d'Alvarez,
Quintero, etc., have founded at Madrid the
C. E. A. (Cinematograffa Espanola Ameri-
cana), for the development of an essentially
National sound cinema. (A. B. C, Madrid,

ll-XI-31).

Cinema and Unemploy-
ment.

At the Evangelische Bildkammer the first
showing of a long documentary called " The
Torrent " has been held. It was made by
Evangelical Leagues in collaboration. The
film is intended to show the gravity of the
present economic crisis and to demonstrate
that it is characterized by overproduction —
the cause of economic instability, disorganiza-
tion and misery. The film appeals to
mothers to give their children simple tastes,

teaching them temperance and virtue by
which the German nation may be saved
from an intolerable situation. This film
has caused great interest in Church and offi-
cial circles. (Lichtbildbuehne, Berlin 29-
X-31).

Following the example of the Berlin As-
sociation of cinema proprietors, that of
Bavaria has placed at the disposal of the
office of Public Health in Munich, 12,000
cinema tickets for distribution from Novem-
ber, 1st throughout the winter to the poor
people of the town. (Film Journal, Ber-
lin, 1-II-31).

On the 22nd of last November all the
cinemas in the city of Atlanta, U. S. A., gave
a day to the profit of the unemployed.
(Weekly Film Review, Atlanta, 3-XII-31).

Colonel John Cooper has proposed taking
a tax of 1 or 2 % on the salaries of all cinema
employees for the benefit of Canadian un-
employed. (Canadian Digest, Toronto,
7-XI-31).

The R. K. 0. Pathe Studio has adopted a
six hour day in order to combat winter
unemployment by increasing its staff by
20 % . (The Kinematograph Weekly, Lon-
don, 12-XI-31).

The Gaumont Palace, Redditch, has or-
ganised reduced price matinees for the un-
employed. (The Daily Film Renter, Lon-
don, 5-XII-31).

CINEMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE

Inventions - New Ap-
paratus.

Mr. Laurenti Rosa, of Rome, has invented
a new machine called a Virophone, furnish-
ed with a double prismatic refraction, photo-
electric cell, which eliminates inconve-
niences of current sound projection and
enables perfect reproduction to be obtained.
It has been used with success at the Quin-

nale Cinema, Rome. (Il MESSAGGERO, Rome,
7-XI-31).

The house of Ed. Liesegang of Dussel-
dorf has produced a new epidiascopic
projector called " Novo Jamax ", which is
distinguished for its clear and intense pro-
jections. (Die Photographische Indu-
strie, Berlin, 2-XII-31).

78

Sound and Television.

Two new English patents in sound and
television are announced. They refer to a
method of sensitizing the photo-electric cell
and so increasing its power and sensibility.
Mr. G. R. Stilwell and Mr. A. R. Olphin
of Bell Telephones are responsible for this
device. (AcTUALITES ClNEMATOGRAPHIQUES

Internationales, Paris, November 1931).

In order to minimize the cost of foreign
versions of talking films the large Holly-
wood firms propose to construct a special
theatre for these versions in Hollywood.
Made in this theatre the cost of a foreign
version should be reduced for a normal film to
65,000 marks . (FlLM KuRlER, Berlin, 9-XI-31).

In England there has been invented and
patented a sub-marine television camera
which should allow of taking films in the
deepest ocean. (Today's Cinema, Lon-
don, 13-XI-31).

An agreement has been reached between
Soviet authorities and Mr. Graham Laingot
concerning foreign versions of Russian talking
pictures. (The Cinema, London, 25-XI-31).

Under the direction of Dr. G. Oscar Rus-
sell of Ohio State University, Mary Mason

has produced several films in which the lip
movements of the actors are sufficiently
visible for deaf people to read their words.
(Public Information from the Bell and
Howell Co., New York, 28-XI-31).

The Russian producers Skvortsov and
Svietozarov have invented what they call
a " talking book ". This invention permits
the recording of sound on sensitive paper
so that on a roll of paper one hundred
metres long and .06 m. wide, an hour and
a half of music can be recorded. (PAPYRUS,
Paris, 1931).

Colour and Sterescopic
Cinema.

The Ukranian engineer Anoscienko has
discovered a new method of colour photo-
graphy. This has been used in making a
film called " The Labour Fete ", length 300
metres, which will be shown shortly in the
Moscow cinemas. The inventor has given
all patent rights to the State. (AcENZIA
Film, Rome, 13-XI-31).

The French professor, Bergman, has
perfected a new method of taking ste-
reoscopic film. (The Daily Film Renter,
London,, 26/11/31).

VARIOUS

Vostokkino, which has already construct-
ed studios in several parts of the Soviet, has
decided to extend its activities to all parts
for the benefit of populations of all regions.
(Les Nouvelles Sovietiques, Moscow,
September 1931).

At Moscow a film, " On the Right ", has
been shown. It explains traffic regulations
to the Public. (Il ClNEMA ItalIANO, Rome
10-XI-3I).

The American Cinematographer has start-
ed a contest for the best 16 mm. film with
prizes of 500, 200 and 100 dollars. (Amer-
ican Cinematographer, Hollywood, Octo-
ber 1931).

The First National Picture, " Dawn
Patrol ", was judged to be the year's best
picture by the Academy of Cinematographic
Arts and Sciences of Hollywood. (Today's
Cinema, London, 13-XI-31).

Some interesting articles

Educational Cinema.

A. CoLETTE. Enseignements qui peuvent utiliser la projection des films sonores. (Le Cineopse,
Paris, N° 147, November 1931, p. 475).

DIETRICH Taubert. Photographie und Schule. (Bilddienst, Prague, Nr. 4-5, August-Septem-
ber 1931, P. 33).

Hans Kammerer. Technische Mittel in der Schulphotographie. (Bilddienst, Prague, Nr. 4-5,
August-September 1931, p. 36).

HARRY Jay Mehr. Visual Aids used as a Means of Teaching English to Foreigners. (The
Educational Screen, Chicago, No. 8, October 1931, p. 226).

Tom WALLER. Visual Education, (Variety, New York, N° 6-11, 1931).

Frances Consitt. Films in History Teaching. (The Educational Supplement, London, No 864,
21-XI-31, p. 444).

WlLLIAM Lewin. The Use of Films and other Visual Aids in the Teaching of Composition,
(The Educational Screen. Chicago, No. 9; November 1931, p. 276).

KENNETH R. Edwards. Economic significance of sixteen. (Movie Makers, New York, No. 1 1,
November 1931, p. 276).

Marion Louise Israel. Picture Helps for smaller Schools. (The Educational Screen, Chic-
ago, No. 9, November 1931, p. 257).

GORDON S. MITCHELL. Sound Motion Pictures and Education. (Projection Engineering, New
York, No. 10, October 1931, p. 7).

Cinematographic Technique.

Venet. Communication sur le nouveau film Ozaphane, et sur les nouveaux postes de projec-
tion «Cinelux» pour films sans perforation, (Bulletin de la Societe francaise de Cinema-
tographic et de Photographie, Paris, N° 8, August 1931, p. 164).

G. Lyon. L'acoustique architecturale. — Etude dune salle complexe. (La Technique cine-
matographique, Paris, N° 9, December 1931, pag. 5).

Werner Gabler. Schalldampfende Materialen. (Filmtechnik — Filmkunst, Berlin, Nr. 25,
12-XII-1931, p. 14).

HEINRICH Beck. Zur Technik der Schul-Mikrophotographie, (Die Schulphotographie, Ber-
lin, Nr. 4, October 1931, p. 99).

L. E. Clark. Sound Stage Equipment and Practice. (American Cinematographer, Holly-
wood, No. 12, October 1931, p. 14).

Lloyd E. HARDING. Stereoscopie Motion Pictures. (Motion Picture Projectionist, New
York, No. 12, October 1931, p. 14).

A. K. Hoebbenet. Grenzen der Tonfilmtechnik. (Der Film, Berlin, Nr. 43, 24-1X-31, p. 11).

Dr. TlSCHNER. Die Qualitat der Tonwiedergabe. (Oesterr. Film Zeitung, Vienna, Nr. 44, 31 -X-
1931, p. 7).

N. N. Incandescent and arc lighting. (The Cinema, London, No. 1936, 4-XI-1931, p. 25).

G. Koegel. Ueber die diagnostiche Erfordernis der Roentgenstereokinematographie. (Die
Kinotechnik, Berlin, Nr. 21, 5-XI-31, p. 399).

— 80 -

R. H. Mc CuLLOUGH. Improvement of Sound Efficiency, (The Film Daily, New York, No. 32,
8-XI-31, p. 7).

GIOVANNI Rossi. L'acciaio fonte d'armonia, « II Blatternphone ». (Diritti della Scuola, Rome,
N° 7, 15-XI-31, P. 26).

H. PlCARD. Le cinematographe paronamique et l'hypergonar Chretien. (Technique cinema-
tographique, Paris, N° 8, November 1931, p. 7).

LLOYD A. JONES. Photographic Sensitometry. (Journal of the Society of Motion Picture En-
gineers, New York, No. 5, November 1931, p. 819).

N. N. Glossary of technical terms used in the motion picture industry. (Journal of the So-
ciety of motion picture engineers, New York, No. 5, November 1931, p. 819).

CARROLL H. Dunning. Dunning process and process backgrounds. (Journal of the Society
of Motion Picture Engineers, New- York, N° 5, november 1931, p. 743).

Eduard Jakl. Edisons Arbeiten auf dem Gebiete der Kinotechnik. (Die Lichtbildbuehne,
Aussig, Nr. 11, November 1931, p. 2).

J. K. Nanda. Film Editing and Pudovkin, (The Cinema, Lahore, December 1931, p. 21).

Bibliography

In answer to the appeal issued by the I. I. E. C, cinematographic publishers and authors
have increased their despatches of books and periodicals thus enabling the Rome Institute
to have at its disposal for its own use and that of Cinema research workers, abundant and
varied documentary material. Thus there is being rapidly formed a specialised library which
the I. I. E. C. intends to make the most complete in existence.

Naturally in the choice of publications relating to the Cinema the I. I. E. C. does not
limit its interest to topical works but draws also upon old works even though they may have
been superseded. For this reason, readers will find books mentioned in this section which
might seem to have only a retrospective interest but which are none the less valuable
documents.

The I. I. E. C. wishes to thank all those who have answered the appeal with such
understanding of the end in view and hopes that their example may lead to the rapid
enrichment of the documentary sources which the Institute places at the disposal of those
who are interested.

" Photographic Amusements ", by Frapieet Camera and laboratory tricks giving a
and Woodbury, 1 vol., 271 pages, ill. variety of comic and other effects are re-
price . . . pub. American Photographic Pub. viewed in the volume. Notable amongst
Co., Boston, 1931. these is the "Dunning Process" which,

used in " Africa Speaks ", provoked the

This work, interesting of its kind, opens attacks of the critic Atkinson, who thought

up fields of originality and animation to that a scene showing a man eaten by a lion

those acquainted with cine and photo tech- was real. Actually this scene was tnck-

nique. made at Hollywood without the slightest

81

danger to anyone. Frapieert and Wood-
bury explain clearly how these effects are
obtained. Additionally they devote several
well illustrated chapters to night and air
photos and meteorological and astronomic
photography, etc. . .

Recording Sound for Motion Pictures. 1 vol.,
404 pages, ill. price . . . Published by
Mr. Lester Cowan for the Academy of
Cinematographic Art and Science, Hol-
lywood, at McGran-Hill Publishing Co.
Ltd., Aldwych House, London W. C. 2.

Amongst many publications on sound
technique these studies by several persons
of great competence and merit deserve spe-
cial attention.

The coming of sound, the improvement
of apparatus, the birth of new technique to
meet new demands, the whole progress of
this yet imperfect art, all are treated in this
volume.

Questions of great interest to producers
and to all those who wish to keep up-to-date
in technical matters.

Cinematographic Design, by Leonard Hac-
ker. 1 vol., 193 pages, 13 ill. price . . .
Published by American Photographic
Publishing Co., Boston, 1931.

Is Cinema Art ? A question that has pro-
duced a whole polemical htterature with
the net result that each another remains
firmly convinced of his own opinion.

In this book, which is intended for ama-
teurs, the question is directly touched only
in the preface but indirect references to it
are found in each chapter, for the author
considers both the artistic and scientific
sides of production.

He declares that the cineist should be
artist, student, psychologist, phisosopher,
musician and poet ; that the aim of his work
is to define the position of the Cinema in
the arts and to indicate the path it must
follow.

For Mr. Hacker is more concerned with
the future of films than with their past

or present states ; it is in the future of
the silent film, left by professionals to the
amateurs that he sees opportunities for
the artistic development of the Cinema.

Now to bring this about, how to use
many fine camera effects are the subjects of
chapters by Mr. Hacker on Form, Rythm,
and Colour.

Finally, accepting the idea that the Cinema
is the expression of our epoch of dynamic
thought and action, he deduces the idea
that camera with its fast shutter movement
is a cosmic instrument and that a film is
cinematic only when it succeeds in giving
perfect expression to the cosmic principles
of form and movement.

Vision by Radio — Radio Photographs —
Radio Photograms, by S. FRANCIS JENKINS,
1 vol. 139 pages, 36 ill., price . . . Pub.
by Jenkins Laboratories Inc., Washington
D. C, 1925.

S. Francis Jenkins is well known for his
investigations and inventions and for the aids
which he has contributed to mechanics and
science. His projectors, his first notable
television experiments, the foundation of
the flourishing Association of Cinemato-
graphic Engineers, are only a few of the
manifestations of his formidable activity.

In this work published in 1925 he calls
the attention of radio engineers to the fact
that, in his opinion, television is being
neglected. Judging from photos illustrating
his treatise which represent transmission by
the Jenkins system in 1922-23-24, television
had already reached a certain degree of
perfection, for some of the images are really
beautifully sharp.

Radiomovies — Radiovision — Television.
1 vol. 143 pages, ill., price . . . (author
and publisher as above).

This work which may be considered as
a complement of that mentioned above
indicates progress made since in the trans-
mission of images by radio.

- 82

S. F. Jenkins observes that on July 2nd,
1928 the first regular American transmissions
of films by television began, which shows
that the essential difficulties of the problem
had by then been solved. After this state-
ment the author goes into the technical
and scientific aspects of television and its
practical application.

Combining the theoretical and the
practical this book cannot fail to hold the
readers attention.

The Taking and Showing of Motion Pictures
for Amateurs, by James R. CAMERON,
1 vol. . . ., 238 pages, 123 ill., publ.
by Cameron Pub. Co. Inc. Manhattan
Beach, New York City, 1927.

Without dealing with the more obstruse
technical problems of the Cinema, Mr. Ca-

meron gives in a simple form and in plain
language those elementary facts which no
possessor of a cinecamera should ignore.

When one considers the fact that in 1927
there were already some 17.000 amateur
cinematographers one can understand the
demand for such a publication giving a
critical description of the principal cameras
in use (for 35, 16 and 9mm. films) and also
dealing with the optical systems, lighting,
camera manipulation, film development, cut-
ting and projection. In short a complete
amateur guide for those who wish to get
the most out of their apparatus.

Amateur Movie Craft, same author and
publisher, 1 vol. . . 142 pages, 45 ill.
This work published in 1928 constitues
an abbreviation of that mentioned above.

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83

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84

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INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of Justice, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome. President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Corp.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela.

OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, at the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation,
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director.

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Dr. G. Noxon

de FEO, Giuseppe GlMENO, Jose Maria

de Lavallaz, Maurice Jordan, H.

Apollonio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. FEBRUARY 1932 N. 2.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CIMEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

— LEAGUE OF NATIONS —

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1a - ROME

INDEX

Pag.

Annual Report to the Council of the L. o. N. on the activity of the I. I. E. C. 89

The Problem of cinematographic Archives 94

Walther GlJNTHER — The cinematographic Archives of the City of Berlin . . 97

Julius Weinberger — This thing called "Perfect Sound" 107

/. /. E. C. STUDIES 112

The historical Evolution of visual Education 115

/. /. E. C. ENQUIRIES

Young Peoples' Impressions of War Films 121

LEGISLATION.

Authors Right in Czecho-Slovakia 135

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

Sound films in Schools — Accident Prevention films — What News Reel should
be like — International Commission for social Instruction and Education by
Radio and Cinema — Cinema and the State — Distribution of Educa-
tional Soundfilms in the U. S. A. — Adress by Will H. Hays — Notes from
Great Britain — Educational Cinema in Egypt — The tenth Assembly
of the Swiss Institute for National and School Cinema — An Interna-
tional Exhibition of the Electro-acoustical Industry 137

TECHNICAL NOTES

Portable Sound Projectors — Small French Sound Equipment — New

Substandard Projectors 153

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS

World Information — Documentary Films — Legislative Questions — Cinema

and Labour — Various 157

BIBLIOGRAPHY 165

ANNUAL REPORT TO THE COUNCIL OF THE L. O. N.
ON THE ACTIVITY OF THE I.I.E.C.

// is with profound satisfaction that we publish the report presented to the
Council of the L. o. N. upon the activity of the 1. 1. E. C. during 1930-31 , and
also the resolution voted by that authority at Geneva.

The congratulations of the Council of the L. o. N. are addressed to all
those who within the Institute have carried out their tasks with enthusiasm and
faith ; they represent for them the highest and most desirable recompense, the
most active stimulation to justify the confidence placed in the I. I. E. C. by
redoubled efforts.

I fully appreciate the honour which has fallen to me, as Rapporteur
for questions concerning the International Educational Cinematographic
Institute, of presenting to the Council for the fourth time the annual report
submitted to it by the Governing Body of that Institute.

In the successive statements which I have had the pleasure of placing
before the Council since the founding of the Institute, it has been my duty
to record most gratifying progress and highly satisfactory results. That
impression is stronger than ever this year, and my colleagues will undoubt-
edly share it on reading the pages of the very interesting report submitted
by Doctor Kriiss on behalf of the Governing Body. The latter held its
ordinary annual session at Rome, at the Institute, most of the members
being present themselves or sending representatives, while the Interna-
tional Labour Office and the International Institute of Intellectual Co-opera-
tion were both represented. The Governing Body learned to its great
regret, during the session, that one of the members, Mr. Paranjpye, who
had been recalled to his own country, was obliged to resign his office. My
colleagues will, I feel sure, wish to join me in thanking Mr. Paranjpye
for the very valuable service he has rendered ever since the founding of the
Institute.

The completeness of Dr. Kriiss 's report absolves me from all need of

— 90 —

commenting at length on the various parts of that report, but I feel I shall
be complying with my colleagues' wishes in noting hereunder such points
as appear to me to call for their special attention.

a) Work of the Institute during the past year.

During the year which ended with the last session of the Governing
Body the Institute, pursuing its efforts in this direction, took steps to consol-
idate the co-operation already established with other institutions which
come under the League or are concerned with the question of educational
films. Special mention may be made of the arrangement concluded with
the International Chamber of the Educational Film at Basle and with the
International Committee on Social Instruction and Education through Cine-
matograph and Broadcasting. Reference might also be made to the im-
portant meeting held at Rome, at the Institute, by the Cinema Committee
of the International Council of Women.

Film production and the use of films for educational purposes have
developed to such an extent during the last few years that the Institute is
constantly becoming aware of fresh opportunities of co-operating, whether
by collecting documentary material, encouraging initiative, or taking action
itself.

The role of educational films in the employment of worker's spare time,
their use in the sphere of public health — questions such as these will be
studied and results, from a social standpoint, will be found to be far from
negligible.

The use of the cinematograph is bound to modify teaching methods
very considerably, and the Institute is taking an active interest in the experi-
ments carried out in this particular sphere. Mention might also be made
of its comparative studies on cinematograph legislation in different countries,
in particular, film censorship and public health regulations in cinematograph
halls.

Preparations for a diplomatic Conference for the abolition of Customs
barriers against educational films are proceeding satisfactorily, several
Governments having sent encouraging replies.

The Governing Body has very wisely signified its intention of not press-
ing for the convening of this Conference, leaving the matter to the Council
of the League to decide. The question accordingly still appears on the
Institute's programme for next year.

— 91 —

b) Programme of work adopted by the Governing Body.

This programme may be seen from the various resolutions reproduced
in Dr. Kriiss's report. Thanks to the very thorough preparations carried
out by the Director of the Institute, the Governing Body was able to re-
commend a series of important schemes. I cannot refer to them all, but will
simply mention the chief ones. They are as follows : The Institute is
preparing, in response to the request of the Sub-Committee of Experts for
the Instruction of Youth in the Aims and Work of the League, at once to
offer the fullest technical co-operation to the various bodies interested in the
production of educational films on the League. One new question, authors'
copyright in relation to the cinematograph, has already been examined by the
Institute, and these studies will be continued in close collaboration with the
International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation and with the various
other organisations dealing with the different aspects of copyright.

Thousand of films are produced every year. Many of them are of
undoubted value from the standpoint of the history of our times ; the pre-
servation of cinematographic documents constitutes an entirely new problem.
The Institute has dealt with it, and the Governing Body has made arrange-
ments for enquiries to be carried out to encourage the establishment of
cinematographic archives. One of the Institute's chief objects is to make
known in the different countries the most important productions in the way
of educational films. The vast documentary material collected by the Insti-
tute has now made it possible for the Governing Body to authorise the publi-
cation of an international catalogue of educational films. These lists, pub-
lished by the Institute, are sure of a very warm welcome both from producers
and from the users of educational films. Between these important groups the
Institute has always endeavoured to establish closer and more fruitful colla-
boration. It proposes, with this object, to organise meetings of representa-
tives of these various circles and to suggest that they should study together
the chief current problems connected with the use of the cinematograph in
teaching.

One of the Institute's most successful and most promising achievements
is the publication of the Review of Educational Cinematography, which ap-
pears in five languages and has been very favourably received by the various
circles for which it was intended. It has taken its place among the big
international periodicals and — a point worthy of note — has paid its way,
the special accounts showing a profit. The management unfortunately

— 92 —

anticipates a slight falling off in the income of the Review for the coming
year, but the necessary steps have been taken to cope with the situation.

c) Budgetary situation.

My colleagues on the Council are well aware of the extent to which
international organisations are feeling the effects of the world crisis. A body
such as the Institute must bear in mind the need for economy, though not
at the price of an undue curtailment of its work. The budget adopted by the
Governing Body reflects this double preoccupation. It has been balanced,
thanks to an extraordinary subsidy of 200,000 lire, which the Italian Govern-
ment has generously allowed the Institute again this year. My colleagues
on the Council will, I feel sure, interpret this gesture as a token of the
interest my Government takes in an institution which it was so happy
to place at the League' s disposal.

d) Administrative questions.

Among the various economies effected may be noted the reduction in
the number of sessions of the Permanent Executive Committee of the
Institute.

The Governing Body had to re-elect this Permanent Committee, which
is responsible for ensuring the continuity of the work between the annual
sessions of the Governing Body. The Committee is now constituted as
follows :

Count Carton de Wiart
M. Focillon
M. Kruss

Mr. MlLLIKEN

M. de Reynold.

The Governing Body also had to consider the framing of new Staff
Regulations. Under the Organic Statute of the Institute these must be ap-
proved by the Council of the League before coming into force. The Govern-
ing Body has accordingly asked us to approve the new draft Regulations.

The Governing Body passed a special resolution referring to the merits
of the Institute, and my colleagues will, I feel sure, understand my motive
in directing attention to the tribute thus paid to a man who, since the found-
ing of the Institute, has devoted himself untiringly to its interests.

— 93 -

In conclusion, I would point out that a body such as the Educational
Cinematographic Institute, which is concerned with a very special sphere,
but a sphere of vast extent — it is essentially international — must neces-
sarily engage in a whole series of tentative efforts and experiments before
being in a position to define its methods or specify its immediate or more
distant objectives.

The Educational Cinematographic Institute, I think I may say, has now
got beyond this stage of exploration and experiment, and the Governing
Body's Report reveals the importance of certain results, the continuous
nature of the various activities, the comprehensiveness of the programme
laid down for the future, and lastly the highly satisfactory working of the
Administrative services of the Institute itself.

I therefore think I may submit to my colleagues the following Reso-
lution :

The Council notes with much satisfaction the Report of the Governing
Body of the International Educational Cinematographic Institute for the
year 1930-1931, and transmits it to the Assembly ;

" Itexpresses its gratification at the results achieved during the past
year and notes the importance of the programme of work laid down for the coming
year.

' / conveys its thanks to all those who, in whatever form, have shown
their interest in the Institute and thus contributed towards its progress. Its
thanks are due also to the Italian and Polish Governments for the special finan-
cial assistance which they have accorded the Institute, and to the members of
the Governing Body and the Director.

The Council expresses its regret at the resignation of Mr. Paranjpye,
to whom it desires to convey its thanks, and decides to appoint his successor at
one of its next sessions.

' The Council, in conformity with Article 15 of the Organic Statute
of the Institute, approves the draft Staff Regulations framed by the Governing
Body, and authorises their immediate entry into force.

" It requests the Secretary-General of the League of Nations, in conform-
ity with the Organic Statute, to communicate to the Italian Government and
to the Members of the League of Nations, the Report submitted by the Governing
Body, together with the annexes to the Report ".

THE PROBLEM OF CINEMATOGRAPHIC ARCHIVES

Last April, at the I. I. E. C, Dr. Hans Curlis brought up the question of cinema-
tographic archives. Knowing from experience that documents valuable and useful
from scientific and technical points of view are lost every day, Dr. Curlis asked the I.I.E.C.
to intervene in the matter, directly and officially.

A commission under the presidency of M. Louis Lumiere and comprising MM.
Hans Curlis, Harold Smith and Luciano de Feo, director of the I. I. E. C. met in Paris
and proceeded to a preliminary examination of the question. Subsequently, the ad-
ministrative council of the I.I.E.C, presented with a precise and accurate report'
prepared by the Director's office, made an exhaustive examination of it.

The problem was revealed in all its extent and complexity.

Has it to do with the scientific and educational screen (the direct interests of the
I.I.C.E.)?

Should documentary films, which, above all as regards news reels, will form the
matter for future historical research and visual documentation , be dealt with ?

Should the artistic film, especially with regard to the documentation of technical
progress, be considered ?

Or Would it not be better to encourage all producing countries to create cinema
archives containing the whole national film production, considering that which may
appear of no interest today, may tomorrow serve a useful purpose ?

Thus there are an infinite number of questions in connection with Cinema archives.

And above all there is one of capital importance : how may cinema archives be or-
ganized ? Might it be possible to apply the literary copyright act to film production and
thus acquire for the archives a copy of each film made ? Or would this lay too heavy a
burden on producers already in a difficult position financially ? As far as concerns the
constitution of scientific and educational film archives, could not the State intervene
directly or indirectly ? To what extent could existent film libraries serve as the nuclei
of film archives ?

In this connection an article by Dr. H. A. Kriiss, member of the Council of the
I. I. E. C. and director general of the Prussian State Library, in the Film-Kurier, seems
to us to be pertinent.

When one considers the ephemeral life of the creations of our civilization, it is easy
to understand the great interest presented by the question of Cinema Archives. This question
is the more importannt in Germany because it is one of the largest producers of films.

If, in this question of Cinema Archives, one wishes to go beyond what has already been
done, one must decide whether the problem has really a national or international aspect.

For my part I favour the formation of National Archives which, in spite of their particular
nature, nevertheless form a source of general interest.

In any case perfection in the matter is difficult. Besides the necessity of preserving

- 95 -

certain films on account of their historical or scientific character, there is obviously that of
preserving others to demonstrate the progress of the Cinema itself from technical and other
points of view. This could be completed by a collection of informations concerning other
films and so a satisfactory result might be obtained.

For the moment the formation of such archives would seem impossible. However,
there is much preliminary work that might be done, above all in the matter of preserving
important material against irretrievable loss. To this end a central Archives office might
be formed with the task of making an inventory of those films kept in public or private
collections or in producers stock.

Additionally this office could follow current production and indicate to producers which
films should be preserved. Although there might be no official film Archives, producers
would ask the opinion of the office before destroying films. This idea seems quite practical
and it should at once be put into action until the real central Archives can be created.

The I. I. E. C. has already attaked the question is an international way and its adminis-
trative council, upon the suggestion of the German representative, took a resolution in the
matter. Several weeks ago we had the pleasure of seeing Dr. de Feo, the distinguished
director of the I. I. E. C. here in Berlin. He did not fail to talk of Cinema Archives and
I hope that he had the impression that, inspite of the present difficult situation, Germany
is ready to collaborate with all its power in this work, within the framework of an inter-
national agreement

There is no need to insist upon the practicability of Mr. Kriiss' idea while awaiting
the possibility of establishing central film archives, involving considerable expense, all
that is done to prevent the loss of good material at the present moment is well done.

It is a most difficult problem. But it is for that very reason that it most urgently
requires a solution.

Many historical documents have been lost, others are lost every day ; the intense
rhythm of commercial cinema activity often prevents producers from keeping negatives,
which, uninteresting today, might be of the greatest importance to-morrow.

The administrative council of the I. I. E. C, often having been instructed as to the
activity of other international institutions in this sphere, such as that of the International
Commission of Historical Science and the Committee of Expert Archivists of the Com-
mission of Intellectual Co-operation, voted the folowing resolution :

The Administrative Council, concerning the resolution adopted by the Permanent
Executive Committee on April 1 st , 1 93 1 , relative to the constitution of educational and
topical film archives,

approves this resolution and charges the director with the task of taking steps to
encourage the constitution of national and international film archives,

recommends that the director follow up studies already commenced, consulting in this
with the International Committee of Historical Science and the Committee of Expert Arch-
ivists of the organisation for intellectual co-operation,

asks the director to present a report of the results obtained at the next meeting of the
Administrative Council.

Whilst the I. I. E. C. follows systematically research into existing film archives and,
with the help of the authorities in various countries, studies the solution of various
attendant problems, the /. /. E. C. Review opens with an article by its distinguished

— 96 —

collaborator Mr. Walter Giinther, the publication of a series of articles on the subject, and
most anxiously hopes that these articles may give rise to interesting discussion. This
discussion, freely conducted, would be a very appreciable contribution to the scientific
work of the I. I.E. C.

In his article, Mr. Giinther examines what has been done and attempted in Germany
and at the same time poses a general question. Should film archives be created on
general lines or on specialists lines ?

In the meantime, the I. I. E. C. has undertaken, with the expert assistance of the
Spitzenorganisation der Deutschen Filmindustrie, the compilation of a large file of historical
films which may render research work easier.

We are certain that other corporative associations in other countries will be willing
to help in this fundamental research work.

Shortly afterwards another considerable step forward was made towards the com-
plete understanding of the question of film archives and their importance.

Indeed the Committee of expert archivists — the I.I.E.C. had drawn their atten-
tion to the subject — held meetings at the I.I.E.C. in Paris on Dec. 19th last and
voted the following resolutions on the subject :

The Committee of Expert Archivists, presented with the resolution of the admini-
strative Council of the I.I.E.C. concerning the constitution of film collections ;

recognizes that the importance in number and interest of film documents increases
daily and that for this reason their conservation presents an entirely neu) problem for the
attention of States ;

states that a Committee formed of representatives from various nations, specialised
in the subject of archives in the strictest sense, scarcely seems the most suitable organ to give
to the Rome Institute a full support in carrying out its intersting proposals,

desirous however of showing its appreciation of the suggestion of collaboration, the
Committee has proceeded to an attentive examination of the question and has reached
certain conclusions which are given below.

The Committee recognizes the immediacy of the problem of an International Ci-
nematek of educational and news films.

It thinks that the Rome Institute might intervene in each country and approach the
Minister of Education with a view to the setting up of National Cinemateks in all countries
which could later be linked by the Institute itself to form an International organisation.

It believes that such National Cinemateks might be formed by means of an obligatory
legal deposit system.

It thinks that the establishment of Cinemateks should be preceeded by the study of
practical considerations such as film storage, etc.

On account of the affinity of interests between Cinemateks and libraries the Com-
mittee recommends that the I.I.E.C. should consult a Committee of librarians.

This resolution gives rise to various questions and certain problems that we have
already indicated. We greatly hope that the question of film archives may be treated in a
complete manner and that a Cmematek of educational and news films may be constituted at
the earliest possible opportunity, as this represents one of the principal aspects of the
matter.

— 97

THE CINEMATOGRAPHIC ARCHIVES OF THE CITY

OF BERLIN

by Dr. Walter Gunther.

After having for a long time covered the needs of schools and juvenile associations
of Berlin by a system of loaning instructional and educational films, the necessity was
felt, owing to the regular and increasing demand, for collecting the films together in order
to have them ready for educational uses. Thus the idea of a film library came into being.
This Cinematek was to include : —

(a) films in current use m schools ;

(b) negatives of films concerning the life of Berlin, such as architectural changes
new buildings, improvements of all kinds, historical events, the daily life of the town
(markets, traffic, communications, work, amusements) in order to collect each year a
certain number of films with documentary value.

The idea of such archives soon extended to cover not only films but also positive
and negative slides and photos, on glass and paper.

During the subsequent organising work, it was realised that such archives should
not include simpiy documents relative to the city itself but those dealing with cinema-
tography generally and even its history, neglecting no type of film, recreational, docu-
mentary, instructional and publicity. It was not necessary that. the work should be
absolutely comprehensive but essentials should be grouped. In November 1919, the
general plan of the organisation was completed. Great attention, had, of course, to be
given to the technical side of the enterprise. No Cinema archives would be complete
manifestly without considering the forerunners of the film (Chinese shadowgraphs,
diapositives, etc. . . .); as for the sound film, it was not then known.

At this point in the work it was realised that it would be scarcely possible to or-
ganize the archives without having obtained the opinions of various individuals and groups
in authority and from this developed the idea of publishing a vade-mecum of the Cinema
in 1920. But the financial situation at the time did not allow it. In any case it was
necessary to collect material for the film history in the shape of Reviews, publicity bro-
chures, books, publications of all kinds, newspaper clippings, the maximum information
about individual films, criticisms, censor cards, official certificates, manuscripts and
drawings, etc.

This scheme can hardly be reproached with the sin of omission. In any case the
outline has not felt the necessity of re-formation since its elaboration in November 1919.
It had simply to be modified according to subsequent economic and administrative
changes.

In July 1 922 it was at length possible to organise the printed archives and a central

98

file. The Cinema and fixed projection archives now present the following aspect,
including all publications in the two domains in the following form :

A library, a collection of periodicals, a collection of memoirs, a collection of
manuscripts, a collection of law texts, a collection of photos.

The whole of this material is subdivided as follows :

I. Film and fixed projection subjects.

(a) Subject and importance. — (h) Preparatory work. — (c) Criticism. — (d) Expositions accom-
panying DIAPOSITIVES AND FILMS.

II. Slide and Cinema projection technique.

(a) Technique of manufacture. — (b) Projection technique.

III. Use of films and slides.

(a) Distribution. — (b) Showinc. — (c) Musical Score.

IV. Legislation.

V. Film and Slide History.
(a) History. — (b) Statistics.

— 99 —

VI. Technical training and apprenticeship.

(a) Technical training in manufacture. — (b) Technical training in presentation. — (c) Technical

TRAINING IN UTILISATION.

VII. Repertory and Catalogues.

(a) Repertory. — (b) Annuals. — (c) Complete yearly sets of periodicals. — (d) Isolated num-
bers of periodicals. — (c) Catalogues. — (/) Commercial Cinema publications.

VIII. The film in litterature.

IX. Radio and Television.

X. Miscellaneous.

* * *

I. — Subjects of films and Slides.

(a) Subjects and importance.

1 . Generalities. — Slides and films as art — possibilities and limits — Psychology — Sociology —
Ethics — Dramaturgy of Cinema — Nature in slides and films — fantasy in films — films and theatre

— films and music — films and economic science — films and politics — principles of utilisation.

2. Cultural Films. — Instructional films and slides — publicity films and slides — films and slides in
science — films and slides in schools and in popular education — slides and films in religion — slides
and films in military subjects — short films.

3. Colour films. — 4. Sound films. — 5. Substandard films.

(b) Preparatory work.

1 . Generalities. — Scientific preparatory work — necessities — plans — Art of cinema direction.

2. Manuscripts. — 3. Biography. — Authors and publishers — Contractors and directors — Artists

4. Economic facts of film and slide manufacture. — 5. Collection of reports and documents.

(c) Criticism.

Collection of " Inhalt und Urteil " (Contains all available knowledge concerning contents and cri-
ticism of films and series of slides) different possibilities — special methods — information as to experi-
ments in film and slide utilisation.

(d) Information accompanying slides and films.

II. — Photographic and Cinematographic Technique.

(a) Manufactory technique.

Chemical elements — photographic plates — raw film — optical elements — cameras — film format

— camera work — reduction and enlargement — high and low speed camera work.

Direction technique. — Lighting technique. — Copies — Colour — Colour photos — colour films —
sound films — film tricks — technique of film and slide handiwork.

(b) Presentational technique.

Slide projectors. — Optical systems — illuminants — vertical and horizontal projection — Enlarged
and reduced projections — Epidiascopic projections.

Film projectors. — Optical systems — illuminants — mecanism — shutter — optical compensation —
fire guards — speed of movement — standardisation — portable equipment.

— 100 —

Electrical principles. — Halls. — Technique and construction — Lighting — Arrangement of seats —
arrangement of stage — Screens.

Projection Room. — Technique and construction lighting.
Collection of reports and documents.

III. — Use of Films and Photos.

(a) Distribution.

Economical questions — organisations — associations — lists of enterprises — collection of rental con-
ditions — collection of specimen contracts — congress reports — official film organisations — distri-
bution offices — foreign rental enterprises.

(5) Representation.

Direction of slide and film shows — organisation of film offices — organisation of school shows —
laws applicable — collection of projection programmes for schools and associations — slides and films in
school programmes — General methods.

(c) Musical scores

IV. — Legislation.

Laws dealing with film and slide Work.

Legal principles of : Authors rights — publication rights — inventors rights — commercial law
— associate law.

German laws dealing with film projection : Censorhip — taxes — customs — legal aspect of photo-
graphy and concessions — regulations with regard to construction, control and fire precautions — collec-
tion of judgements and precedents — collection of plans and projects.

V. — History of slides and the Cinema.

(a) History.
In the past-

Collection arranged in chronological order consisting of : Manuscripts — letters — ■ printed matter —
books — periodicals — press criticism, presenting historical interest in the film and slide.

In the present.

Collection of : Press criticisms — trade information — Congress reports — Cinema organisation
reports — Cinema association reports — articles from the Cinematographic press — official publications,
presenting interesting facts for the study of technical progress and economic development in the slide and
film industry.

(b) Statistics.

Slide and film production and use — price changes — film and slide wear — camera wear — projector
wear — instruction by slide and film — number of masters and pupils — Cinema archives — Cultural film
shows and their audiences.

VI. — Training and Apprenticeship.

Study programmes — examination regulations — examination commissions, official preparatory cour-
ses — private preparatory courses — manuals — examinations for slide projectionists — schools for profes-
sional cameramen — photographic courses — Cinema courses — training of directors — training of ar-
tists — Cinema schools — collection of documents and reports.

VII. — Repertory and Catalogues.

(a) Repertory — (fi) Annuals — (c) yearly volumes of periodicals — id) isolated numbers of period-
icals — (e) catalogues — (/) publications of the Cinema trade — (g) registers.

— 101 —

Alphabetic lit of German cultural, instructional and recreational films : Registers of instructional films —
registers of companies making these films — register of educational films recognised as such by the Central
Institute and the Munich office — registers of films recognised by the same authorities to have cultural and
artistic value — registers of films according to literary subjects — registers of films in special classification

(Viennese Films, Rhine Films, etc.) — Slide register — Foreign film register — Register of producers
(German) — Register of producers (Foreign) — Register of camera makers — Register of projector makers —
Register of film and slide litterature — Register of official film offices — Register of non-official film offices

VIII. — Film Novels.

Novels and other creations of film litterature.

IX. — Television and Radio.

(a) Subject and importance. — (b) Technique. — (c) Organisation. — (d) Use.

X. — Miscellaneous.

Lists of competent authorities — technique of administration — books and novels, etc.

Seven masters and mistresses undertook the task of constituting this last division.
They analysed the contents of 208 Reviews of teaching, photography, cinema, popular
education and all procurable papers, limiting for articles relative to slides and films.
Their part of the work applied only to papers appearing in Germany. Most of the news-
paper cuttings contain articles which appeared before the constitution of the " Deutscher
Bildspiebund " creator of the archives, particularly those having a bearing on the histor-
ical importance of films and slides.

Film registers film criticisms — private and official — are collected by the in-
formation service. This service has formed sub-services, technical (which does not
our concern here), administrative and judicial and sub-sections for slides and questions
of method.

This last subdivision has gradually become the most important. It is that which
advises those interested on the choice of films, the means of procuring them and the
organization of cinema shows ; it also gives them information on those branches of educa-
tion for which films are available, on the results which have been obtained with a certain
film under certain conditions. This collection of information concerning results of
past shows is very important, for the effects of each film depend upon the audience. It
is of great practical importance to be able to indicate if a film, containing for example,
nudity, has been the source of scandal, if a subtitle has raised protests, or if a serious
passage wrongly understood has caused laughter, etc. This information on the effects
of a film is completed by advice as to the manner of avoiding inconvenience in particular
cases. In many of these it is simply necessary to draw attention to a certain passage
and explain it. The efficiency of this information service obviously depends on those
interested and the information which they communicate on the showing of films. One
cannot always count on this cooperation. It is nearly always necessary to insist. It is
not sufficient that a more or less large circle finds these films useful and gives them
more or less explicit approbation. They must suit perfectly the public to which they are
destined. For technical and often for legal reasons it is impossible to modify films at
will, and therefore we have only three means at our disposal : —
(a) Make films for general use ;

— 102 —

(2) Make variations ;

(3) Find out public reactions and give the necessary information to organizers.
There are two questions that may be asked with regard to films for general use :

Should one use those which have been made by producers or should one produce new
ones ? Those made by producers are necessarily destined to a large public, their sub-
titles and arrangement are generally conceived in a recreational spirit which has nothing
to do with instructional films. It is nearly always necessary to modify or eliminate sub-
titles. Two methods seem to us particularly suitable for remedying these faults, first,
titles resuming the contents of a long sequence of the following film, second, titles
without suggestion and not involving mental activity on the part of the spectator should
be cut out and replaced with an equal length of black. In Switzerland it has been sug-
gested that cuts of this kind should be indicated by numbers, but we do not think that
this proposition, although it is by no means a bad one, should be adopted. Indeed it
has the same ends. A series of views without titles requires great attention, and it is
for this reason that long education films are to be avoided.

These two kinds of films, those without titles more than those with a few titles, oblige
the user, who, for reasons concerned with fire regulations might not wish to keep films
too long by him, to procure the text of the film in order to prepare titles. The best
text is obviously that accompanying the film. The question of small film text books
has already been examined at the Hamburg Cinema Week (October, 1922). It was there
declared that these should contain three photos from each film, one from the beginning,
one from the climax and one from the end. These booklets should also give for each
film:—

1 . the contents of the censor card

2. an exact description of the places

3. an explanation of the principal action

4. a bibliography on the subject treated

5. a list of films having something to do with the one in question

6. an index of slides which might serve as explanation

7. suggestions of other teaching methods which might be employed at the same
time (maps, pictures, models, etc.)

8. indication of all means of completing instruction in the subject.

Such a work could only be confided to specialists, and it Would be advantageous if
the principal collaborator were to deal with the technical side. The institute for the
advancement of culture has illustrated booklets which do not really answer the ends
proposed here. However, they offer one solution and render a great service by showing
how the scientific use of the film can be improved. « U. F. A. » has also published
booklets of this kind that we hope to be able to gather into a library.

It little matters whether these booklets are employed for normal prints or variants,
for they should also serve for the latter. Variants may exist for all the subjects in a teach-
ing plan. If, for instance, the same matter is mentioned in the programmes of the third,
seventh and twelfth school years, it is natural that the copies of the film treat this subject
in a manner conforming to the mentality of the pupils and the aim of the teaching plan.
The swan, as shown to children of the third year, will be very much more simply treated
than for pupils of the seventh or twelfth years.

— 103 —

These considerations so profoundly affected the formation of the cinematographic
archives that it was found necessary to install a special studio for the preparation of
films where specialists might choose from the films at their disposal and gather together
elements particularly useful and important for teaching. Special tables for the examina-
tion of films, storage, cupboards and small projectors were installed, the walls were painted
white to dispense with a screen and the whole room was provided with a method of
darkening. Tables for the examination of films have shown themselves invaluable
teaching aids. Indeed, each school where films are shown should have one of these

at the disposal of the master ; it would permit him to prepare himself for the projection
and to examine the contents of the film more easily than with a projector. Also, this
machine permits film to be rewound with less risk to the material.

Finally, as it seemed indicated that both these technical experiments and the arran-
gement of educational film programs, together with dependant methods, should not be
confined to as mall number of persons, they were made known to everyone interested and
were included in an instructional course. This course takes place in a large hall, and the care
of films, film projection and attendant instruction are taught. At the same time various
useful hints are given relative to the preparation of films and the necessary material.
The material control of films does not suffice, it is also necessary to revise their contents.
Documentary films giving facts for the year 1 929 (traffic, style, commerce and industry)
are not always useful in 1931 as instructional films, although they may, from a technical
point of view still be perfect. There comes a moment when films, like pictures, have
lost their contemporary value and have not yet acquired an historical one. In this case it

2 le

— 104 —

is essential to eliminate and to complete. It is necessary therefore to keep an original
copy of the film, then a transitional copy, and finally a new copy. The same thing ap-
plies to series of slides. One cannot show Berlin in 1931 with a series of slides dating
from 1805. Such slides andfilms will be the historical documents of tomorrow and their
disuse is therefor temporary. A well arranged collection of films and slides should therefor
provide a means of preserving this material, and from time to time a revision of its use.

From these considerations, of which some served as basic principles and others as
consequences of work, were born the cinematographic archives of the city of Berlin.

First of, all, twelve Geyer cupboards and fifty seven Gamy cupboards were
installed, and others have since been added. The doors are of asbestos plate,
practically incombustible, so that a fire breaking out around the cupboards would not
be able to ignite the films within. The films are in hardwood boxes covered in asbestos
so that they cannot be ignited. These boxes are quite heavy (8 pounds without the film),
they contain up to 4 reels ; their weights then attains 36 pounds. As nearly all the
work in the archives is done by women, we have taken these boxes out of the Geyer cup-
boards, and we now use them to hold negatives of particular value that are not in daily
use. The material constructed by Geyer is thus not used to its true end, to prevent a
fire, for if the fire were now to break out in one of these cupboards it would destroy
everything within. The compartments and the divisions are in asbestos and the
doors close hermetically. The compartments do not touch the back wall m
order not to interrupt the circulation of the air, and the fire could therefor pass in this
way. However, we have had to use this material in spite of its disadvantages. The
back wall of the cupboards is constantly cooled by air, which maintains the necessary
degree of humidity and prevents the dessication of the films. This jet of damp air also
serves as heating. Other methods of heating have been abandoned.

Ordinary systems of heating were abolished because it was thought that they had
to some degree been responsible for the fire at Cleveland. On the ground floor, beneath
the Archives, an electric hot air blower was installed. The hot air is humidified by a
special device and is then circulated in pipes throughout the building and to the archive
cupboards. In very cold winters this system is clearly far from ideal for the interior
temperature of the rooms never exceeds 9 degrees C, obviously too low a temperature
to allow the employees to work efficiently in them. This state of affairs is perhaps due
more to the special arrangement of the roof than to the method of heating. The roof
is so arranged that should the pressure increase in the rooms the windows are automatic-
ally opened. Of a total wall area of 73.45 m2, 25 m2 consist of windows ; 5.46 m2 of these
open automatically. In order to be sure of this working in the case of fire the opening
mechanism has been so adjusted that even breezes are sufficient to set it in motion.
For this reason there are always drafts in the rooms. It has therefore been necessary
to arrange special rooms for the employees of the Archives to work in, notably for the
splicing girls. These rooms are arranged for easy working conditions and with
free exits in case of danger. A lift with a 1 50 Kilo capacity transports films to and from the
dispatching rooms and thus staircases are not encumbered. The particular form of the
building allowed of the construction of three series of staicarses : a large principal stair-
case, a safety staircase and one leading to the film storage rooms. Corridors, floors
and rooms giving on this staircase are fire-proof, gas-proof and hermetically sealed,

— 105 -

rooms by means of metal doors and floors by means of special glass partitions. Many
fire extinguishers are to hand but they are not destined to deal with film fires. All though
all possible measures of security have been taken, it is expressly forbidden to carry films
on this staircase except when they are destined for projection within the building. It
is desired to avoid the possibility of fire being started by people coming to take deliver
of films. An efficient means of transporting films to the ground floor eliminates this
risk.

The splicing room accomodates two, three or even four splicing girls and the
splicing tables are of the usual type. Winding and unwinding of the films is accomplished

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by means of treadle operated bobbins and thus the hands are left free. As no film is
sent out without being carefully examined, the splicing girls have sometimes a Very great
quantitity of work ; they examine up to 9000 metres of film a day and have also to see to
the reception and dispatch of films.

In vacation time when no films are dispatched, a general examination ot all films,
even those which are little in demand, is made. This is a more thorough examination,
every join and all sensitive surfaces are checked. All cupboards, and vaults are cleaned
and camphorated, the registers are checked up and in short the whole revision is as
complete as possible.

The entire content of the Archives is contained in a special register which may
be easily consulted and understood. Each order must be made on a special form,
even when the request come by telephone it must be copied into a form. This some-
what bureaucratic process is necessary in order to determine the life of films, the demand,

— 106 —

the number of schools interested, in fact all information having to do with the making of
new copies when necessary. The exact knowledge of these elements forms the basis on
which the whole institution is run. The demands of schools must be predicted and met
with. There should be no attempt to influence the choice of films ; however it is in-
evitable that in some cases demands have to be refused. For instance it would not
be possible to supply a fairy tale of 2500 metres to one of the lower classes. Distribu-
tion control is made on a special form. Each film to go out is noted twice, once on the
form attached to the film (Lebenslaufkartei), and again on the form filled in by the hirer.
This process may appear meticulous but it is extremely useful and gives no trouble ac-
tually. It permits the state of the material to be known at all times, to determine when
a film has been badly treated, when a projector needs attention, etc.

The heating of the splicing room is accomplished by means of hot air radiators care-
fully covered to prevent film resting upon them. There does not appear to be any se-
rious danger of fire presented by the contact of film with these radiators, but the increase
in temperature is bad for the films themselves.

A door from this room connects with an open air platform from which a fire escape
leads across the roof. Between splicing rooms and archives is a double asbestos wall
which insulates and protects from fire. Even outside doors are asbestos clad for even
greater safety.

Finally in the roof of the archives and in the splincing rooms there are automatic
fire alarms. If the temperature exceeds 69 degrees sirens and and alarm signals are
started all over the building and they do not stop until turned off at the central. Unfor-
tunately this system does not explain where the fire i s, as all the alarm signals are the same.
It is therefore necessary to waste time hunting for the supposed fire. Attempts are now
being made however to remedy this defect in the system.

Should fire break out either in the archives or in the splicing rooms things would
happen in the folloving manner : whatever the cause of the fire might be the sirens would
start, the locality of the fire would be determined and the fire brigade informed, the roof
windows would open automatically under the air pressure. The ignited film would
burn itself out. In any case it would seem quite impossible for the fire to spread beyond
the archives. If, resulting from a short circuit, several cupboards were to catch fire, the
fireproof doors might not resist but the damage would be limited to the destruction of a
partition and even this would require a very great heat. In any case the fire brigade
would soon arrive with its powerful water jets.

If the fire were to occur during working hours the alarms would work in the same
way and it would be still more simple to discover the locality of the fire.

The storing of film still presents problems. Trials of different cupboards and
cupboard systems, and vaults with ventilation are necessary. It is also important that
existing measures against fire should be tried out for efficiency. However we are
consoled by the fact that these same difficulties would seem to be met with in many
cinema enterprises.

(From the German).

THIS THING CALLED " PERFECT SOUND

hy Julius Weinberger

(Engineer in Charge of Research)
RCA Photophone, Inc.

" Perfect sound " may be defined very simply : It is a natural reproduc-
tion of the original speaker's or singer's voice, or of noises, or of orchestral
music. If upon closing you eyes you do not known whether you are listen-
ing to a mechanical device or to the original rendition, that is perfect sound
reproduction .

A good many persons regard mechanical sound reproducing equipment
frankly as a mechanical device, and therefore do not expect it to simulate
reality. The consequence of this point of view is that they accept distorted
sound and sell it to themselves (and their customers) on the basis of artifi-
cially created virtues. The author has a vivid recollection of some of the
alibis which were used in the early days of radio to excuse poor sound re-
production. Whenever a new line of radio sets was placed on the market,
a lot of us would sit around listening to the various sets or loudspeakers
and switch from one to another. None of them would be even approxim-
ately realistic, and then adjectives would begin to issue from the audience.
One set was called ' mellow ', another ' brilliant ', a third ' soft ' or ' bright '.
All of these words merely meant that the sets in question were not reproduc-
ing naturally, and so we applied euphemisms to them that would disguise
the mechanical character of the reproduction.

Striving to Create Illusion.

Today we are striving to create the illusion of reality, and if the sound
isn't natural, it cannot create such an illusion. The purpose of all entertain-
ment is to help the auditor to forget himself for the moment, and to enter
mentally into another world — the world of the characters of the stage or
screen. The more perfectly we create the feeling that he is looking at and
listening to real people, the better is the chance that he will lose himself
in the story which is being played out before him, and will leave the theatret

— 108 —

with the feeling that he has derived real enjoyment from the show. What
then, are some of the elements which are necessary in order to achieve this
illusion in a sound picture presentation ?

First, in speech reproduction the words should be understandable, one
from another, and they should all sound like human beings. There are
very few people whose voices sound exactly alike, and it is often the case
that certain types of sound apparatus may render the speech of the various
characters in a talking picture quite intelligibly, yet with little difference
between the voices of the various men or women in a picture and with voice
quality that no human being ever possessed. This sort of reproduction is
acceptable but it is not realistic. It is also well to be critical in listening
to speech reproduction and to listen not only to the quality of the vowel
sounds, but to consonants — which are the sounds that generally show up
the defects of the equipment more clearly than the vowels and affect
intelligibility to a greater extent.

Music's Distinguishing Feature.

In Music, the distinguishing feature of natural sound reproduction is
the fact that all of the instruments in a full orchestra can be clearly distinguish-
ed one from another. In addition, there is a great width of tonal range, so
that the lowest bass notes and drum beats can be heard as clearly and loudly
as the highest tones of the violins. Further and even more important, is
uniformity and evenness of reproduction. By this is meant equal loudness
of the various tones of the musical scale. Poorly designed equipments
(particularly loudspeakers) are frequently marked by the fact that as the music
goes up or down in pitch, certain tones will stand forth violently while others
can scarcely be heard. This difficulty is due to what are called ' resonance
peaks ' in the loudspeakers.

In addition to the general characteristics outlines above there is a cha-
acteristic which is common to both speech and music, and that is smoothness
of individual speech sounds or musical tones. By this is meant freedom
from tremolos or additional fuzzy, raspy or other types of harsh noises,
accompanying the words or music.

In attempting to attain the type of reproduction referred to above,
RCA Photophone engineers have used a number of expedients in our
reproducing and recording apparatus which are given below :

Complete naturalness of reproduction requires that all equipment be

— 109 —

capable of recording and reproducing a very considerable percentage of all
sounds which the human ear can hear from the lowest to the highest tones.
The extent to which this is done is called the ' frequency range ' of the equip-
ment. It is not particularly easy to accomplish this and it is especially
difficult in the case of the microphones used in picking up sound on the
motion picture stage and the loudspeakers used in the theatre.

Sound Vibrations.

Theoretically the human ear can hear sounds having a pitch from
about 32 to 20,000 vibrations per second. However, it has been found by
experience that sound apparatus which covers the range from about 60 to
8,000 vibrations per second will deliver a very acceptable and almost natural
result. Certain types of equipment reproduce practically nothing below 300
or above 4,500 vibrations per second. When reproduction from such equip-
ment is compared with that from one which transmits the range 60-8,000
(such as the RCA Photophone Type PG-30 equipment, used with the
50 inch directional baffle), there is a startling difference in naturalness and
clarity. Other limited range equipment may reproduce speech intelligibly
but it does not sound natural. On music, it sounds like a phonograph. When
reproducing a full orchestra, it is clearly mechanical reproduction instead of
natural reproduction.

In RCA Photophone recording equipment, wide frequency range is
secured by using the newly developed ribbon microphone, carefully designed
amplifiers, and recorders capable of making accurate records up to 10,000
vibrations per second.

In RCA Photophone reproducing equipment, wide frequency range is
secured by carefully designed optical systems in the sound head, amplifiers
which are practically the last word in amplifier design, and loudspeakers
which represent several years of intensive research effort. In connection
with the last named, it may be aid that they reproduce the widest and most
uniform frequency range that has been obtained by a mechanical device.

The second important element in sound reproduction, namely smooth-
ness is obtained largely by careful attention to the devices which move the film
in the recorder or reproducer. If the film travels with perfectly uniform,
speed, there will be no gurgles, wows, fuzz or rasp in the sound reproduc-
tion. However, to attain this uniformity of speed, careful attention to
details is necessary.

I. I.E. C. STUDIES

Le plus petit croquis en dit
plus long qu'un discours „
NAPOLEON.

Our readers may have remarked and will continue to remark upon the fact that the
I. I. E. C. Review, entering upon the fourth year of its publication, endeavours con-
stantly to enter into closer contact with the great worlds of educational film production
and consumption and consequently to attack all attendant problems. Discussions at
full length of these problems and their solutions will be encouraged. .

The present financial crisis should neither stop nor slow down our forward progress.
On the contrary we are convinced, as was a certain stateman who said very justly that
no civilization had ever been overthrown by an economic crisis, that a new path will
be found and that at the moment we should devote ourselves to discussion of problems,
to the noting of errors, to the classification of results, the maintenance of enthousiasm
and the conviction of sceptics.

The researches made by the I. I.E. C. in the matter of educational films have
been very profound. They are based upon a solid conviction and a belief in the powers
of persuasion. Today this is a necessary conviction, for the complex rythm of modern
life demands the employment of the Cinema as a teaching auxiliary, in the same way
as other auxiliaries have in the past been rendered necessary. And belief in the powers
of persuasion means that public and private administrations must be convinced that it
is not a question of overthrowing actual methods but simply of supplementing them
with a powerful agent of suggestion.

It must not be forgotten that Cinema and photography are not simply technical
means offered by science to visual education, but that in their own evolution these inven-
tions have naturally lent themselves to artistic amusement. The screen is the most
powerful complement of teaching : in technology it is the best method of introducing
the child to reality, in physics and chemistry it enables the student actually to see
processes which were previously purely theoretical to him.

Cinema becomes therefore a tangible element in active life through the medium
of sight. It therefore surpasses the greatest possibilities of oral education for it finds
in the essential of movement its power and attraction. Visual demonstration has
always been more efficacious than any other form of education.

The origin of the image can be traced back to primaeval man who saw his own face
and other objects reflected in water. And the representation of things seen was
perhaps as unconscious as sight itself. Later the idea grew and the artists desire was
to photograph things seen to keep them in mind or to transmit them to posterity.

Thus visual education was born. In time graphic and plastic arts evolved from
the simple series of episodic drawings into something far more complete such as the

- 113 -

reliefs of the life of Buddha on temple walls at Borodur and Angkor Vat, the graven
stone monuments that tell us of the Nile and Pacific coastal civilizations, and the column
of Trajan which is a true film in marble.

After the barbarian epoch, that followed the Roman domination, both the Middle
ages and the Renaissance brought numerous elements into visual education. Madon-
nas, lives of Christ adorned the walls of churches and public places, reproducing de-
tails of incidents in the life of the Prophet chronologically.

Art itself is composed of the many aspects of visual education enabling the artist
to communicate through sight the pure creations of his mind.

Centuries pased and all plastic art was put to the service of intellectual culture. Thus
we come to the epoch, preceding our own very shortly, when pictures and models of
objects and animals were judged an essential part of education. Then came the magic
lantern and other devices which now seem primitive to us but which in their day repre-
sented great conquests in the realm of teaching. Fixed projections give the inanimate
state of things, the cinema gives them movement and life, shows microscopic views,
adds natural colour, and finally blends sound and movement to give an even more
complete representation of life.

And what may be in store ? Will the cine-manual be adopted ? Will certain
subjects be tanght exclusively by the Cinema ? Premature questions perhaps but the
speed of modern progress makes it impossible to mortgage future possibilities.

In any case a foreword to the discussion of the application of the cinema to teach-
ing is essential, a foreword showing that a constantly increasing stress has been laid on
visual education throughout the ages. From such a historical foreword we may come
to an examination of the possibilities of the Cinema.

This consideration particularly obliged us to treat the origin of visual education.
The educational world has in recent years shown confidence in the cinema, it has realised
its importance as a teaching method, its persuasive powers and has admitted that it
forms the best accompaniment to oral teaching.

However, in many teaching circles this approval is tempered by a resistance arising
from the fear that partisans of the Cinema wish to upset and revolutionize education.
Is a new form of education desirable or necessary ?

Certainly, if that means a better and more complete form of teaching, an answer
to the universal demands for teaching reform ; and certainly not if it means revolution,
for the need for the extension visual education has been constantly present in human
activities and in the Cinema we find simply the most modern form of extension.

And that is why the I. I.E. C, opening a series of articles on the subject, wishes
to start with a historical approach before passing to the actual consideration of Ci-
nema education, and treating special and technical branches of it such as language
teaching.

The first two studies will be published in several parts and they concern, the first
the historical part, and the second the actual pedagogy. The first, confided to a spe-
cial bureau at the I. I. E. C. has been executed with care and intelligence by Mile.
Rossi -Longhi, Docteur es-lettres according to instructions received from the direction,
the second by Mme le Prof. Marbach. Mme Marbach who is known to readers as
the author of " Cinema and Grammar " which was simply a single chapter from a

- 114 -

much longer work which will be published in several parts and finally collected in book
form under the title of " Sound Films and Language Teaching ".

The publication of these two studies will be completed by that of a third of a tech-
nical character treating fully the constitution of film libraries, etc.

The first study constitutes a logical and and necessary introduction to the second.
It speaks of primitive education from the universal basis of imitation, of the various
distinct characters of this education, practical, experimental, visual. Tatooing for
instance, is considered as the memory of a fact which scientifically reverts to the
ancient state of slavery.

Then follows an examination of the symbolic education of the Orient, in the ideo-
graphic and hieroglyphic writing of the Chinese, Hittites and Egyptians.

Then comes Egyptian education and the change from hieroglyphic to syllabic
writing.

Greece and Rome offer a vast field with their extension of educational facilities.
The education received from grammarians, sophists, philosophers such as Socrates,
Plato and Aristotle in Greece and Cicero, Seneca and Quintillian in Rome is completed
by that received from Art. Painting and Sculpture reach a climax of a particular per-
fection. Since then we have had the Sidon Sarcophagus, now at Stamboul and the
" Battle of Alexandria " mosaic, to cite only two famous and expressive examples.

Art then enters fully into the educational sphere both aesthetically and representa-
tionally.

We are in the Christian era and here the form of modern education was forged.
Times change, outward signs change but the body of the form remains. Under other
names the old teachers re-appear. Aesthetiscism seeks new paths but fundamentally
acknowledges the same criteria. Educational divisions become more precise : intellec-
tual, moral and receptive training to which we add triumphantly today visual education.

Such is, in short, the first of these essays which begins today in this Review.

The second essay will follow immediately and will deal as we have said with film
pedagogy.

The first Chapter of this constitutes a study of the sense of sight ; the limitation
of senses, on their degree of interdependence and at the same time a psychological study
of the phenomena of sight from infancy to adolescence. This is a particularly im-
portant point dealing with the varying aspect of an object from different and individual
visual angles. In a psychological-pedagogic chapter, allied to Miss Rossi Longhi's
study, are reviewed the different existent methods of visual education and the important
problem of sight education according to the different ages is attacked. There follows a
study on the film as a visual aid to education as compared to other methods and here
we enter into the purely pedagogic domain.

By publishing these two essays the I. I. E. C. intends to prepare the ground for
practical matters. In fact once the problem is stated it must be put into terms of reality,
above all financial reality to give it additional weight with public and private admin-
istrations.

After these two essays will come a third of semi-technical character dealing with
Cinemateks, film handling, distribution problems, projection and camera work for edu-
cational Cinema workers.

- 115 —

The I. I. C. E. wishes in this way to open up the ground to intellectual and cultural
mediums for the development of practical methods of film teaching.

In this as in all other aspects of Cinematographic activity the I. I. E. C. wishes
to provide material on which educators may form their own well based opinions.

Theorising when necessary, it has given a place to opinions and concrete ideas
apart from its own studies and research. In practice, it has wished to demonstrate
a truth yet imperfectly known, namely that, without there being any question of upsetting
the present system of education, visual education by the Cinema, should be seriously
considered, favoured and helped by governments, so that its inevitable future be hastened
in order to extent the maximum educational benefits to the rising generations.

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF VISUAL EDUCATION
EDUCATION IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETY

Considered in its largest and highest sense, Education is evidently the fruit of
civilization, of a civilization which deems it important to preserve its spiritual patrimony
and transmit it to present generations. Education therefore presumes Civilization.
However it is easy to show that a rudimentary education has existed in all societies
whether primitive or savage.

In these societies, education takes the most suitable form for the particular mentality
which even in adults has some puerility : that is, imitation.

Students of child phychology know that imitation of speech and manner is natural
to children.

In the first years of life, when the spirit, still at sleep seems to leave the body free
for its own development, the adult is a god for the child : a god loved and feared, that
understands all, knowns all and is capable of anything. Unlimited confidence in the
adult characterizes extreme youth. For the child, bad and good are associated with the
opinions and actions of the adult. To obtain the approbation and caresses of its adult
god, the child has simply to imitate.

Gradually, almost imperceptibly, as it grows up the child modifies its first confused
ideas and the adult, previously placed on a pedestal, takes on a true value corresponding
to intrinsic worth. It is necessary to remembere that the child is wise and is rarely
mistaken in its judgements. Woe to the adult who, by error or carelessness, commits
those faults previously reproved in the child. The child's judgement is always severe,
often pitiless. Innocence, inexperience and absolute ignorance of lifes realities are the
reasons for this severity which makes the child condemn adults without appeal and thus
accord to them a diminished degree of obedience.

After the period of the child's respect for adults comes the period of hostility and
disobedience. Education is a compromise: the child, dissapointed by waiting and
wounded in sensibility becomes a little rebel needing a firm and clever hand to guide it
after the clumsy one that has only succeeded in irritating it.

- 116 -

What is true for children is to a certain extent true for savages who are great
children, at once credulous and defiant, given to imitation and revolt, with the cha-
racter of youth incultivaded and inexperienced.

And it must not be forgotten that a great child that has been brought up by a
similar great child has had no experience of adults nor the conquests of life and feeling.

Education is essentially practical, experimental and visual.

Hunger and cold are allayed by imitation of others.

Adults who are generally the sorcerers of the tribe initiate the child into the practice
of religion. In certain central Australian tribes, says Monroe in his " Shorten History
of Education ", " the child of eleven or twelve years of age is tatooed, thrown in the air
and beaten several times. Such a forceful initiation is certainly not to be readily effaced
from the memory of the initiated, but the savages wish to mark the event visually for
the benefit of the whole tribe. In the history of humanity, this rudimentary painting
is certainly one of the first signs of the importance which men, even savages, attach
inevitably to signs and symbols which through a visual medium stamp themselves
heavily on the human mind.

ORIENTAL EDUCATION

China.

During many centuries, China, jealous of its spiritual traditions had but one desire :
to transmit these intact from one generation to another, adding and subtracting nothing.

This is a conception absolutely in opposition to life, to all that, which, in movement
and strength, seeks to develop and complete. With such a conception , it is impossible
to talk of education. Education, active by definition, is contrary to all that is inert.
In contact with this state of apparent death, it can only triumph in an energetic
reaction or become sterile.

It is therefore impossible to speak of education, there is only instruction, and in-
struction of the most negative kind, the learning by heart of sacred texts and commenta-
ries. The child is not even obliged to understand what it reads thus. It is the
triumph of the word over the spirit and it has gone on for centuries, until, in fact Chinese
legislation attempted in the twenty years before the great war, to lighten these tasks. But
these reforms have proved quite insufficient because they aimed to improve a method
which was considered good whereas actually the method is entirely false. It is therefore
only by radical and energetic change that the demands of modern teaching can
be met.

The psychology of the Chinese, similar to that of other orientals — closely linked
with the ethnical and climatic conditions of the countries themselves, has a brillantly
fantastic character, alive and developed so that it colours all things and deforms them.
It has need of constant application of breaks and curbs to keep it in the bounds of
reality.

And how else should facts be taught but by the usual explanation of their significance ?
From the need for better understanding and definition writing has been born, the Hiero-
glyphics of the Hittites, a people of Canaan origin settled on the Syrian coast, Egyptian
Hieroglyphics of which we will speak further on, and Chinese writing.

- 117 —

In the first place Chinese writing was purely pictographic. The Chinese, indeed,
drew the objects which they wished to represent, but, always required to express more
complex ideas, they tried to make composite drawings. From this resulted such im-
mense complication that it became more practical to consider the writing as the expres-
sion of sounds rather than of images.

But this phonetic system had one great disadvantage ; each single character might
have many meanings.

To remedy this, the Chinese again resorted to ideographic signs, which placed
beside the phonetic signs gave precision to the latter.

Chinese writing, refractory of all western influence, today preserves its ideographic
character, modified by the qualification of numerous phonetic characters. The ideo-
graphic characters, two hundred approximately in number, are really drawings.

It may well be imagined what an influence the cinematographic image may
have on a people who conceive abstract ideas only m a perceptible form and whose
writing is an actual example of the mentality.

Slowly, but with certainty of accomplishing its end, the Cinema is making its way
in China and it may bring to that country new art and civilization.

India.

In India, typically Oriental, education was before the English conquest reserved,
for the ruling classes, that is the priesthood of the Brahmins.

Whilst the pariahs, considered as inferior and abject beings, were deprived of the
most sacred of human rights, warriors and farmers received a certain amount of instruc-
tion consisting, as in China, of the study of sacred texts.

It is above all upon the religious ideal of people that education has been founded.
And it is obviously difficult for the Hindu ideal, resumed in Nirvana, to produce a dy-
namic form of education such as we can conceive. Nirvana, if not actually " the death "
of the materialists, is a beatitude only in as much as it stipulates the anihilation of " self "
and is therefore akin to death. All human activity is depreciated and therefore the ideal
is purely negative.

In conclusion of these brief notes on oriental education it may be said that it is
unilateral and immovable. Unilateral because it neglects in part the intellectual func-
tions, exercising only the memory : immovable because, founded on past science, it is
content with imitation.

All originality is banished, and individuality is worthless thing that renders the
wait for Nirvana, less painful.

It is easy to understand, after these few considerations, that the favoured oriental
despotic regime has stifled liberty and at the same time its most beautiful and
artistic manifestations. In order to consacrate himself to the study of art, man has
not only the necessity of that interior elation that grows with strength and softness,
but he also needs a certain atmosphere, severe and traversed only by the soft breath of
liberty.

{To be continued). M. L. ROSSI-LONGHI.

- 118

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/. /. E. C. Enquiries

YOUNG PEOPLES' IMPRESSIONS OF WAR FILMS

Method of analysis.

This was admitted by all to be extremely simple. Each school was dealt with
separately and made the subject of a sheet (foglio di spoglio), containing the name of the
school, description of the class, district to which the school belongs, age of the pupils
(divided into three age-groups and therefore into two or three separate sheets per class
if there were age differences between the schildren), the number of positive replies to
one or both questions and, for each opinion expressed, the grouping of the parents
occupations, if specified.

The separate sheets were then combined into summary tables, which show in numerical
form the results of the replies. Finally, partial summaries for provinces or districts
have been grouped together to show the situation for the country as a whole. The
replies can therefore be checked at any time and from any point of view.

Statistics.

The total positive replies are divided as follows, according as they emanate from large
or small centres and according to sex and age-group :

Large centres Small centres

Boys Girls Boys Girls

7558 4436 2597 1 139

11,994 ___^^ 3736

Total"! 5730 *

The replies are sub-divided as follows :

Children between 10 and 12 Boys Girls

Large centres 4,576 I 3,386 )

6,057 4,247

Small centres 1,481 ! 861 )

Children between 1 3 and 1 5 :

Large centres 1 ,354 / 678 j

2,339 937

Small centres 985 ) 259 *

Over 16 :

Large centres 1 ,628 ) 372

1,759 U91

Small centres 13M 19 )

I.

— 122 —

As regards parent's occupations, replies which fail to mention this point or merely
use the word " orphan " have, as already mentioned, been left out of account.

* * *

Replies.

In view of the variety of information in respect of sex, age, centres and occupation
of parents, the opinions and observations of the pupils necessitated examination :

in relation to sex ;

in relation to age ;

in relation to large or small centres ;

in relation to the occupation, mentioned of the parent ;

according to whether tfte answer was in favour of war-films or adverse to war-
films.

In analysing the replies the greatest difficulty was due to the necessity of combining
synthesis with absolute exactitude, so as not only to keep intact the opinion expressed,
but to collect, in one or more statements similar views expressed in slightly different
terms.

Another fundamental difficulty lay in the nature of the replies themselves. The quest-
ions put referred to the impressions made on children's minds by war-films and not by
war itself. The replies, however, practically all relate to the latter impressions. Hence
a difficulty in classifying replies. Should they be grouped as favouring or opposing
war or as favouring or opposing films about war ? Moreover, some of the replies were so
ambiguous that it was hard to decide in which category to put them.

The classification that follows makes no claim therefore to perfection. Its value is
purely approximative and it may be modified as the judgment of others may suggest.
Answers have, however, been divided according to whether opinion is expressed for or
against war and for or against the showing of war-films. Even so, there is still room for
doubt. When, for example, a child says that a film was moving (" touching ") or that
it aroused feelings of pity for the fallen, it is not clear wether the child was giving an
opinion for or against war or even for or against the projection of this kind of film.
It therefore became necessary to create a third category to include replies which,
though doubtful had a certain statistical value.

Lastly, it should be mentioned that, for purposes of classification, the first place has
been given to the opinion that secured the largest number of votes. This is followed in
the same column by other similar views, but the figures are comprehensive and com-
bine within one group all opinions that may be considered as emanating from a single
source.

123 —

WAR FILMS AROUSE FEELINGS LIABLE TO EXALT WAR

DIVISIONS ACCORDING TO CENTRES, SEX AND AGE

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

SMALL CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
11

Boys : 4639 — Girls : 2260 —
Total 6899.

Instructive and useful as an
example and incitement to
the love of one's country.

One's country is sacred and
must be loved, served, de-
fended.

He who dies young. for his coun-
try has lived a long time.

Boys: 1541 —Girls: 0 —Total

1541.
War films incite [boys and girls

a sense of virtue and valour.
. . . steel the spirit and awaken

the sense of duty even in the

ignorant.
Heroism makes us better and

more courageous.

Boys : 1052 - Girls : 439 —
Total 1491.

Very fine : they awaken our ener-
gies.

Boys: 1069 — Girls: 312 —
Total : 1381.

. . . exalt our sense of duty and
sacrifice and awaken our best
feelings. They form the char-
acter.

Their example inspires young
souls to virtue.

Girls

170 -

Boys: 1044 -

Total: 1214.
The desire to imitate the glory

of our war heroes and the fallen

Boys: 41 7 — Girls: 703 — To-
tal: 1120.

The exaltation of the heroism
and valour of the war heroes
in defending hearth and home

The exaltation of the heroism
of those who give their lives
for an ideal .

2082

1249

62:

462

302

167

176

286

40

56

550

388

28

98

87

145

37

326

498

34

891

75

60

808

175

120

174

X)

20

966

265

223

210

361

34

14

26

614

144

255

50

145

37

49

91

67

- 124 -

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

Age

Age

Above

Age

Age

Over

ANSWERS

10-12

13-15

16

10-12

13-15

16

o

o

>>

0
03

3

>i

O

m

o

o

ca

a

>>
o
CQ

o

o
CQ

n

o

Boys : 895 — Girls : 75 — To-
tal : 970.

Arise in the warlike virtues of
the race.

Exaltation of national valour.

510

4

57

15

31

14

212

71

42

14

Boys : 366 — Girls : 522 — To-
tal: 888.

A sense of gratitude and devo-
tion to the fallen and the exal-
tation of the heroes who give
their life for their country.

172

223

117

73

69

24

194

8

4

4

Boys : 365 — Girls : 208 — To-
tal : 573.

Exaltation of the sacrifice of
the humble soldier.

They revive the heroism of
life in the trenches.

The most efficacious recogni-
tion of the heroic sacrifice of
the soldier.

103

16

63

102

199

43

47

— .

Bovs : 357 - Girls : 213 — To-
tal : 570.

Thcyinspire admiration and
enthusiasm

157

121

46

6

40

7

50

55

52

23

12

1

Boys: 144 — Girls: 361 —
Total :

They inspire admiration, vener-
ation, gratitude for the humble
and heroic Tommies.

32

240

34

8

57

99

19

15

—

1

Boys : 441 — Girls — Total:
441.

Inspiration, feelings of admira-
tion, audacity, contempt for life

441

Boys : 359 — Girls : 26 — To-
tal : 385.

Desire for and exaltation of mil-
itary glory.

339

29

8

3

3

3

Boys: 215 — Girls : 8 — To-
tal : 223.
Amusing. Interesting. Useful.

184

1

1

2

10

19

5

1

Boys : 207 — Girls : 15 — Total
222.

I want to go to war even if

have to die.
It is beautiful to fight and die

for one's country.

141

12

17

3

—

—

49

—

—

—

—

— ■

125

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

SMALL CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

Boys: 79 — Girls
Total: 201.

122

They revive the cult of ancient

heroes.
The memory of the fallen makes

us feel religious and grateful.
Those who fell in the war are

the new national heroes.

Boys : 193
196.

Girls : 3 — Total

They reproduce deeds of he-
roism with which we might
never have become acquainted.

They stimulate the strong and
courageous. They reevoke the
heroism of history : they re-
evoke heroism and deeds
of courage that seem to be le-
gendary.

Boys: 19 — Girls : 173 —
Total : 192.

The wish to make oneself use-
ful and inspire the soldiers
with courage.

All my will is in the desire to
help and comfort those who
fight.

I am a woman and as I cant
fight I want at least to make
myself useful to the soldiers.

Boys: 191 — Girls : 0 — Total :
191.

Sadness, veneration, respect and
gratitude for the fallen.

Boys: 26 — Girls: 108 —
Tota : 134.

They incite children to deplore
injustice and to defend their
country against oppressors.

193

11

21

63

126

100

12

77

17

30

39

191

126

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Boys: 107 — Girls: 11— Total:

118.
The wish and the sense of one s

duty to share the life of sacrifice

of the war heroes.

15

To-

Boys : 67 — Girls
tal : 82.

They make us think that though
war is horrible it is necessary
for freedom and for the awa-
kening of the sense of heroism
in nations.

Boys : 50 — Girls : 23 — To-
tal : 73.

They awaken hatred and con-
tempt for the invading en-
emy.

Boys : — Girls : 72 — Total :
72.

They show how heroes surfer
hunger, thirst and torments
but know how to die heroic-
ally.

Boys : 66 — Girls : 2 — Total :

68.
They teach us love of family

which is love of country.

Boys : 37 — Girls : 30 — To-
tal : 68.

They exalt the deeds of the lead-
ers and of the humblest sol-
diers.

Boys : 49 — Girls : 3 — Total
52.

They show the sanctity of war
for a just cause, sacred if it is
for the defence of ones own ho-
me, country, family.

Boys : 27 — Girls : 24 — To-
tal :51._

They revive the love of country

in weak souls.
Necessary for the heroic education

of young people.
They form heroic hearts capable

of giving their lives for their

country.

71

14

72

37

22

Above
16

24

51

SMALL CENTRES

Age
10-12

34

13

Age
13-15

Over
16

!4 —

14

127

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

10-12

Age

13-15

Above
16

SMALL CENTRES

Age

10-12

Aga
13-15

Over
16

Boys : 50 — Girls — Total : 50
They raise the spirit of nations.

Boys : 4 — Girls : 41 — Total :
45.

Admiration for heroes : con-
tempt for cowards and trai-
tors.

Boys : 1 — Girls : 36 — Total :
37.

They should be shown more
frequently because they are a
splendid school of patriotism.

Boys : 8 — Girls : 24 — Total

32.
One must suffer in silence, fight,

and if necessary die for one's

country.

Boys: 19 — Girls: 12 - To-
tal: 31.

I am proud to have given my
parents' lives to my country.

Desire to imitate the heroism
of a fallen brother or father.

I think of my parents when they
were at the front and want to
follow their example because I
feel I owe them all the more for
it.

Boys : 1 — Girls : 26 — Total :

27.
They serve as an example to

the future soldier because they

prepare the patriotic education

of the young.

18 - Girls

Total

Boys

19.

They inspire a sense of justice,
honesty and goodness.

Total

13 - Girls

Boys
13.

They teach abnegation and the
contempt of danger.

50

38

20

12

12

26

13

— 128 -

There follow other answers the total of which does not amount to 10 : they are
the following :

a) They are efficacious and useful because they show the sacrifices made by our
fathers for the unity of the country : No : 7 boys between the ages of 13 and 15.

b) War is for the strong, not for weak, souls. No. 6 boys one of whom between the
ages of 10 and 12 and 6 between 13 and 15.

c) They show with what serenity the war combattants supported and overcame the
sacrifices of war. No. 5 boys between the ages of 13 and 15.

d) War costs blood and sacrifice but for this very reason it makes us love our coun-
try more. No. 5 boys over 16.

e) They left their homes, their families, their fields to go and die heroically. No. 5,
between 1 3 and 1 5 one of them a boy, 2 girls between ten and twelve and 2 girls between
13 and 15.

f) Beautiful because they show a nation fighting for its liberty : No. 4 boys between
10 and 12.

g) A wish to take part in a war. No. 4 girls, 3 of them between 13 and 15 and one
between 10 and 12.

h) Exaltation for the glory of the victors No. 4 boys over 16.

i) They give a sensation of the exaltation of victory. No. 3 boys between 13 and 15.

j) They teach us that War and victory are necessary because it is better to die than
to be defeated. No. 3 boys between 10 and 12.

1) The pain felt for the massacre is cancelled by the pride in the magnificent heroism
of the soldiers. No. 2 boys between 10 and 12.

m) It is the duty of those who have not been to war to admire both its horrors, and the
heroic spirit of sacrifice of the combattants. — 2 girls between 13 and 15.

n) It is better to live one day as a lion than a hundred years as a lamb. No. 2 boys
from 10-12.

o) They had not even anything to eat yet they fought till they died. No. 1 boy
between 10 and 12.

p) / wish our heroes could have remained alive so that they might continue to give
us a good example. No. 1 boy between 10 and 12.

q) All those who do not love their country ought to see a war film every day. Then
they would learn to love it. No. 1 boy between 10 and 12.

r) Exaltation of the mothers' sacrifice. No. I boy between 10 and 12.
The aggregate of exalted ideas (ideas, not questions) about war is 19 831 .
They are divided as follows :

Large centres. Small centres.

Boys aged : Boys aged :

10-12 6.122 10-12 2,374

13-15 1,23! 13-15 1,260

over 16 2,587 over 16 201

Total . . . 9,940 Total . . . 31,835

— 129 —

Girls aged :

Girls Aged :

10-12 . . .

3,583

10-12. . .

953

13-15 . . .

820
352

. 4,755

13-15. . .

324

over 16 . . .

Total . .

over 1 6

24

Total . .

. 1,301

Total, Large centres :

14,695

Total, Small centres

: 5,136.

What deductions can be made from the above listed answers ?

No violence, even spiritual is expressed towards those who years ago were in the ene-
mies' trenches. The concept of the enemy is overcome by the length of the interval
of time which has transpired. But the basic element of patriotism is enough to make the
young people go a step further and say that they are willing to offer their young souls
as an equivalent. Brothers and children of the fallen glory in the sacrifice of youth.
The life of sacrifice of the humble soldier in the trenches is quoted with enthusiasm.
It might be objected that the Italian school children have not perhaps seen films of
the type of " Verdun ", " All quiet on the western Front ", " 4 de I'Infanterie ", war films
which like all of their class, are limited to a singular and unilateral conception of war ;
that they have seen documentary and theatrical war films and that they approve the
former and reject the latter.

Not that war is unknown to them . There was mourning in their homes while they were
still children, but the mourning served to remind them of, and teach them to venerate
the humble soldier. They grew up in this way. Their idea of war was simple and direct.
It ranged from the spade, the plough, the factory to the flaming heights of heroism and
of death. The children's thought is naturally enthusiastic. The sadness of real life and
future times are equally remote to them. For the moment they revel in their youth.

To consider the possibility of a fraternity among nations does not imply a degra-
dation or offence of heroism. It signifies its greater exaltation. Youth is not disarmed
by showing that it wants and wishes for peace. But if in an untoward to-morrow the
dream of peace should crumble, it will still remain intact in the hearts.

This is all the more evident when it is remembered that in the Assembly of the Lea-
gue of Nations not so very long ago, it was said : our young people must not be deprived
of their spirit of heroism, for at any moment this spirit may produce magnificent mani-
festations of strength, audacity, faith, manifestations destined to consecrate the pro-
gress of peoples and of the whole of humanity. It is only by giving the young soul the
possibility of aspiring to exalted forms of heroism and by accustoming it to scorn danger
that generations of young people can be reared, who are willing to sacrifice their lives to
science, generations of men who by venturing out to on to the high seas and in remote
polar or tropical regions consecrate their lives to technical progress or to the human will
to power, ready to unveil all mysteries and overcome all obstacles.

And a young generation which has grown up in such a spirit in the era of peace
which we all desire and strive after, may be an instrument of civil progress in the general
interests of the whole world.

The reason for the exalted character of most of the ideas expressed by the young

— 130

people with reference to war is as will be easily understood because possibly incited
by their parents, they saw in war only its heroic aspect. But this vision does not exclude
a profound faith in the ideals of psace and fraternity that must ensue from the massacre
the desire that this massacre may never be repeated, and that the heroism of the battle
fields may be diverted to other works, more profitable to mankind.

All these epic and heroic manifestations derive from one central feeling, the sense
of duty. The adult who is acquainted with life and its necessites, knows how much he
owes to life itself and realises that ^reflective heroism is a form of pure if sublime folly.
He knows that duty is the essential element that guides men's actions, and for which
they are ready to deliberately sacrifice their lives.

The child cannot reason in this way unless perhaps intuitively. He feels things in
his budding consciousness, but he does not know how to express what he feels. He com-
presses his heroic impulse into one sweeping gesture of admiration for the fallen and
the combattants. This awakens in him the desire to imitate them, to die for that which
represents his ideal. Tomorrow, when he is grown up he will know how to differentiate
and, if necessary he too will be ready to give his life, but with the full consciousness of
the meaning of his action which is duty in a heroic 'and conscious spirit, and no
longer with the irresponsible enthusiasm of youth.

{To be continued)-

C. de F.

Banca Nazionale del Lavoro

Institute of Public Credit.
Established by Royal Decree No. 1140, 15th Augustus 1913, No. 416: 18th March 1929.

Paid-up Capital: 160.000.000 Liras - Reserve: 5.200.000 Liras

Savings and Current Accounts. — Gorrespondance

Current Accounts in Liras and foreign currencies. —

Cheques issued on Italy and Foreign Countries.

Purchase and Sale of securities

ALL BANKING OPERATIONS

Branches and correspondants throughout Italy

HEAD OFFICE: ROME - 117, Via Vittorio Veneto

131 —

— 132

EASTMAN

CLASSROOM FILMS USED B? SCHOOLS IN THIRT? COUNTRIES

1 75 Films Now Ready

Applied Art ~ Engl-
ish ~ Geography ~
Healt ~ History ~
Nature Study ~ Re-
ligion ~ Science r

Send for List — The de-
scriptive list of EASTMAN
Classroom Films briefly out-
lines a number of these out-
standing instructional motion
pictures, and gives a com-
prehensive idea of their na-
ture and scope. A copy of
the list will be gladly sent
on request ~ ~ ~ ~

EASTMAN TEACHING FILMS INC.

SUBSIDIARY OF EASTMAN KODAK Co. - ROCHESTER, N.Y., U.S.A.

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Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up
General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
== 52-123 - 52-124

_ C@^^g)D

Telegrams :

ANONIMA PITTAL,UGA

Works

R O M E : « Cines », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S.Giovanni).
T U R I N : « Positiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — - Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10 — Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel.: 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel.:
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams:
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

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Legislation

AUTHOR'S RIGHT IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

The protection of author's rights in cinema-
tographic and other analagous works is
regulated in Czecho-Slovakia by the law
of November 24th, 1926, No. 218 of the
collection of laws relative to author's right
in literary, photographic and artistic works.

In the second and fourth provisions of the
said law, cinematographic and analogous
works are classed as literary or artistic
works if they constitute original creations by
virtue of their internal arrangement. In
this case author's rights are covered by
article 21 of the said law and their duration
is fixed at fifty years according to articles 38
and 39 of the above law. Additionally
cinematographic works benefit from special
protection according to article 37 of the law.
Film stills " are protected under articles
4 in fine, 36 and 41 of the law as photographs.
There is no distinction in the law between
silent, sound and talking films.

Concerning the author, article 9 of the
law contains special clauses establishing
legal presumption in favour of the film
producer. There is no special clause in the
law dealing with original material of scena-
rios and consequently titles. However, a
suggestion of such rights and their protec-
tion is contained in articles 21 , 23, 27, 29, 31 ,
and 33 of the law and with regard to musical
works in Nos. 27 and 29 and works of plastic
art in Nos. 31 and 33 of the law.

The protection of literary and artistic
works (musical or plastic) with regard to
cinematographic production is covered by
articles 21, 23, 27, 29, 31 and 33 of the law.

Authors rights of foreign plaintives in
literary, artistic (musical and plastic) and
photographic works, published under the
terms of paragraph I, article 8 of the law,

on Czecho-Slovakian territory are regulated
according to article I of the law.

The protection of author's rights of foreign
plaintives in unpublished works or works
published abroad is regulated according to
international conventions or by reciprocity
between States when existant, according to
the terms of governmental declarations con-
tained officially in the Collection of Rules
and Regulations (art. 2 of the law on author's
rights). In this connection it may be re-
marked that Czecho-Slovakia has been an
adherent to the revised Berne convention
of September 9th 1888 since February 22,
1921 and also to the additional protocol of
March 20th, 1914 (arts. No. 401/21 and
No. 120,183/32 of the Coll. of Laws and
Regulations). The protection of cinema-
tographic works is now precised in art. 14
of the text (revised) of this convention which
was accepted at the Rome Conference of
June 2, 1928 and likewise signed by the
Republic of Czecho-Slovakia.

Among the bilateral treaties and conven-
tions existant between Czecho-Slovakia and
other States relative to the protection of
author's rights in literary, artistic and photo-
graphic works, there must be cited art. 34
par. 2 of the commerce and navigation treaty
with Italy of March 23rd, 1931 (No. 4/22
and 133/24 of the Coll. of L. and R.), art. 28
of the commercial treaty with Yugo-Slavia
of November 14, 1928 (No. 163/29 of the
Coll. of L. and R.), art. 23 of the commercial
treaty with Latvia of October 7th 1923
(No. 221 «23 of the Coll. of L. and R.) (pac-
tum de contrahendo) and art. 17 of the com-
mercial treaty with Lithuania of April 27th
1923 (No. 252«24 of the Coll. of L. and R.)
(pactum de contrahendo). Additionally by

4 — Ice ingl.

— 136

a declaration of April 27th, 1927 (No. 56
of the Coll. of L. and R.) reciprocal protec-
tion of authors' rights was assured with the
United States of Northern America.

None of these treaties concern expressly
the protection of author's rights for the
foreign claimant in cinematographic works
(without distinction between silent sound
and talking pictures), nor in scenarios and
films titles, etc.

Czecho-Slovakian jurisprudence has not
yet had an opportunity to pronounce a prin-
ciple relative to author's rights for foreign
claimants in film production, scenario, or
film titles.

There exists no manual of Czecho-Slov-
akian law relative to cinematographic
works. We may cite in this connection
Heller : Uvod do prava kinematografie (In-
troduction to Cinematographic Law) in
Sbornik ved pravnich a statnich (Vol. XIII
pp. 141 and following, 332 and following),
remarks relative to author s right under the

present title, commentaries relative to the
new Czecho-Slovakian law in author's rights,
published by Jean Lowenbach, advocate
(Pub. Kompas) and by Dr. Gellner (In the
Prague Archives, IX, 1927) and in the
bibliography therein cited.

Indication must also be given of informa-
tion relative to cinematographic author's
right in articles by Alexander Elster and
Erwin Riezler in " Zeitschrift fur auslan-
disches und Internationales Privatrecht "
and that by Prof. Herman-Otavsky on the
revision of the Berne Convention at Rome in
" Soutez a Tvorba " (Review) in 1929 and
finally that by Magnus : " Novellen zum
internationalen Recht ", cahier III (Urhe-
berrecht, p. 57 and following).

It is also necessary to call attention to the
work done at the International Congress of
Cinematography, meeting of September-
October 1926 and as concerns the League
of Nations, the International Ruling on the
subject of cinematography.

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on the Cinematograph, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching "* ~

" Der Bildwant "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The " Bildwart " Supplements :

" FILMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);
" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);
" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses);
" MIKROPROJEKTION " ;
"PATENTSCHAU" (Patents' Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

= Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =

(BILDWART VERLAGSGENOSSENSCHAFT G. m. b. H., BERLIN, N. W. 21, Bochutr.er Strasse 8.a)

Information and Comment

SOUND FILMS IN SCHOOLS

We have already had occasion to mention
in these pages the iniative of the Middlesex
Local School authorities, supported by the
National Union of Teachers in experiment-
ing with the sound film as an educational
instrument.

We have today a most interesting report
on this subject (1) a summary of which we
feel will be of interest to readers :

(1) A Commission constituted in 1923
by the Imperial Education Conference,
under the presidency of Lord Gorell, declared
the didactic utility of the Cinema and the
advisability of installing projectors in schools.

(2) A Commission constituted by the
National Council of Morals published in
1925 a report on the Cinema in Education,
in which the necessity of the production of
special school films was stressed.

(3) Prof. S. J. F. Philpott, of London
University, demonstrated that impressions
from films were more deeply printed on the
memory than any others.

(4) Experiments by Prof. Knowlton, of
Yale University.

(5) Experiments by Prof. F. N. Free-
man of Chicago University and Ben. D.
Wood of Columbia University.

(6) Enquiry made by the Historical
Association in 1929.

(7) Commission constituted by the Brit-
ish Asscociation for the study of educational
and documentary films.

(') " Sound Films in Schools ", The Report
of an Experiment undertaken jointly by certain
Local Educational Authorities and by the National
Union of Teachers in the Schools of Middlesex.
Published by " The Schoolmaster ", 3, Racquet
Court, Fleet Street, London, E. C. 4.

(8) Commission for instructional and edu-
cational films constituted in London in 1929.

(9) Isolated experiments in schools.

(10) Enquiry by the Day Training Col-
lege, London.

(11) Study, research and enquiries by the
I. I. E. C, Rome.

(12) In France several Ministries are
concerned with the distribution of films in
schools. The Government contributes to
a certain extent to the installation of projec-
tors in schools. In 1928-29, the Musee
Pedagogique lent 43.500 films to schools.

(13) In Japan the Minister of Public
Instruction has made 110 educational films
and publishes a catalogue to aid their dis-
tribution.

(14) In Italy, the activity of the National
Institute, « LUCE ».

(15) In Germany that of the Lampe
committee.

(16) In U. S. A. that of the Harvard
Film Institute.

Aims of the Middlesex
Experiment.

The aim of this Experiment was to ascer-
tain the degree to which sound films are
useful in teaching with particular reference
to backward children.

Projectors and operators were placed at
the disposition of the schools without charge
by " Western Electric " and the films were
offered by British Instructional Films Ltd.
and British Movietone News.

Sixteen films were chosen and divided
into four groups :

1st Group : Cyprus. — A visit to the
Coal Face. — The Development of the

— 138 —

Frog. — John Masefield reading his poem,
" West Wind ".

2nd Group : A lecture by Sir Wilfred
Grenfell on Labrador — The Growth of
Roots. — The Submarine. — An Automobile
Trip from Persia to India.

3rd GROUP. — The Culture of Hops
in Tasmania and the life of Australian Shep-
herds. — Episodes in the Life of the Prince
of Wales. — The Flying Machine. — The
Aphis.

4th Group : — A look at America.
— The London Naval Conference. — Some
Speeches by the King. — The Benguella
Railway.

In each school only one of the above
groups was shown. The Experiment was
made in 15 schools. 3,602 children from 8
to 16 years of age (2,172 Boys and 1,430
girls) took part.

Mental Development.

Seniors (Both sexes 1 2 years and over) :

1228 of average or higher intelligence.

551 of low or mediocre intelligence.
Juniors (Both sexes from 8 to 1 2 years) :

850 of average or higher intelligence.

728 of low or mediocre intelligence.
186 masters took part. Questions con-
cerning all the films except ' West Wind
and "The Growth of Roots" were distri-
buted to the pupils ; other questions on
the character of the sound film and its edu-
cational possibilities were answered by the
masters. In these they were asked to give
as far as possible the relative benefit drawn
from the same film by boys and girls.

It was also judged advisable to ascertain
the effect of a lesson preparatory to the
projection of the film. To this end each
class was divided by the master into two
sections and the preparatory lesson was
given to only one of these. The same
method was used to ascertain the value of
recapitulative lessons, preliminary study of
the subject matter of the films, repeated
projections and the distribution of questions
after a given interval, etc.

From the appreciations of the teaching
value of each film given by the masters
there results : —

1. That even the better films leave
much to be desired from a teaching point
of view ; the four natural history pictures
were most appreciated ;

2. That even the most mediocre films
have a certain educative value.

It is deduced that ;
a) films should be logical and cohe-
rent ; — b) the commentary should be
clear ; c) the operator should be able to
stop the projection on certain images pre-
senting a particular interest ; — d) slow
motion is useful often necessary but needs
explanations ; — e) short pauses are neces-
sary to allow the master to comment where
necessary ; — /) in geographical films good
maps are essential.

In conclusion the majority stress the im-
portance of the sound film over the silent
film because it renders the subject more
alive to the children.

As for the profit obtained by the children
from the films, this is about equal in girls
and boys. It was remarked however that
girls derived more from the grographical
films and boys more from films such as
" The Coal Mine " and the " Submarine ".

As concerns preparatory and recapitul-
ative lessons, the masters give no decisive
opinion on this point.

The usefulness of the sound film in bring-
ing on backward children is evident. One
master says that backward children absorb
30 to 40% less than normal children from
the films but this may in reality be reduced
to 11.4%.

Conclusions.

The experiment showed that films scien-
tifically prepared save the child time and
fatigue ; they awaken and intensify interest
and stimulate mental activity. From this
appears the necessity for co-operation of the
closest nature between producers and teachers
in the production of teaching films.

- 139 —

The following are subjects stated to be
suitable for Cinema teaching : geography,
sciences, history, languages, mathematics,
plastic arts, music, physical education, domes-
tic economy, The Cinema may also be used
in professional orientation.

Finally the necessity for an extensive ca-
talogue of instructional films is stressed.

The Middlesex Experiment Report on
the use of sound films in schools is a
somewhat more complete but very
simihar document to the report issued
on the sound motion picture demonstration
held under the auspices of the President
of the U. S. A. at Washington last
July(,\ Indeed the Middlesex Experiment
and the Washington Demonstration have
been in purpose identical. The Amer-
ican Demonstration was conducted with
the collaboration of the Fox Film Corpora-
tion and the Middlesex Experiment with
that of the Western Electric Co. These
two series of tests have been organised as
the result of interest both of educational
authorities and film commercials in the po-
tential value of the sound film as an educa-
tional instrument in schools.

Certain initial disadvantages were common
to both experiments, the somewhat untried
nature of the films themselves, the com-
parative smallness of the field covered, both
as regards numbers of children and range
of subjects and numerous slight technical
difficulties, especially in the Middlesex Ex-
periment, where a portable outfit was used
and taken from school to school. Another
factor which cannot be excluded from the
examination of the results obtained in such
tests is that of the abnormal state of atten-
tion to which the students minds may be

O " Sound Motion Pictures as a Factor in Edu-
cation , Report of the sound motion picture de-
monstration held at George Washington Univer-
sity, Washington, D. C, U. S. A. July 7-10, 1931,
under the direction of a committee of expert-
chosen by the Office of Education in the Depart-
ment of the Interior.

stimulated by the unusual and exciting
nature of the tests themselves, so closely
allied in atmosphere with the ordinary mov-
ing picture show. To be sure the whole
of this stimulatory effect is not to be dis-
counted, for a large portion of it would
almost certainly be re-occurrent ; nevertheless
it would be ridiculous to state that results
obtained from such tests are free from the
consequences of abnormal school conditions.

However these are slight considerations
when compared with the unanimous expres-
sions of satisfaction with the method com-
ing from teachers themselves. This satis-
faction is given in both the reports above
mentioned in the form of percentages of gain
and although one may very well disagree
with such a system of compounding figures
of such an approximate nature into percen-
tages, it is impossible to deny that all the
results given show a very strong tendency
in favour of the sound film as the most power-
ful educational instrument known, even in
the basic matter of imparting information of
a purely abstract nature.

Of these two tests the Middlesex Expe-
riment is undoubtedly the more significant,
but the fact that it more or less confirms
the general conclusions reached in the
Washington Experiment lends greater force
to the latter and generally strengthens the
position of the sound film in education.

But these tests have established more than
the value of sound films in schools, they
have established the actual need for a rich
supply of teaching films of all kinds, films
which are not the makeshift offspring of
commercial studios but the result of careful
enquiry and cooperation on the part of both
producers and teachers. And these films
will not be produced immediately for there
are great difficulties in technique which
have not yet been realised, let alone faced
and dealt with. However both producers
and teachers are keen to see the sound film
established in schools, not as a substitute for
teachers but as a labour saving device which
will be of the greatest benefit to them.

A problem which has given many advo-

140 —

cates of the educational sound film to pause
and echoes of which are to be found in these
reports, is that of the necessary apparatus
and its high initial cost.

In comparison with the difficulty of
producing good teaching films this latter
problem is of small importance. The present
high cost of sound projection apparatus is
entirely artificial. It is maintained first
by the small demand (but in modern busi-
ness this is no reason), second by various
patent rights, and third by an unnecessarily
complicated mechanical system. One has
only to bring to mind the price of an all
electric radio five years ago and compare
it with that of today to see how the prices
of electrical goods can fluctuate. Within a
few years there will be school electrical units
of a foolproof nature on the market comprising

radio, projector with sound system, gramo-
phone and possibly televisor all complete for
under 100 pounds sterling.

No, it is certainly not on the mechanical
side that the difficulties of the educational
sound film lie, it is rather in the making and
classification of the films and in the organisa-
tion charged with their National and In-
ternational distribution. However both in
England and America the matter is being
taken in hand and this Institute, in the com-
pilation and maintenance of an International
Educational Film catalogue is establishing
an aid of inestimable value both to producers
and to educational authorities.

These two practical tests have opened the
way for both teachers and film producers
and have established officially the value of
the sound film in schools.

ACCIDENT PREVENTION FILMS

Of all educational and propaganda films, accident prevention films are certainly the most
difficult to produce. The producer must have great competence and a real sense of his own respon-
sibility. It is only necessary to remember that certain films, made with the laudable intention
of reducing the number of accidents, actually had the result of increasing the number, to be con-
vinced of the necessity of taking this branch of the film industry very seriously indeed.

What do qualified persons think of these films ? What is the state of production in various
countries ? What films are in circulation and what is their real value ? It is precisely these questions
that the 1. 1. C. E. wish to answer for the benefit of readers and to increase their interest in this
type of film.

The following information and opinions are taken from a letter addressed to us by M. Andre
Salmont, who holds the Chair of Accident Prevention at the Conservatoire National des Arts et
Metiers in Paris. We think they will be of great interest.

The initiative of the I. I.E. C. in collecting
useful information on the subject of Cinema
production dealing with accident prevention
is extremely interesting and it has my great-
est sympathy. It is an important task that
may prove of the greatest benefit to all ac-
cident prevention organisations in all classes
of industry.

The film is a remarkably powerful agent
or preventing accidents.

The only films that I know and which
have been shown in France are foreign films.
These are either prints with titles in French

(Danger Abroad, an Austrian Film) or
extracts from other films adapted for French
workers (" Albert the Braggard ", English,
and " Why ? " an American documentary).

Apart from these foreign films I know of
no French ones at the moment. It is
however most desirable that French safety
films be made and distributed through the
various branches of commerce and industry
such as metallurgy, timber trade, textiles,
mines and quarries, foodstuffs, agriculture,
transport, etc. . .

In these domains different subjects might

— 141

be chosen by the heads of Service for film
treatment with the idea of accident preven-
tion and the experience and statistics could
be employed to give precision to the subjects
and to range them in order of urgency.

After informing the I. I. E. C. of his in-
tention to form a Cinematek in the Museum
of Accident Prevention and Industrial Hygiene
whose organisation and development are under
his control, M . Salmont continues :

To my knowledge the following are the
authorities who are interested (publicly and
privately) in the manufacture and distribu-
tion of safety films in France : The Direc-
tion of Technical Instruction, The Ac-
cident Prevention Dept. of the Conservatoire
National des Arts et Metiers, The Safety
service of Les Industries Metallurgiques et
Minieres, La Compagnie des Chemins de
Fer du Nord.

I think that the following private orga-
nisations might also be interested : organi-
sations for forming the higher industrial
personnel and the assistant personnel, in-
dustrial associations for accident prevention
large industrial groups, transport companies,
large insurance companies, etc.

* * *

Cinematographic propaganda against ac-
cidents is effected principally through films
shown within the ranks of particular in-
dustries where they have been made. In
most cases, it seems, shows have been given
only to the higher grades of employed.
"Albert the Braggard", and "Why?"
are circulated within the Union of Metal-
lurgic and Mining Industries.

The Chemin de Fer du Nord have made a
documentary film on the new methods of
train coupling with the idea of making their
personnel more efficient in this branch and
so avoiding accidents.

The documentary film is essentially an
instructional film. It is above all destined
to the workmen in a certain branch of an
industry, to workmen of the same company
even (such as the coupling film just mention-
ed) or to men working in a specialised branch
of the same undertaking (acetylene welding
for instance). It has also a important edu-
cational value in the instruction of the exec-
utive staff or heads of a company and in
teaching in professional schools etc., show-
ing different methods of protection and pre-
vention.

The dramatic film is essentially a propa-
ganda film, influencing not only the individ-
ual workman but the entire working class.
It has the idea of creating a safety minded-
ness in this class. (" Danger Abroad " is
one good example).

These two kinds of film therefore find their
place in safety propaganda. Their value
from this point of view resides in the
realism of their action, their positive bias in
one direction, and in the clever adaptation of
subjects to suit the mentality of the workmen.

I assign a very large value to the film in
the prevention of all kinds of accidents. It
constitutes the practical complement to all
theoretical instruction, putting before the
eyes a wealth of living events from all parts
of the world which would be impossible to
collect in any other manner.

It is in a position to further to a great
extent the " safety first " movement and by its
extensive development even in very small
centres and its universal popularity it can
give a wide diffusion of the idea of security
amongst working people in both town and
country.

The invention of the sound film extents
the possibilities of the Cinema in this field.

Both purely documentary and dramatic
films may serve as excellent " safety first "
propaganda but each retains its special char-
acter.

I cannot give any exact idea of the results
obtained in France by cinematographic pro-
paganda. In any case its action must be
considered as additional to the other pre-

142

ventative measures at present in force. This
makes it difficult to estimate the relative
importance of the Cinema in the whole
result obtained.

Its influence enters into the universal
human problem of accident prevention and
more specially in to the whole scheme of
creating the "safety first" attitude in the
working classes and their employers.

The results of well organised prevention
from both human and industrial points of
view are measured by the reduction of the
number of accidents and in their gravity
in any given industry.

This reduction can however only be at-
tributed to the entire system of prevention
and it is impossible to determine exactly the
proportional effect of any one element.

WHAT NEWS REEL SHOULD BE LIKE

In Comoedia of Paris has appeared a note
by Pierre-Henry Proust on the excellent
documentary film made on the occasion of
the funeral of M. Maginot. This note ap-
pears very interesting to us and we reproduce
its general sense below.

In seeing and hearing this living and sincere
document one cannot help admiring the power
of the Cinema which permits this synthetic
memory of a dead man. Let us hope that
living archives may be formed which will per-
mit subsequent generations to know the
great men of our epoch other than through
falsified and inexact portraits.

And naturally here we are led to state the
role of premier importance which the Cinema
plays in modern life. It is the reflection of
great events, the faithful mirror of our period.
We need only to consider how quick has been
the development of News Reel Theatres.
These multiply and become more and more
luxurious, more and more important. They
have their own complete and self sufficient
programmes. But, while favouring the devel-
opment of what is essential to a period pas-
sionately interested in speed and synthesis,
let us not forget several necessary improvements.
Too often news items do not answer to their
true purpose and are not really those reflections
of public life which are so agreeable. They
are encumbered with useless repetitions and
futile publicity matter. The film journal
should, like every self-respecting daily, give us
the important news as soon as possible. This
is worthy of the most careful attention on the
part of producers and the staff concerned should

be specialised, conscientious and clever enough
to be worthy of the truly important task they
have in hand. If not, the public will never
see in news items anything but a hors-d csuvre
barely serving as an appetiser for the sub-
sequent report.

The point brought up by M. Proust is
interesting and actual. The film journal
should be well and seriously made. The
time is no more — or ought to be no more —
when it was possible to turn out any sort
of film journal once a week and forget en-
tirely about the artistic element in the work.
The sound and the image have combined
in the film document the true historical
record of our time.

Just as newspapers have ther primo car-
tello reporters, so must the Cinema choose
its own from men who will feel all the poetry,
beauty and historical interest of the docu-
ments they collect. Cinematographic re-
porters must understand that the qualities
of a good cameraman are not sufficient for
their work to which they should bring the
qualities of artist and historian.

Even today we are too often obliged to see
films showing events of mediocre import-
ance that have only been introduced into
the programme as a fill up when life itself
throughout the world offers every day a
thousand interesting subjects.

The Film Journal as an authentic docu-
ment, is destined to have a great import-
ance in the mutual understanding of peoples.
It can bring about by a visual method the
understanding of the habits, customs and

— 143 —

work of all parts of the world, it can destruct
many false opinions gathered from interested
press campaigns which seem rather to poi-
son public opinion that to bring about
the friendship of peoples.

But, in order to carry out these aims the
Cinema must be even more largely propag-
ated, events must be recorded and shown at
once — as M. Proust very justly observes —
without being altered and kept back for
wretched commercial reasons. As real do-

cuments of the life of our period, our film
journals should be made with a perfect
consciousness of their purpose. All pro-
ducers, solely or partly concerned in making
these should understand this. The whole
public is becoming more interested in these
films and the entire world of learned men
see in them the possibilities of forming a
veritable history of our period : Producers
and technicians should not fail in this task
which they can and must fulfil.

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR SOCIAL INSTRUCTION
AND EDUCATION BY RADIO AND CINEMA

During the last three months of 1931, the
Office of the above Commission has held
three meetings.

The necessity for relying to a greater
extent, in the carrying out of future work,
on national institutions was stressed. The
essential aim of the commission being to
represent the points of view of educational
cinema and Radio users for social purposes,
the Commission should draw its informa-
tion direct from national organisms.

A communication on this subject was
edited and sent to all members.

In reply to an invitation extended to the
Commission by the Administrative Council
of the I. I. E. C, the Bureau made out a
plan of collaboration between the Bureau
and the Rome Institute. This plan was

submitted to the Director of the latter
Institute and having met with his approba-
tion it will be submitted to the Administra-
tive Council at the next meeting.

As regards radio broadcasting, the Com-
mission has been invited by the Inter-
national Institute of Intellectual Co-opera-
tion to collaborate in the solution of the
problems at present before the League of
Nations, in connection with the use of
broadcasting.

The Commission has taken the necessary
measures by which, through the channels of
its members, it may bring to the solution of
these problems a substantial documentation,
reflecting the opinions, suggestions and de-
sires of radio-education users throughout the
world.

CINEMA AND THE STATE

On the 15th of December last, the work
of the Conseil Superieur du Cinema com-
menced in Paris , This body was founded by
the French Government through the ini-
tiative of M. M. Petsche, Under-Secretary
for State at the Beaux- Arts. Petsche spoke
upon this occasion of the importance of the
cinema. The I. I. E. C, always glad to
hear of interest on the part of men and
institutions in this new element of social life,
has pleasure in have reproducing several
extracts from M. Petsche's remarkable
speech.

M. Petsche gave some suggestive figures
which motivated the French Government
to form the Conseil Superieur du Cinema :

Half a milliard in studios and equipment,
300 millions in the principal developing and
printing works, 150 millions invested in 1930
in the production of more than 1 00 long films,
a production only exceeded by the U. S. A.
and Germany, 2 milliards invested in 3,900
theatres, with 2,500,000 seats, 900 millions
of receipts taken in one year in these theatres,
such is the French Cinema, and there is also

144

the film press whose news is shown before 10
million French and 50 million foreigners.

But it is not simply as " an important
factor in national economy " that the French
Government is thus interested in the Cinema.
M. Petsche explains that there are other
higher purposes :

(Speaking to representatives of the French
film industry).

You are those who hold and direct this pro-
digious instrument of popular education and
brain formation, of general and professional
instruction, this incomparable documentary
instrument, for propaganda, and publicity,
whose utility almost all Government depart-
ments have come to appreciate.

In the rational and intensified uses of your
films and projectors lies perhaps the hey
to several of the great social problems of today.
Today in every country questions of labour
and worhjng conditions in fact of the employ-
ment of the leisure hours of workmen, or as it
is called in Italy " Dopolavoro " are in the
first rank of importance. It is impossible to
ignore the Cinema's mission, the benevolent
role which it can play in the intellectual,
ethical and aesthetic development of the masses.

And it is not possible to overlook its import-
ant place in necessary campaign against cen-
tralization, the place which your projectors,
the result of the labour of our industrial and
technicians, hold in all the towns and villages
in France . . .

Sirs, you are realists, you understand that
a collection of enterprises such as the Cinema,
that is at every moment in contact with the
economic, intellectual, moral and aesthetic
interests of an entire Democratic Nation,
cannot live apart from the Government just
as the Government cannot live apart from you.

M. Petsche then speaks of the talking
film, its present form allowing of national
independance, of post-synchronization which
permits foreign versions to be made.

This must be turned to profit, adds M. Petsche,
to organize production in France, for I think,

and I wish you to share my conviction that,
only a film made in France can be representa-
tive of French culture.

Speaking of financial matters, M. Petsche
announces that he has approached the com-
petent administrations in a preliminary
manner with a view to gaining the admission
of the principle of a detaxation system,
which, well conceived, might render great
service to producers without seriously affect-
ing the budget balance. In this connection
M. Petsche observes that the I. I. E. C. has
put before all governments a projet of similar
nature to that now under the consideration
of the French financial authorities. It
would be the duty of the first Conseil Su-
perieur du Cinema to determine the practical
applications of such a principle.

M. Petsche finally speaks of film control,
administrative formalities, customs, the loan
of national sites and art collections, author's
right, the independance of the studio ma-
terial and film manufacturing industries,
the organisation of short and long term
credits, the enlargement and the ameliora-
tion of research laboratories, higher technical
instruction centres, all to assure the Con-
seil that it may realise to the greatest extent
the projects that he will place before the
administration on these matters.

It is your duty, concludes M. Petsche, to
collaborate with the Government in such a
manner that the French Cinema Industry may
be directed towards the highest and noblest
aims and that productions of France may hold
their premier place in all the world.

The I. I. E. C. is happy to find in this
speech further proof of the importance and
confidence which Governments place in
the Cinema.

In calling the cinema a worthly medium
for the expression of French thought, M.
Petsche, under-Secretary at the Beaux-Arts
explicitly states its educational value. That
Governments resolve to make the national
product supreme is merely an evident gain
for world production.

- 145

DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL SOUNDFILMS IN THE U. S. A.

We have the pleasure of printing here a
letter we have received from the Head Of-
fice of the Western Electric Company, an
organisation which has devoted a great part
of its scientific and financial resources to
the cause of educational films.

We wish to inform you that, thanks to the
Educational Talking Pictures Co. Ltd., we
are in a position to distribute and show non-
theatrical sound films in the U. S. A.

Indeed we know that a fairly large field
of distribution already exists, for up to date
(December 1 93 1 ), there are 423 Western Electric
sound projectors and 169 sound projectiors of
other maker installed throughout the U. S.A.
in clubs, hotels, colleges, hospitals, sanitoriums,
educational institutions, schools, etc.

We bring this to your notice because we
think that certain films of a non-spectacular
character might easily find a wide distribution

in the U.S.A. and that it may be interesting
to producers to know that our organisation is
in a position to facilitate this arrangement
which aims chiefly at making the natural and
artistic beauties of various countries knoton,
which of course is a stimulus to the tourist
trade ".

This letter is of great interest. We never
hesitate to mention in these pages innova-
tions of this kind. In any case refering to
a resolution adopted by the Commission
of Intellectual co-operation, we will deal
in one of our next numbers with the question
of the projection of educational films in
ordinary Cinemas.

We consider it our duty to let all producers
know of any possible markets for their films
which may be known to us. This is in accord-
ance with our firm belief in the value of com-
mercial extension to the educational Cinema.

ADRESS BY WILL H. HAYS

Speaking before the Boston Chamber of
Commerce on December 17th 1931, Will.
H. Hays, President of the Motion Picture
Producers and Distributors of America Inc.,
gave an exhaustive analysis of the present
condition of the Motion Picture Industry
in America, its problems, difficulties, achieve-
ments and responsibilities. Mr. Hays lay
great stress on the necessity for the con-
stant improvement of the motion picture
product both artistically and morally. He
outlined the moral code of the producers and
showed how it is applied to the industry.
He also protested against certain United

States legislation, which by reason of its
antiquity, had undone much of the helpful
internal arbitrary arrangements of the in-
dustry in America. Mr. Hays testified
to jthe strength, vitality and resourceful-
ness of the industry, he gave details of its
material greatness and held forth hopes of a
splendid and tremendous future in spite of
the present financial crisis which he declar-
ed to be a temporary halt such as had been
experienced before. He concluded with the
confident assertion that

" The maximum development of the
screen is before it, not behind it ".

NOTES FROM GREAT BRITAIN

During the last two months the British
Commission on Educational and Cultural
Films has been intensively occupied in the
drafting and preparation of its report. There
have in consequence been only rare meetings

of the Commission or its sub-Commissions
and at these the principal business on the
agenda paper has been the discussion of
draft sections of the Report.

The major piece of work of international

146

interest that has been carried on during the
period has been the getting together of in-
formation for use by the International Edu-
cational Cinematographic Institute at Rome
for its proposed international catalogue of
educational films.

The Film in the School.

There have recently been published two
reports on research work into the value of
the film as a teaching instrument. The one
— " The value of films in History Teach-
ing " by Miss Frances Consitt (Bell & Sons
7/- net) — was prepared for the Historical
Association, which with the aid of the Car
negie Trustees, has been investigating the
value of films in history teaching, mainly in
schools. Even with the mediocre material
available, a great impression was made
amongst the teachers. Amongst the find-
ings of the report there are two of outstand-
ing interest. The first is that the film is
very useful for the backward child and the
second that the film requires preparatory
and ' follow-up ' lessons from the teachers
to give it its maximum efficiency.

The other report of importance that
has just appeared, is the report of what was
known as the " Middlesex Experiment ' ,
during which a group of sound films were
displayed to a group of schools in the
County of Middlesex. The report is entitled
" Sound Films in Schools " and is published
by " The Schoolmaster ", 3 Racquet Court,
Fleet Street, London, E. C. 4., at the price
of 2/6. The chief findings of the investi-
gators may be summarised as follows. Sound
films can be used effectively to arouse in-
terest, to teach, to help pupils to assimilate
and revise knowledge. Sound films also
are useful for teaching backward children.

The Film and Teachers.

During the usual conferences of education-
alists held annually in the Christmas holi-
days, much discussion took place on the
influence of the film on the child mind.

The discussions were mostly concerned with
the amusement film.

At the Headmasters' Conference, the fol-
lowing resolution was moved and carried
with but few dissentients : —

" That this association views with an-
xiety the influence at present exercised by
the cinema on those of school age, and urges
that suitable regulations with regard to
performances open to children should be
framed and enforced ".

In the discussion reference was made to
the pernicious influence of virtue always
being made to appear a dull thing whilst
vice was an adventure. Furthermore the
continuous drip, drip, drip of the common-
place on the minds and eyes of those who
frequented cinemas was condemned as an-
other bad effect. Lastly mention was
made of the very questionable posters where-
by films were advertised.

At the annual meeting of the Incorporated
Association of Headmasters, Mr. A. C. Ca-
meron, the Honorary Secretary of the Educa-
tional and Cultural Films Commission
spoke on the Constructive use of the Cinema.
Mr. Cameron pointed out the backwardness
of Great Britain as compared with other
countries. He suggested a different stand-
ard of judgment for films namely, by their
potential, positive value as an aid to science,
culture and the art of a country

The speech was widely reported through-
out the British Press.

Fairy Tales on the Film.

In the issue of the Clarion for November
1 93 1 appeared an article on ' Fairy Tales
for Schools '. The writer mentioned the
good work in this direction that had been
done by the German producers. The French
fairy films he thought were too sophisticated.
Cavalcanti's Little Red Riding Hood was
singled out for praise owing to the way in
which use was made of modern means of
transport, etc. " A mechanised age demands
a mechanised fairy story ". In this, the
writer, concludes, lies the way to a new
child s cinema.

147

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN EGYPT

The following interesting news is con-
tained in La Bourse Egyptienne of Cairo.

The Cinema Teaching Committee has just
presented to the Minister of Education an
interesting report on the development of this
kind of teaching in the State schools.

From this report it seems that the Ministry
of Education possesses at the moment 96
projectors, of these 43 are in primary boys
schools, 19 in secondary boys schools, 27 in
girls primary and secondary schools, one in
each of the high schools of Dar-El-Oulom,
commercial and normal, and 4 in physical
training and professional schools.

The Ministry likewise possesses 2059 films
of a total length of 340,000 metres. This
number is added to according to the changes in
school programmes.

A technician is charged toith the task of

instructing the masters and mistresses in the
manner of working the projectors and carrying
out minor repairs. A Cinematographic Firm
is charged with the upkeep of the pro-
jectors.

Thus it is seen that the Egyptian Gover-
ment has a fitting appreciation of the educa-
tional Cinema. We give this information with
the greatest satisfaction because it shows how
quickly countries of an ancient civilization
take hold of modern methods to enter and
progress in a morn vicihzation.

The Cinema, well used is incontestably
one of the best modern methods. By the
degree and by the way in which it is
used in a certain country, may be judged
the force of that country's will to progress.
It is with very great satisfaction that the
I. I. C. E. has received this news.

THE TENTH ASSEMBLY OF THE SWISS INSTITUTE FOR NATIONAL

AND SCHOOL CINEMA

Under the presidency of Mr. Schrag,
Inspector of Schools, the tenth ordinary
meeting of the above Institute was held at
Berne on the 28th of last December.

After the reading of the annual report
and the settlement of administrative and
financial routine questions a keenly followed
discussion of the application of the Cinema in
teaching and popular education took place.

From this discussion resulted the opinion
that 16 mm. film was the only one suit-
able for use in schools, hospitals, etc. . .
For more important shows, standard film
could continue to be used and preferably
silent films, the sound film not yet being
considered sufficiently perfect from a tech-
nical point of view for educational use. How-
ever sound films should be considered in the
careful choice of films.

The report tells us of the activities of the
Institute during 1931. In the first place
the work was centralised and reorganized.

All had proved entirely satisfactory in spite
of the economic crisis. The distribution
side announces the purchase of 12 new films
without counting the 14 purchases made on
behalf of other interests.

559 rentals were registered, which shows
the extent of the demand.

As for the lecture and travelling Cinema
department it organised 750 shows for
students and 650 for adults with the films
" Simba ", " Sven Hedin ", " Tembi ",
" Roah-Roah ", " W under der Natur " with-
out speaking of the special shows for chil-
dren.

The activity of the production side is
shown by the production of 27 films, repre-
senting a total length of about 50,000 feet.

The Cinema Education groups of Baden,
Bale, Berne, Winterthur and Zurich have
organised 86 Sunday Matinees which have
been well attended and have met with the
complete approval of the public.

148

AN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION
OF THE ELECTRO-ACOUSTICAL INDUSTRY

This will be held at Amsterdam from the
6th to the 16th of next May. It is the in-
tention of the promoters to give a complete
idea of the industry as it stands today. How-
ever, on account of the intimate connection
of sound with image resultant of the sound
film, they have had the happy idea of allot-
mg a large space to the sound film and by
extension to the Cinema in general and last
but not least a section for Television. Hence
the name of this interesting international
exhibition, " Sound and Image " (Klank
end Beeld).

It will be installed in the large R. A. I.
Hall which has an area of 10.000 square
metres and another area of 4.000 metres

may be added if necessary. Lectures and
scientific demonstrations will take place in a
separate hall.

During the exhibition several international
organisations will hold congresses at Am-
sterdam. There will also be a competition
for art photographs which, judging from the
support received from all parts of the world,
will exceed all others of the kind ever held.

The Honorary Committee — recognised
by the State in an Official Decree — is
presided over by the Minister of State, H. E.
J. Th. de Visser and consists of sixty well
known European personalities.

The Secretariat is: Heerengracht, 581,
Amsterdam.

mmst

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEHGUE OF RED CROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or 1/-
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8 -

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

— 149 —

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THE LARGEST FILM-RENTING COMPANY IN ITALY

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151

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UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION

Joseph M. Sohenck President and Chairman of the Board of Directors

729 Seventh Avenue, New York • United Artists Studios, Hollywood, Calif.

UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION, LTD. Film House, Wardour Street, London, W. I. England.

LES ARTISTES ASSOCIES, S. A., 20 Rue d'Aguesseau, Paris, France.

LOS ARTISTAS ASOCIADOS, Rambla de Cataluna 62, Barcelona, Spain.

ARTISTI ASSOCIATI, 22 Via del Quirinale, Rome, Italy.

TERRA - UNITED ARTISTS, Kochstrasse 73, Berlin, S. W. 68, Germany.

LES ARTISTES ASSOCIES, S. A. B., 33 Boulevard du Jardin Botanique, Brussels, Belgium.

UNITED ARTISTS, 14 Hammerichgade, Copenhagen, Denmark.

UNITED ARTISTS SPOLECNAST, s. r. o. Prag II, Vaclavske nam 49, Palais Avion, Prague, Czechoslo-
vakia.

N. V. UNITED ARTISTS Hcefkad 9, The Hague, Holland.

A. B. UNITED ARTISTS, O. Y., 39 Esplanadgatan, Helsingfors, Finland.

UNITED ARTISTS A/S, Kirkegaten 20, Oslo, Norway.

UNITED ARTISTS A/B, Birger Jarlsgatan 15, Stockholm, Sweden.

UNARTISCO, S. A., 3, Rue de la Confederation, Geneva, Switzerland.

UNITED ARTISTS (AUSTRALASIA) LIMITED, 55, Courtenay Place, Wellington, New-Zealand.

UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION OF CUBA, S. A., 39-41 Rafael Maria de Labra (Aguila) Street,
Havana, Cuba.

LOS ARTISTAS UNIDOS, S. A. Calle Cordoba 1249, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION, Calle Huerfanos, 768, Santiago, Chile.

ARTISTS UNIDOS, S. A., Capuchinas 67, Mexico, D. F. Mexico.

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— 152

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and offers to the public the greatest variety of patterns, the biggest assort-
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as a check on prices in all the towns where it has opened stores.

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- Parma - Perugia - Piacenza - Pisa - San Reko - Savona - Spezia - Taranto - Turin -
Trieste - Trieste (Paradiso della Seta) - Udine - Venice - Verona.

Technical Notes

PORTABLE SOUND PROJECTORS

For some time, manufacturers of cine-
machinery have been giving their attention
to the production of portable sound pro-
jectors. These have today a great import-
ance due above all to the growth of what
is not strictly commercial cinema presen-
tation in different forms : publicity films,
economic and political propaganda films, and
educational films in schools, clubs, centres
of popular education and in the home.

The addition of sound has increased the
usefulness of films to such an extent that as
an element it cannot be ignored.

For this reason manufacturers are con-
cerned with the production of projectors
which, having all the qualities of portability
of the silent projectors, may permit at the
same time of excellent sound reproduction
and be sold at a price within the reach of
institutions and individuals.

Amongst the projectors of this type on the
market we must speak of the ZEISS Ikon
" PHONOBOX " and of the latest R. C. A.
model.

The Phonobox.

This projector was demonstrated at the
1 00th meeting of the Deutsche Kinotechnische
Gesellschaft.

It is undoubtedly a very practical pro-
jector, interesting and highly developed. It
is the product of a collaboration between
Zeiss Ikon A.-G. (optical and mechanical
systems) and " Klangfilm G. m. b. H. "
(electro-acoustical system).

The projector is contained in three
cases of a total weight of 80 kgs. It is
designed and packed to be easily transport-
able by motor, train or boat.

The first case contains the projector
itself which is a model of the Zeiss " Kino-
box " with an applied sound head. The
optical system has been designed so as to
obtain the maximum efficiency for a small
electrical consumption.

A 250 watt lamp gives a good image of
2.50 m X 3 m at a distance of 20 metres
from the screen. The projector is furnished
with a cooling system which minimises
fire risks.

For this reason the outfit is placed in
the C category in Germany, that reserved
for projectors not presenting fire risks.
The film movement is silent and the pro-
jector can therefore remain in the same
room as the audience without inconve-
nience, a privilege which is in any case only
accorded to projectors in class C.

The spool boxes have a capacity of 400
metres of standard film, the maximum length
for sound reels. The projector can be used
for silent pictures by the simple removal
of the sound head. It then holds up to
600 metres of film.

The second case contains the Klangfilm
amplifier which is simply constructed and
easy to operate. The sound reproduction
is highly satisfactory. The amplifier is
four stage, mains operated. The exciting
lamp and the field of the loud speaker are
fed across the amplifier from the same cur-
rent source and batteries are thus avoided.

The third case contains the electro- dyn-
amic loud speaker and its diffuser and base.
The Phonobox can be operated on normal
alternating current mains of 110, 125 and
220 volts. It can be unpacked and got
ready for use in 10 to 15 minutes at
most.

-> Ice ingl.

154 -

R. C.A. portable
Photophone.

This projector, as all R. C. A. products,
is highly developed and very peactical.
It is the result of more than a year of re-
search and trial.

The whole outfit comprises a projector,
an amplifier, a loud speaker and film maga-
zine. Its total weight is just over 200
pounds.

The dimensions of the projector are
19" X 19" X 10" and those of the amplifier
(in a portable case with lid) 26" xS3/i/"
X 11", the loud speaker, a flat diffuser
model is contained in a case 8 %" X 19"

x 1.4%".

The projector takes standard film and
gives a clear image 24 X 3 m at a distance
of 22 m. The sound is sufficient for an

air space of 15,000 cubic feet with an 8"
speaker and one of 12,000 cubic feet with
a 6 inch speaker.

The projector may be operated from al-
ternating current mains of 105 to 125 volts,
50 or 60 cycles monophase. Total con-
sumption at 100 volts is 12 amps.

Contact with mains is through a four-
way cable and plug : one for feeding the
projector, one for the amplifier, one for the
synchronising circuit between projector and
amplifier and one for that between the lat-
ter and the loud speaker.

The outfit is complete with fire proof
1,000 foot spool bones, lenses with focal
lengths varying between 90 and 20 mm,
a 1000 watt 110 volt projection lamp, a
10 volt 7.5 amp. exciting lamp and a photo-
electric cell type U X 868.

SMALL FRENCH SOUND EQUIPMENT

The French industry has likewise put on
the market sound equipment for small
halls and portable equipment suitable for
teaching, propaganda tours, popular edu-
cation, etc. Amongst the most interesting
projectors is the Jacky Stellor, by Debrie,
sound star type D, by Etoile Film, Nalpas,
type E, Royal Amplitone type Z, by Ben-
wood. The first, the Jacky Stellor, an
extremely simple projector, is particularly
suitable for small portable work ; the two
others are semi-portable projectors suitable
for slightly larger work. The Royal am-
plitone, however is also made in a portable
model.

The Jacky Stellor is an excellent adapta-
tion of the Jacky silent projector, whose
qualities of stability, strength and reliab-
ility have gained it great popularity in
France and abroad.

The Stellor has great advantages in trans-
port, for the sound equipment is completely
independent of the projector. It is contain-
ed in a metal box and is composed of sound-
head, photo-electric cell, pre-amplifier and
amplifier.

The box measures 55 X 35 X 15 cm. and
is placed during projection on the tripod
and under the projector. The sound equip-
ment in its box is mounted entirely on
felt and rubber in order to give perfect
protection against projector vibrations. The
valves are also mounted in non-vibrating
holders.

Great care has been taken to insure re-
gularity of film speed through the sound
head. Special devices insure a constant
speed even in the case of line voltage changes
with their resultant change in motor speed.
The excitor lamp works at 6 to 8 volts.
The photo-electric cell has a calcium element
and is equipped with a mask which elimina-
tes all parasitical noises. The amplifier has

3 stages : one stage of pre-amplification,
one stage of intermediate (which, with the
pick up becomes a voltage amplifier), and
one power stage. A modulated output of

4 watts is assured.

The electro-dynamic loud speaker is per-
fectly adjusted to the power stage and the
reproduction is good.

Amongst other advantages the Jacky

— 155

Stellor has that of being workable from an
ordinary electric light plug, and the consump-
tion is scarcely 7 amperes at 1 10 volts. The
projection lamp of 500 watts gives a well
lighted picture at 25 metres. A very po-
werful rotary cooling system assures the
low temperature of the mechanical and
optical systems and also of the film itself.
The Etoile Sonore, type D, is especially
suitable for country and teaching work. It
is characterized by simple working and block
construction. It is possible to use it in
a hall having as many as 500 seats. The
dimensions of the projector, in working
order, are 1 .85 m X 1 .40 m X 0.60 m. The
projector is entirely enclosed in a box and
the amplifier and controls are contained
in the base.

Although largely exploited in France by
the French Benwood Company, the Royal
Amphtone should really be considered as
an American article. Type Z is the most
suitable projector made by this firm for
teaching, although in all American projec-
tors the film is entirely enclosed, and this
represents a considerable guaranty of se-
curity. The projector works directly off
alternating current mains, the amplifier
and fader are contained in a metal box.
The projection lamp is a 1 ,000 w. incandes-
cent. As all Royal Amplitone projectors,
type Z is extremely well made and runs
very silently.

Italian Sound Projector
for Sub-Standard.

The Nalpas, type E, has the look of an
ordinary projector, simple and small, but
solid. It can be equipped with arc or in-
candescent lamps, and it is furnished with
600 m. bobbins. All parts are interchangeable.

One of the characteristics of this machine
is that the light gap in the sound head is
not illuminated, as is usual, by a separate
exciter lamp, but by a ray of great power
led from the lamp box by a special optical
system. The amplifier is of 10 watts out-
put and works direct on 1 10 volts 50 cycles.
Another model exists, E 2, furnished with
a supplementary amplifier. Both models
are suitable for teaching.

There has been some talk of a sound
projector for 17.5 mm. film designed by
Mr. A. Michetti, to be put on the market
before long.

This is an interesting little projector fitted
with a new system of mechanics giving
the following advantages : (a) good pro-
jection of an image 3.5 m X 3 m or larger ;
(b) fixed projection ; (c) backward move-
ment ; (d) projection of slides.

This projector is being manufactured in
Italy and makes use of sound-on-film with
a special system perfected by the engineer
Gentilini. The total cost of the installa-
tion will not exceed a few thousand liras.

NEW SUB-STANDARD PROJECTORS

" Filmo Model J ".

Bell and Howell announce the introduc-
tion of a new projector " J " (l)'

(') With reference to an article in the August
number of this Review by Prof. Conti, Bell and
Howell ask to rectify ceitain statements made by
the Prof.

The latter stated in his article that no projector

They stress the fact that the quality of the
image obtained is nearly 3 times better than
that obtained with the ' 57-GG ", so that

combined qualities of lightness, robustness and
powerful illumination (perfect projection of an
image 3 m X 3.50 m at a distance of 15 to 16 me-
tres) was to be found on the market.
Bell and Howell assure us that the Filmo projec-

156 —

even life sized projection is possible. This
increased efficiency is obtained by the use
of a 375 watt lamp, a high luminosity Cooke
lens (1 : 1,5 F == 50 mm), which is aided by
special condenser and finely adjustable
reflector. The projector is completely in-
closed ; the rewinding system is automatic
and a highly efficient air cooler is fitted.

It also possesses the essential qualities
of the other models, including stopping
device, backward movement, possibility of
showing Kodacolour etc.

The Bell & Howell Company announces
the Filmo Model JL projector — a slight
modification of the recently developed
Model J — which permits the use of the
new 400-watt biplane filament lamp.

Increased brilliance, plus uniform direct
illumination on every fraction of the screen
area, are brought to 16 mm. projection by
the new lamp.

This important lamp development means
that improved projection quality is now
available to all 16 mm. films. Especially
in Kodacolour projection the superiority
is marked, for the new lamp eliminates col-
our wedging, lost colour values, and colour
distortion.

The new 400-watt, 100-volt lamp has 8

tor more than fulfills these conditions by permitting
a projection of a 4,5 m image at a distance of 30
to 45 metres. We can therefore only accept Bell
and Howell's statement. In any case there was
no intented reflection on the quality of Bell and
Homell projections whose value is well known
to us.

filaments set in two staggered rows so that
intervals which formerly were filled in by
reflected light are now flooded with direct
light, eliminating shadows. The reflector
behind fills in any minute interstices and fur-
ther evens out and strengthens the entire
illumination.

The fan and aero-cooling system are the
same as used in the Model J. It is possible
to change this last model into the model
J. L. simply by substituting another re-
sistance and voltmeter calibrated up to 100
Volt.

Siemens Projector for
16 mm.

" Siemens and Halske " have introduced
a special type of projector for 16 mm, pos-
sessing truly remarkable qualities : great
luminosity, absolute steadiness of the image
and very reliable working.

Its principal mechanical characteristic is
the substitution of a sinusoidal movement
in the film traction.

The spools and the film guides have also
some improvements which facilitate the
working.

This Siemens projector has all the usual
fittings, backward movement, single picture
projection and automatic rewind. All ex-
terior controls are lateral. An amperemeter
facilitates constant control of the lamp
consumption.

The whole is mounted in a metal container
which owing to its reduced size and weight
is easily transportable.

RADIOMARELLI

= the best wireless and wireless-gramophone sets =
S. a. RHDIOMHRELLI = MILHN© = Via Hmedei n. 8

Review of periodicals and newspapers

WORLD INFORMATION

Social Aspects of the
Cinema.

At the Assistant Masters Congress at Merchant
Taylors School, a resolution was passed to the effect
that the Government should conduct an enquiry
on the influence of entertainment films on children
and adolescents. (Daily Telegraph, London,
1-1-1932).

Following up its campaign, the Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has protested
against the suffering undergone by animals during
film production. (To Day's Cinema, London,
ll-XII-1931).

A Soviet Sound film " The Way into Life
shows on the screen the life of abandoned children
and how the authorities deal with the education of
these children. This film is of the greatest interest
both from documentary and social points of view
for it shows that these wretched children may be
redeemed from their vicious life without force but
simply by persuasion and good examples. (Close-
UP, London, December 1931).

Amongst questions formulated for a referendum
organised for the Academie d' Education et d'Entre-
Aide by. G. Goyau, and M. Baudrillart of the Aca-
demie Francaise are the following : — what is the
psychological meaning of the Cinema ? What place
does the Cinema hold in social milieux of France
and abroad ? Does the Cinema present dangers ?
How may the Cinema be moral and instructive
without being dull? (ClNEOPSE, Paris, 1-1932).

Actions by the British Board of Censors and cer-
tain local authorities have raised numerous protests.

At the meeting of the National Union of Women
Teachers at Southend, a resolution demanding the
absolute exclusion of children from A class pictures
waspassed. (Daily Telegraph, London, 1-1-1932).

In Sheffield however the Cinema proprietors ap-
pealed to the City Council against the adoption of a
similar measure in that city. They quoted a daily
loss of £ 50 and in consideration oft his the Muni-
cipal authorities revoked the measure and permitted
children accompanied by adults to attend shows of
A class films. (Daily Telegraph, London, 6-1-
1932 and To Day's Cinema, London, 7-1-1932).

H. Bruce Woolfe has organised in conjunction
with B. I. F. Cinema matinees for youth at reduced
prices (all seats 2d). These commenced on Jan.
16th and should take place every Saturday. Mr.
Bruce Woolfe invites criticism of the programmes in
order that they may be unproved- This is a sample
programme : " The Silent Enemy " (Paramount),
" Aeroplanes " (short by B. I. F.), " A matter of
Chickens " (Ideal sound comedy) and a Pathe Sound
Journal. To Day's Cinema, London, 16-1-1932).

In Germany the number of cinemas giving va-
riety items has considerably diminished. (Film
KURIER, Berlin, 23-1-1932).

In an article on " Family Cinemas " the neces-
sity for founding Catholic family Cinemas is stress-
ed in order to ameliorate the existent conditions
until the problem of the educational film is properly
solved. (Osservatore Romano, Vatican City,
6-1-1932).

Religion and cinema.

At Mayence town hall, the Catholic " Lichtspiel-
verband " organised a manifestation in favour of
catholic films. Bishop Hugo was present. Dr.
Schamoni read a report intitled " Der Film im
Dienst der Weltanschauung ". He gave the Russian
film as an example of consciencious film work with
spiritual ends. " We must make films as christian
as Russian films are communist ". (LlCHT BlLD
BiJHNE, Berlin, 22-1-1932).

— 158 —

R. C. A. present in their Vth Avenue premises a
detailed sound film of the evening service in pro-
testant churches. (Film Daily, New York, 7-XII-
1931).

Military Films.

The Saint-Cyr association will present a film
" Ecole speciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr " before
the French President and Ministers. (L'Ami
DU PEUPLE, Paris, 11-1-1932).

Historical Films.

Fernando Boldan and the writers Enrique Lo-
pez Alarcon and Fernando Alarcon have collabor-
ated in making a film of the life of Fermin Galan,
hero and martyr of the recent Spanish revolution.
In this film, made in scarcely three months, the tra-
gedy, of Jaca and Huesca, the execution of Galan
and the principal episodes of the revolution are re-
presented. For historical accuracy various func-
tionaries including the ex-minister of war, have col-
laborated in the production. (EsTAMPA, Madrid'

12-XII-1931).

The French producer Jacques Haik will make a
film on the life of Marechal Foch. (Daily Film
Renter, London, 19-XII-1931).

War Films.

" Douamont ", or the " Hell of Verdun " seen
by the Germans has had four weeks of great suc-
cess at the " Folies Dramatiques " in Paris. The
work is patronised by the " Association Nationale
des Camarades de Combat ". It is a starling re-
constitution of the terrible struggles for the pos-
session of the fort of Douamont from February io
October 1916. According to "Cine-Magazine"
it is a sincere film coming at an opportune moment
for it will aid still more the cause of peace. (ClNE-
MAGAZINE, Paris, December 1931).

National Propaganda.

The Journal Offlciel has just published a decree
creating a Comite d'Action Artistique, following
on an initiative of M. M. Petche, under-Secretary
of the Beaux-Arts. This Committee, under the
presidency of M. Henry de Jouvenel, will have the
aim of making a general propaganda for French Art
abroad. It is divided into six sectors, of which the
fifth is devoted to the Cinema and is under the pre-
sidency of M. Louis Lumiere. (La ClNEMATOGRA-
phie Francaise, Paris, 23-1-1932).

DOCUMENTARY FILMS

How Visions Australes were made ", an ex-
tract from the travel log of the Frenchman Jean
Mugeli, who has gone to Polynesia to make the
above mentioned film, will presented shortly to the
public. (Cine-Magazine, Paris, December 1931).

A film " Innuit " by the explorer Christian Leden
on Greenland has been shown in Berlin. It shows
the life and civilization of a tribe of Esquimos.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 11-1-1932).

" The Symphony of the Virgin Forest " is the
title of a sound film based on the marvellous voyage
of M. Aug. Bruckner (4000 km up the Amazon).
This is distributed in France with a commentary
by M. A. Rigaud. (Cine-Magazine, Paris, Decem-
ber, 1931).

" Raspin Productions Inc. " have made a film
" Explorers of the World " said to be very suitable
for school projection. (INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION

of catholic Alumnae, New York, 10-XII-1931).

" Associated Artists " will present shortly a do-
cumentary picture " Galfa " showing habits and
life of North African Tribes. (Bordeaux Cine,
Bordeaux, 18-XIII-1931).

At the request of Lausanne Hotel proprietors,
" Pathe-Monopole " of Geneva have made a tourist
propaganda film showing the means of communica-
tion, by sea and air, which link Lausanne with the
world's capitals. (To Day's Cinema, London,
31-XII-1931).

159 —

CINEMA AND GENERAL CULTURE

Mr. H. G. Wells stresses the necessity for lite-
rary and artistic sensibility in the heads of Cinema
organisations and states that these qualities are
of ten lacking. (Brooklyn Daily Eagle, New York,
29-XI-1931)

For the development of the cultural film " Bar-
barossa Film ", a new production company, has been
founded at Weimar. It will specialise in the sale
and rental of educational films of its own production
and also those of foreign origin. (Film Kurier>
Berlin, 6-1-1932).

Professor Hinderer of the University of Berlin,
a well known lecturer on the Cinema, is at the mo-
ment engaged in work preliminary to the foundation
of an Institute of Cinematographic Research.
(Deutscher Feutlleton Dienst, Berlin, 11-1-
1932).

For the development of educational films the
Silvary Division of Bell and Howell have included
in a recent catalogue, a list of 500 films (16 mm)
all of an instructional character. (Public Informa-
tion from Bell Howell, Chicago, 20-11932).

Under the general title of " Considerations on
Educational Cinema ", " Cineopse " publishes a
series of short articles by competent authorities
dealing with the present and future possibilities
in different branches of the subject. Amongst
these articles are : " The Cinema in the Service
of Science ", by Dr. Foreau de Courcelles, " Hi-
gienic Teaching and the pretention of Disease " by
Lucien Viborel ; " Cinema and Tourism " by
E. Roux-Parassac ; " Progress in the Educational
Cinema " by A. Colette ; " Cinema and Agriculture '
by C. Hiloem. (ClNEOPSE, Paris, January 1932).

The Spanish Natural History Society have or-
ganised at the Opera Cinema, Madrid, a presentation
of general culture films. The programme includes
the following films " Arachnides ", showing devel-
opment and life of garden spiders. " At the Foot
of Mont-Blanc " and " From London to the Cape'
a document made by Alan Cobham during his re-
cent flight of 13.000 Km. (A. B. C, Madrid,
2-XII-1931).

The Commission set up by the educational

authorities of Sao Paolo (Brazil) to organise Cinema

eaching in that State, carries on activly with its

work. During a recent propaganda trip, one of the
members of the Commission made a short film in
each of the towns visited for the use of the central
cinematek in the teaching of Geography. The
Commission is also preparing a film on the industrial
and commercial activity of the town of Sao Paolo.
(O' EsTADO, Sao-Paolo, 161 X-1931).

" Ufa " have shown to foreign press represent-
atives several cultural films in foreign versions ;
amongst these were " Wunderwelt des Teiches
(in English) and " Rauber im Vogelreich ' and
" Gezahmte Tiere " (in French). (Film KuRIER,
Berlin, 12-1-1931).

Dr. Sahm, first burgomaster of Berlin received
representatives of cultural film producers who gave
him details of the difficult situation of the educa-
tional Cinema industry. Dr. Sahm showed his
interest in the cultural film day in Germany.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 19-1-1932).

" Section de Cine-Amateurs " is the name of a
new Paris club. Shows of 9 and 16 mm films made
by members, technical discussions and the produc-
tion of chosen scenarios are amongst the projected
activities. (Cineopse, Paris, January 1932).

At Eisenstadt, native town of the Austrian com-
positor, Joseph Haydn, there will be Drojected, in
connection with the second Haydn Centenary cele-
brations, a sound film descriptive of the compo-
ser's works. (Licht-Bild-BUhne, Berlin, 6-1-1932-

A film entitled " Comradeship " from the novel
by Karl Otten and inspired by Internationalism,
reproduces scenes of the mining catastrophe of
Coutieres on the Franco-German frontier. The
spirit of generous comradeship between German
and French in this tragic aflair has aroused ad-
miration. (Neue Zuercher Zeitung, Zurich,
5-XII-1931).

Scientific Films.

The use of the Cinema in the study of micro-
organic development has been demonstrated in lec-
tures given by Prof. Stanhope Bayne-Jones and
Dr. Edward F. Adolphe of Rochester University,
at a congress of American Bacteriologists held at
Baltimore (Mail Report Science Service, Wash-
ington, 21-12-1931).

— 160 —

M. R. B. Hodges has made, at an observatory sit-
uated in the volcanic zone of the Hawaian Islands,
interesting and valuable scientific filmsi. (Movie
Makers, New York, December 1931).

Dr. Baker stresses the necessity of teaching as-
tronomy in schools. This could be facilitated
with the help of the Cinema. (To Day's ClNEMA,
London, 29-XII-1931).

The Technical Museum in Vienna has added a
technical sound news journal to its ordinay pro-
jections. The first one was projected by Ufa and
it showed how a series of atom experiments were
cinematographed. (KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, N" 2,
5-1-1932).

In Germany a Society for Scientific films has been
founded. It aims to encourage the use of scien-
tific films in schools and Universities. (The Cinema,
London, 2-XII-1931).

Amongst recent scientific films, that made by
Emerson Smith, cameraman to the Brooklyn Mu-
seum Expedition to Brazil, is most remarkable.
This film reproduces a fight between a rattlesnake
and a royal snake, which ends in a victory for the
latter. (New York Times, 29-XII-1931).

Prof. F. Lampe, using material furnished by the
cultural department of Ufa has just made a new
biological film, " Wunder der Tierwelt im Wasser ".
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 25-1-1932).

Anton Kutler has made for Emelka a cosmological
film " World Rythms ". (LlCHT-BlLD-BuEHNE,
Berlin, 14-1-1932).

Dr. G. H. Gunn has made a film at Durban,
South Africa, on the mosquito that propagates
yellow fever. This film was projected with other
hygiene films during " Health Week ". (MoviE
Makers, New York, December 1931).

LEGISLATIVE QUESTIONS

/

Author's Rights.

The French Syndical Chamber for Cinemato-
graphy has put before the Cinematograph Com-
mittee of the Chambre des Deputes, a plan for
the modification of the law of the 19th July 1793,
which prescribes the confiscation by the Commis-
sioner of Police by simple requisition without the
production of titles, of any writing or objects of art
supposed to be contrafactions. It is on account
of the abuse of this law made in connection with films
that the Chambre demands that a seizure following
on a plaint of contrafaction should not have the
power to stop the career of a film. (Bulletin de la
Chambre Syndicale Francaise, Paris, 1-1-1932).

The French Society of Authors, Composers and
Music Publishers having decided to raise from
2 x\%, to 3,3 the tax on receipts, the cooperative
organizations of independent and circuit cinemas
have decided to make no payement during 1932
to the representatives and agents of the said so-
ciety. (La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris,
23-1-1932).

The Minister of Commerce of Czechoslovakia
has formulated new regulations relative to the rental

of films which prevent the system of block booking.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, January 1932).

Non flam Films.

In a letter addressed to M. Delac, president of
the French Syndical Chamber of Cinematography,
M. Leon Noel, general Secretary to the Ministry
of the Interior announces the decision of the French
Government, which fixes January 1st 1933 for the
substitution of non-flam films for celluloid films in
all public presentations, and obliges all copies to be
printed on non-flam after October 1st 1932. The
letter summarizes previous aspects of the question
and considers practical and technical details. (BUL-
LETIN DE LA CHAMBRE FRANCAISE DE LA ClNEMATO-
GRAPHIE).

P. A. Harle thinks that the above decision is
too delicate an experiment to be attempled in a time
of crisis. Besides, in his opinion, definitive study
of non-flam film has yet to be made and the ideal
base has yet to be created. M. Harle is above all
impressed by the fact that France alone embarks
upon an experiment that no other country, America
included, has dared to try. (La Cinematographie
Francaise, Paris, January, 1932).

161

In an open letter to the president of the French
Syndical Chamber of Cinematography, the Kodak
Pathe Company declares that research woik ac-
complished at great expense in its factories have
not get given the desired results with regard to
non-flam. This letter pleads for an adjournment
for technical reasons (poor wearing quality of non-
flam base) of the ministerial decree relative to the
general adoption of non-flam film. (La ClNEMATO-
GRAPHIE FRANCAISE, Paris, 32-1-1932).

A police regulation dated Jan. 23th 32, forbids
in Prussia the use of sub-standard film in cinema
shows, unless such film is uninflammable, or ignited
with difficulty. The Prussian Minister of the In-
terior published the same day a circular relative
to the application of this rule. Most other restric-
tions previously applied to sub-standard film are
revoked. Conditions relative to the uninflamma-
bility of film will be published by the " Chemisch-
lechnische Reichsanstalt " of Beilin. (Film Ku-
RIER, Berlin, 26-1-1932).

Film control.

The censorship fees taken by the censure office
of the city of Albany (U. S. A.) amount to more
than one million dollars from 1930-31. During
1930-31 (first of July to end of June) the office or-
dered 3,031 cuts, and banned 14 films. Among
the motives for censure, the most common are :
acts of cruelty, scenes likely to lead into crime,
immorality, irreligiosity. (New-York TlMES, 17-
XII-31).

The Christian Century of New York (N'J 34 ,
1931) publishes an article of great interest on film
control. The programme of the Federal Council
of American Cinematography — the only body,
according to this article, concerned with film quest-
ions independent of industrial organizations —
is given in resume. On the whole, the Federal
Council tends, in its activity, to obtain the adoption
of legislative principles controlling cinematographic
production.

According to the author of this article the Amer-
ican public demands an energetic intervention
of federal powers with the aim of obtaining a cine-
matographic production in which art, intellect,
and national sentiment will not be sacrificed to
industrial necessities-

The first reactions against the low moral level
of films date from 1915. In 1919 during a Congress
of the Protestant Episcopal church a resolution de-

manding a strict control of films was voted ; at
the same time other Catholic and lay organizations
voted similar resolutions. In 1922, at the General
Assembly of the Presbysterian church, a tempe-
rance and moral progress committee was charged
with the task of coordinating all feelings favorable
to the amelioration and discipline of film production.
To this end the said committee organized three
conferences, held in 1922, 1924, 1925 and it is as
a result of these conferences that the Federal
Council of Cinematography has been founded.
According to the statutes, any person or organiza-
tion having at heart the amelioration of films can
take place in the Council. The activity of the Coun-
cil has recently been made manifest by the presen-
tation before the Senate of a series of law projects
for the adoption on the part of all States of a Fe-
deral Central Cinematographic control.

According to a judgment given in a penal action
against the directors of Exceisior Film, shows of
forbidden films to members of the press are not
punishable. (Film KuRIER, Berlin, 11-1-1932).

In the Free State of Ireland a Catholic association
has undertaken a campaign to obtain the creation
of special legislative measures and enforcement
commissions in order to tighten up film censure ;
this association whishes, besides, that during the
Euchanstic Congress at Dublin, and for a period
following, all film publicity should be suspended .
In certain industrial circles where censure is already
found to be too strict, this campaign is naturally
judged outrageous. (Daily Film Renter, London,
5-1-1932).

Df.R Ffilm of Berlin, asked the members of se-
veral film censorship boards and personalities of
the international cinema world to state their opi-
nions of the reasons for and the effects of the censor-
ship system actually in use. Amongst the re-
plies thus published seveial merit particular at-
tention. That of Mr. E. Seeger, Councillor to
the Reich Ministry of the Interior and Director of
the High Office of Film Control ; that of Dr. Voeg-
ler, Director of the Superior Committee of Film
Control of the Central Institute of Education and
Instruction in Berlin ; that of Dr. Giulio Cosmelli
of the Italian Ministry of the Interior ; that of M. A.
Nicolasen director of the Danish Board of Film
Censors ; that of Dr Gunnar Bjurman, head of
Cinematographic Censure in Sweden and that of
Dr. Engelmann, of Stambul, may be mentioned.
(Der Film, Berlin, 24-XII-1931).

162

The Canadian film censor deplores the increasing
number of films with sexual or criminal themes.
In 1931 96 films were banned and 642 cuts were
made. (The Daily Telegraph, London, 31 -XII-
1931).

The Beckenham Town Council has decided to
form a local office of film control, which will decide,
for each film, whether or not minors should be ad-
mitted. This decision has caused a certain dis-
turbance in English production and distribution
circles. It is observed that if the exemple of Becken-
ham is generally followed in England, the authority
of the British Board would be seriously discredited.
Additionally, in this way, the number of criteria
would be uselessly multiplied and the principle
of a single film control sadly impaired. (The
Daily Telegraph, London, 16-1-1932).

Cinema Statistics.

In 1931 in France, the censor examined 128
French talking films made in Paris studios ; 27
French talking films made in Berlin, 39 French
talking films made in America, 6 French talking
films made in Italy by a " dubbing ' process. In-
cluding sound films, there are actually 435 features
pictures on the French market. 220 are American,
139 French, 60 German, 8 English, 6 Italian.

In 1931, 527 talking films were presented in
England, 396 American, 112 English and 14 con-
tinental (ClNEMATOGRAPHIE FRANCAISE, Paris, Jan-
uary 1932).

In Germany 280 theatrical films were shown to
the censor, 148 were Geiman, 80 American, 58
European. The silent films has almost disappeared,
there have been none shown during the last three
months. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 9-1-1932).

From the 12th January to the 15th of December
1931, 121 films of foreign origin were shown in

New York, including English films ; 55 were Ger-
man, 1 5 French, 1 1 Italian, 1 1 Russian. (Film Ku-
rier, Berlin, 7-1-1932).

In 1931, German producers presented 469 cul-
tural films to the censor. The transition from silent
film to sound film has reduced the production of
cultural films in Germany, as will be seen from
the following figures: 1930, 658 films; 1929:
728 ; 1928 : 808 ; 1927 : 870 (Film Kurier, Berlin,
16-1-1932).

In Russia, E. U. Smirnow, president of the Am-
kino, announces that in 1937, that is to say at the
end of the second five year Plan, the U. S. S. R.
will have 269.000 sound projectors and an annual
production of 2.700 films. (The Daily Film Ren-
ter, London, 2-1-1932).

In Germany, according to information collected
by the Ministry of fine arts the exportation of print-
ed films attained in September 1931, the sum of
515.000 gold marks. The number of cinemas in-
creased to 5,057 totalling 1.986.713 seats, of this
number 2.193 cinemas, 190 of which contain more
than 1 .000 seats, give daily shows. (Agenzia Film,
Rome, 24-XII-1932).

The expenses of the French cinema industry
increased in 1930-31 to 1.350 millions of francs,
divided as follows : 250 millions for 1 .700 sound
sets ; 280 millions for the reorganization of theatres,
150 millions for studio equipment and reconstruc-
tion, 175 millions invested in sound and camera ma-
terials and projectors, 495 millions on production.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, 26-XII-1931).

In Lithuania, with a population of only 2 mil-
lions, the Cinema develops considerably. The
French commercial attache states that there are 80
cinemas with a total of 1 7.500 seats ; 20 of these
are equipped for sound. (Cine-Journal, Paris,
5-1-1932).

CINEMA AND LABOUR

At the meeting of Dec. 9. 1 932, the Film Printers The French Syndical Chamber in a circular let-

Section of the French Syndical Chamber, decided
to reduce from Jan. 1st. 1932 printing charges on
first positives by 30 centimes the metre. (Bul-
letin de la Chambre Syndicale Francaise,
1-1-1932).

ter of Dec. 23.1931 gave the reduction figures for
salaries in the film industry. Besides the suppres-
sion of all bonuses the reduction on salaries of over
2.500 francs a month is from 5 to 20 %. (La Cl-
NEMATOGRAPHIE Francaise, Paris, 16-1-1932).

163 —

In the wage battle in the Cinema industry, re-
ductions amounting to 1 5 % have been prescribed
according to law. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 15-1-1932).

In the estimation of a large cinema-owning com-
pany, admission charges have been reduced 20 %
on an average since the end of June last. (FlLM
Kurier, Berlin, 15-1-1932).

The financial crisis and unemployment have led
to the closing of 207 cinemas in Hungary. (Motion
Pictures Daily, New York, 6-1-1932).

According to the Washington Commerce Re-
port (9-II-1931) the American Cinema Industry
follows with interest and concern the changes in the
English film market. The Report gives the fol-
lowing reasons for this : The depreciation of ster-
ling has tended to reduce film imports ; this has been
aggravated by an increase in entertainment tax and
it is possible that customs duties on films will fur-
ther complicate the situation. Who then will bear
these new charges ? English importers already make
little money, cinema proprietors, especially those in
small towns where bad economic conditions have
forced down entrance prices, can certainly take no
share in them.

It must be remembered that England since the
introduction of the sound film, has been America's
most important film customer.

Agricultural Films.

A central office for educational and agricultural
films has recently been created in Germany. Af-

ter ascertaining what has up till now been done in
these domains, this office will devise a new
programme of work in cooperation with existing
interests. (La Technique Agricole Internatio-
nale, Rome, Oct.-Dec. 1931).

The National Institute " Luce " (Italy) has made
a film called " Zootecnia " which answers to the
needs of the National Consortium for progress in
Zootecnia. On account of its artistic and technical
qualities this film has met with the highest appro-
bation. It will be distributed throughout the rural
centres of Italy. (Il Corriere della Sera, Milan,
9-XII-1931).

The Rural Association of Uruguay will shortly
release an instructional film on agriculture. This
film will be distributed to schools and projected in
the principal agricultural centres of the Republic.
(Revista de la Asociacion rural del Uruguay,
Montevideo, December 1 93 1 ) .

A Dutch film on the fight against cattle parasites
has been shown in Germany and Sweden recently
with great success. (Journal dAgriculture, Ge-
neve, 5-1-1932).

" Mejrabpomfilm " have released a film entitled
" Prokpp Vaito " showing farm life at the time of
the spring sowing. Another educational film
" The Way of the North " made recently at Mour-
mansk shows northern people and their various
activities fishing, agriculture, mining and also the
activities : of women in the Northern farms. (Les
Nouvelles Sovietiques, Moscou, Sept. 1931).

VARIOUS

The Dutch Director, Yoris Ivens is now working
in Moscow with " Mejrabpomfilm " ; at the same
time he is giving lectures at the Cinematographic
University of Moscow. (Film Review, Berlin,
16-1-1932).

After an agreement reached between the com-
mittee of the International Book Fair at Florence
and the Italian National Entertainment Federation,
it has been decided to hold an International Cine-
matographic Exhibition in Florence very shortly.
(Il Popolo di Roma, Rome, 25-XII-1931).

From March 13th to 20th 1932, on the occasion
of the Spring Fair, there will be an International
Cinema Exhibition. This will be composed of
four sections : technical section, Cinema propaganda
section ; retrospective section of documentaries,
avant garde films and news reels etc. and finally
a foreign film section (LlCHlSPlELBUEHNE, Aussig,
December 1931).

The New-York Times, 3-1-1932, publishes in-
teresting information on the Cinematographic
University recently created in Moscow. This uni-
veisity, where the length of course is four years,

— 164 —

instructs future studio staff in cinema production :
scenarists, regisseurs, draughtsmen, administrators,
etc.

The courses are at the moment followed by 1800
pupils who have been chosen out of many thousands
of candidates. The school is attached to one of the
principal soviet production companies Meirabpom-
film, so that the courses may shift rapidly from the
theoretical to the practical ground.

Pupils are divided into various sections : agricul-
tural, military, scientific, artistic and junior. Pu-
pils can pass from one section to another, but de-
cisions in these matters rest with the directors-
Each day several hours are devoted to physic a
exercises, to develop the agility of pupils in order
that they may be fitted for their work. The teach-
ing includes the following subjects : anatomy, phy-
siology, acoustics, music, arts generally, the art
of dressing and of make up. Instead of books,
duplicated notes are distributed to the pupils. The
character of this institution is particularly rema rk-
able. It is not simply a professional school but a
study center where the pupils are shown that the
cinema is a science and an art which has the right
to live and develop according to its necessities.

In order to form technicians for the projection
of sound films, l'Ecole Technique de Photographie
et de Cinematographie in Pans has started tech-
nical and practical courses for those with a sufficient
rudimentary knowledge of electricity and physics.
(Cineopse, Paris, January, 1932).

The Council of the Italian Entertainment Cor-
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1931).

KASTALIA

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Bibliography

Manuel du Cineaste Amateur by JACQUES Henri-
Robert, civil engineer, published by J. deFrancia,
118-bis, rue d'Assas, Paris.

Amateur cineasts have not always a sufficient
knowledge to practise their hobby, which has many
secrets for overcoming time and space and thus
liberating their fancy. It is then a good thing for
them to learn these secrets. To this end M. Henri-
Robert has edited without scientific pretension
and in a manner comprehensible to all, this little
manual in which he has concentrated all the tech-
nical details necessary to amateurs for the complete
exploitation of their hobby.

Le Cinema, by Andre DelpeuCH, published by Gas-
ton Doin & Cc, Place de l'Odeon, Paris.

A clearly written work in which the author pre-
sents to us historical, technical, commercial and
artistic sides of the cinema. In all of these he is
well informed and speculates interestingly not
only on the reality of the cinema today but also on
its possibilities.

M. Delpeuch thinks, and we generally agree with
him, that the cinema is an extension of the human
personality and has increased human riches. By
distracting innumerable spectators and instructing
them, it has added to humane and social aquire-
ments ; by having aided them in the extension of
their individualities it has taken on a truly phi-
losophical aspect. It is a milestone of civilization.

The form and substance of this work makes it a
popular book worthy of the fine and interesting
" Bibhoteque Sociale des Metiers ", published by
Gaston Doin under the illuminating direction of
Mr. Georges Renard, professor of the College de
France.

Schmalfilm ah Schulfilm by Max TlESLER, one
volume paper, m. 1 .80, cloth, mks. 2.30 published
by Wilhelm Knapp (Saale).

This is the first volume of a collection called
" Filmbiicher fiier Alle " published by Knapp.
After showing the convenience of substandard
film for teaching, M. Tiesler gives good advice as
to the choice of a practical projector. Projection

and camera technique are also simply and prac-
tically explained.

Die Film-Vcrwcrtunqsvertrage in ihren Bezkhangm
zum Urhtberrecht by ALBERT SteNZEL, 1931-
This is a thesis written for a doctorate in law at
the Friedrich Alexander University at Erlangen,
Bavaria.

After a short forword the thesis begins with in-
teresting considerations on the importance of the
cinema industry in German economics. The
capital invested at the end of 1930 in the 5,300
cinemas then existent in Germany was about one
milliard of marks, and gave occupation to 100,000
people. Given this investment, M. Stenzel deplores
the fact that a cinematographic legislation corre-
sponding to the needs of the industry has never
been created.

M. Stenzel divides his matter under three prin-
cipal headings : (a) from the conception of the
subject to the projection ; (b) film contracts between
producers and distributors ; (c) contracts between
distributors and exhibitors. He then treats the
following points, the film, its production and use ;
the distributor ; the proprietor of the cinema ; the
author of cinematographic works (the scenarist
and the producer) ; the protection of author's
rights in films ; the object of contract ; world
exclusivity, national and local exclusivity ; the
ordinary exclusive contract ; the juridical nature of
the exclusive contract; single film contracts ; con-
tracts for series of films ; the non-exclusive contract ;
the made to order film ; exclusive contracts for
sound films ; the end and nature of contracts ;
the juridical nature of central contracts, etc.

Filmmanuskripte und Film-Ideen (Scenarios and
Film Subjects) by HELMUTH Lange, 121 Subjects
for Amateur cineasts, 58 illustrations Price,
Mks. 3.75, published by Photokinoverlag. G. M.
B. H., Stallschreiberstrasse, 33, Berlin, S. 14.

The lack of subjects is a great amateur difficulty.
When they have made their first films of family
life, nearly all amateur cineasts, without ideas

— 166

gradually abandon their hobby, which they previous-
ly followed with enthusiasm. It is this consider-
ation that suggested to Photokino the idea of get-
ting Mr. Helmuth Lange, General Secretary of
the German Association of Cine-amateurs to write
this work.

In accordance with this idea he has therefor given
in this book one hundred and twenty-one subjects
for amateur films, family life, club life, voyages,
excursions, handiwork, cartoons, etc., and that
completed by practical advice and a few in-
dispensible technical notions. With its 58 illustra-
tions Mr- Langes book is of equal interest to cine-
amateurs and those interested in the cinema in
general.

Der Titel in Amateurfilm, same author and editor.
(22 illustrations, 1 table of sub-titles, 2 sub-titles
proofs, on fine paper and a sample alphabet for
the composition of titles).

However successful an amateur film may be, it
will lack finish if adequate titles are lacking. This
necessary complement of the film has always been
a weak point with cine-amateurs, first on account of
the fact that the majority of then have a vague idea
of when these are required and of what they should
consist. Technical knowledge is often lacking also.

M. Helmuth Lange's book explains clearly the
role of titles and gives some rules for their com-
position.

The value of this book resides in the fact that
theoretical points are always complemented by
practical advice, so that after reading it the cine-
amat eur is enabled to continue properly in this line.
The illustrations add to the clarity of the text.

Das Buch von Film, by Wernfr GrXff, published
by Thienemanns Verlag, Stuttgart.

It must be noted that the way in which M. Werner
tells technical things to young people is both
original and attractive. The author, aided by many
illustrations, says all that is necessary on cinemato-
graphic technique, modern studio equipment, de-
cor, the points of a good camera, the qualities of
a good producer, actor, and photography ; also sound
films and film montage are dealt with. This book,
which is an introduction to the mysteries of the
Cinema, and certainly be well received by young
people.

Pjohl : A new German-Spanish and Spanish-Ger-
man dictionary Part 1 , Spanish German, cloth
mks. 7; Part 2, German-Spanish, cloth, mks. 9;
the two bound together, mks. 15; published, 7 a
Brockhaus, Leipzig.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Roma — « L'Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

- 167

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EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

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MARCH
19 3 2

LEAGUE<*NAI1QNS

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CINEMATOGRAPHY

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GOVERNING BODY.

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of Rome. President.
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CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

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Inc. (U. S. A.).
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REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, at the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

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INDEX

Pag.

B. Hala and L. HoNTY ... — The Use of the Cinema in the Exploration

of the Human Voice 173

/. A E. C. STUDIES

History of Visual Education (Continued) 189

1. 1. E. C. Investigations in Progress 201

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Young People's Empressions of War Films 204

LEGISLATION

Film Censure in Poland and Lithuania 213

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The Roumanian Commission of Educational Cinema — Film activities in Soviet
Russia — What French Teachers think of the Cinema — Educational
Films in England — How practicable are Motion Pictures in Schools —
Distribution of Cultural Films in Holland — Educational Cinema in
Brazil — Propaganda Films for the Abolition of Traffic in Woman — An
Exhibition of Publicity Films — German Film Industry — The Scien-
tific Film — International Recreation Congress 217

TECHNICAL NOTES 235

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 239

THE USE OF THE CINEMA IN THE EXPLORATION
OF THE HUMAN VOICE

By B. Hala

Assistant at the phonetic Institute

and L. Honty

Assistant at the Institute
of Scientific Photochaphv and Cinema
of the universite charles in prague

FOREWORD

Today there is very little which remains a secret to the Cinema lens,
the most distant corners of the world and the most intimate secrets of the
human body, all are known.

It is above all in this latter matter that the scientific film plays such
an important part, revealing a great number of details of paramount import-
ance that might otherwise remain unknown. There are microcinematogra-
phic films for the study of bacteria, radiograph films for showing the sound
reproducing organs in action (the finest work of this kind has been done
by M. Gutzmann of Berlin, as far as we know) microphonocinematographic
films for giving the sound of certain organs while they are functioning. The
Ultrarapid film follows the destructive movement of poisons in the orga-
nisms, the breaking of a bone by a bullet, the rythym of heart beats under
material and spiritual influences, etc... It is impossible to say where these
practical applications of the Cinema will lead to in the fulfilment of the
Greek saying, " Know thou thyself ", but, in the meantime, happily perhaps,
these films are not shown to the general public but remain within the labo-
ratories. In this short article we wish to explain one of the scientific appli-
cations of the Cinema, of both theoretical and practical importance : this
is the cinematography of the vocal cords, which constitute the primary
organ of human speech. It is one of the most difficult processes of scien-
tific cinema because the vocal cords are concealed in the larynx (Adam's
Apple) and beneath the epiglottis which covers it at the moment of swallow-
ing to prevent the food being introduced into it instead of descending in
the usual way by the oesophagus to the stomach. For the emission of
breath or words, the epiglottis lifts to a degree corresponding to the high-
ness of pitch of the sound desired. As it lifts thus it is possible to see the

— 174 —

vocal cords by means of a small mirror called a laryngoscope (used by all
doctors and invented by the celebrated Czec physiologist J. Cermak). This
little mirror is placed (as shown in figs. 1 and 2) on the veil of the palate
and more particularly on the uvula, and for this reason the subject must
have good nerves and be accustomed to the laryngoscope.

The aim of our experiment is to register the positions and movements
of the vocal chords in order to analyse and reconstitute them. To show

Fig.

Laryngoscopy system.

1) Hard Palate ; 2) Palate veil ; 3) Uvula ; 4) Nasal Cavities ; 5) Vertrebraies ; 6) (Esophagus ; 7) L arynx
with vocal cords ; 8) Epiglottis ; 9) Teeth ; 1 0) Tongue ; 1 1 ) Handle of layngoscope ; 1 2) Laryngoscopic mirror.

Copy of a radiograph by Polland-Hali in " Radiographs of Czech Sound Articulations " (1 926 Pub. by
the Czech Academy of Prague).

the different positions of the chords, the Cinema is very much more useful
than ordinary photography which merely represents one moment of the
action and the exact significance of that moment is often hard to know.
As for the analysis and reconstitution of the movement, this can only be done
by means of the Cinema.

As in every experimental work, a special system is necessary, strictly
conforming to its special use, the capabilities of the camera must be increased
and the intensity of the light must be augmented. But, the most important
thing for the analysis of vocal chord movements is that the images obtained

- 175 -

should be as large and as detailed as possible. This size must be obtained
on the original negative as enlargement yields no details not previously re-
gistered.

The three important points of our system are then :

1) a cinema camera with suitably modified optical and mechanical
systems,

2) specially installed lights of great power,

3) the maintenance of all in a perfect harmony, without which the
work would have no value.

Fig. 2. — General view of Vocal chords.

Work of this kind is not common. In time past, the simple photo
was used combined with the stroboscope, which permits the phases of mo-
vement to be taken (the best pictures of this kind are the famous ones by
Miisehold in his Allgemeine Akustik und Mechanik des Menschlichen
Stimmorgans). It is to Chevroton and Vies that the credit for the first
cinematographic attempts is due, and they were of a modest nature (1 ). Com-
bination of Cinema and Stroboscopy was then tried to obtain not only the
fixed phases of movement but also and above all the movements of the vocal
chords themselves. This was the idea of M. Calzia, director of the pho-
netic library of Hambourg and author of a series of articles (cited later)

(1) See articles by Russel and Morrisson in Filmtechnik, Berlin, 1930, fasc. 23, p. 18, and 1931,
fasc. 11, p. 5.

— 176 —

on the Cinematography of the Vocal Chords. He too was the first to em-
ploy ultra rapid cinema for the study of vocal vibrations.

In our work we have wished to study the different movements of the
chords during articulation, and their positions.

We first used ordinary cinema, then in combination with Stroboscopy,
and finally the ultra rapid camera. With the friendly help of our chiefs,
M. le Prof. Vojtech of the Institute of Scientific Cinema and M. le Prof.
Chlumsky, director of the Phonetics Institute, who provided us with appa-
ratus and money for our experiments, we were able to establish a method and
to arrive at some very interesting results. We first give a detailed descrip-
tion of the method :

The process.

1) The ordinary cinema camera is not suitable for our work because
its lens has a relatively short focal length and a method of film traction which
does not allow of removing the film sufficiently from the lens to achieve a
short distance focus. And for our work we must have images of about
half life size (max) and the vocal cords must therefore be in focus at 0.50 m.
to 1 .0 m. For this purpose a very fast lens must be used and of long focal
length, which in turn of course depends on the parallax between the optical
axis of the lens and that of the lighting. This prevents approaching the
subject too closely, for then the great angle between the direction of the light
and that of the lens becomes dangerous to results. Besides, the too close
presence of a lens bothers the subject. Therefore, to obtain images of the
right size a 10.20 cm. lens must be used. The speed of this lens is sufficient
for normal cinema (18-20 images a second), with or without the stroboscope
and using two arcs of 120 v. 10-15 amps, when opened to f. 4.5 to 9 (expo-
sure of 1 /40th to 1/1 00th of a second). For ultra rapid (64-240 images,
1/100 to 1 /500th of a second) the light intensity must be doubled (either
by tightening up the arcs or having more lamps) and at the same time the
speed of the lens must be increased 2 to 4 times. But the usual cinema
lens does not answer to the above stipulations. Another lens is therefore
necessary and a consequent readjustment of the focus. For this purpose
an ordinary camera lens is used in front of the cinema camera. The lens
changes and arrangements are facilitated by an optical bench screwed on
to the camera base. We will speak further of this later. We also tried
disconnecting the ordinary camera and the cine camera entirely to prevent

— 177 —

the transmission of shocks and in this case the optical bench had a support
of its own.

Here then is the system we adopted for our work : to the top of the ca-
mera tripod we screwed a special platform which carried both cine camera
and optical bench, on this bench was a mobile lens support which enabled
us to place the auxiliary lens as we pleased. To make the coupling between
the lenses as solid as possible a tube was fitted between them. Focus was
effected both by the movement of the auxiliary lens and in the usual way
in the cine camera.

The lens we have just described permitted us to try out several com-
binations with our ordinary camera lenses. The best combination was a
Zeiss Tessar (F. 4. 5. 15 cm. or with a mirror reflector camera F. 3.5 ; F. 2,
18 & 24 cm.). The focus, the depth, the position and lighting of the sub-
ject were controlled by the Cinema direct vision device throughout the
entire shot (this necessitates a special optical system). This arrangement
permits of great economy in stock of which large amount is used, especially
with ultra rapid.

2) Lighting. — The problem of the lighting is one of fundamental
importance. First, the light must be very strong on account of the absorp-
tion in the various mirror systems and of the periodic interruptions of the
interrupting disc (in using the stroboscope) even during very short expos-
ures. Secondly, it must preserve its direction and area very accurately)
it should hinder nieether the cameraman nor the subject, it should not pro-
duce reflections in the lenses, mirrors, the tongue, teeth or saliva, nor shad-
ings (such as are produced by eccentric relations with the laryngoscope,
unequal use of the lenses, eccentric lighting of the cords, or their shading
by the epiglottis). In addition the light must be steady and constant.

3) Our System. (See fig. 3-4-5-6). (All subsequent numerals in
parenthesis refer to fig. 3.) — The light from an arc lamp (1) automat-
ically regulated, was concentrated by a condenser (2) then projected by a
lens (6) on to a microscopic mirror with a double axis (8) then reflected
on the laryngoscope (9) from where it fell upon the vocal chords. Lamp,
condenser and lens were mounted on the same bench whose optical axis
could be changed at will. Throughout the length of the light path it is
essential that all apparatus should have as small an area as possible entirely
utilised. But the most critical point is the cinema image itself for there it
must be ascertained that the crater of the electric arc does not shade the
vocal chords.

— 178 —

After this summary, we will go into details.

The Light Source. — For ordinary cinema speed we used a Zeiss auto-
matic arc lamp 120 v. 10-15 amps. Continuous current was furnished by
a high capacity battery.

For ultra rapid (64 to 240 im. p. s.) the light from this lamp is not suf-
ficient, two large lamps must be used. Single lamp lighting brings out
details and relief in the chords but sometimes one chord will shade another.
Two lamp lighting takes out relief but gives an evenly illuminated image.

The condenser (2). — Best suited to our purpose was the Zeiss 1, c.
The projection lens had a focal distance of 40 c. m. and a speed of f/5. Its
dimensions are very important for it should pass the luminous cone from
the condenser without vignetting and without having the slightest part of
its surface unused ; for this, a fixed distance from the condenser is necessary
which should itself be placed so that an image of the arc crater is not pro-
jected on the vocal chords. Coming out of the projection lens the
luminous cone should pass very near in front of the camera without being
obstructed by the latter in any way ; it should be slightly smaller than the
microscopic mirror and as large as the laryngoscope. If the light were
more concentrated, it might happen that the chords would not be illumin-
ated constantly (on account of a slight change in their position or in that
of the laryngoscope). Finally the light should touch niether tongue nor
teeth for that would produce reflections harmful to the image. For that
reason we lighted only the vocal chords and the method we adopted enabled
us to use the entire light source and to get the largest practical image.
In all, the distance between condenser and projector should be chosen
so that the light produced on the vocal chords should be in a luminous
circle as large as possible, even, and without traces of the arc crater.

For Stroboscopy. — We placed the stroboscopic disc (4) between the
condenser and projector at the point where the beam was narrowest. It
is good to concentrate the ligh as much as possible here, for the narro-
wer the luminous cone is when it passes the stroboscopic disc, the more
regular is the interruption for each phase. In order to concentrate the
cone to the greatest extent the condenser must be moved away slightly
from the arc crater.

The Microscopic Mirror (8) is mobile on two axes and it was placed
near to the lens and either attached to the cinema camera or mounted on
a separate optical bench to avoid transmission of mechanical shock when
taking ultra rapid. Thus the mirror was adjustable in all planes.

- 179

The Laryngoscope (9). — It is necessary to take great precaution to
ensure that there is no reflection on the metal parts of this instrument
which might spoil the image when the focus is made.

The Observation Mirror (7) Beneath the cinema lens we placed another
small round mirror adjustable on two perpendicular axes ; this permitted
the subject to control the image of the vocal chords and regulate the po-

H^e^^E^-- -

FlC. 3. — System for vocal chord Cinema.

1) Arc lamp ; 2) Condenser ; 3) Water tank ; 4) S'roboscopic Disk ; 5) Protection Disk (against light) ;
6) Projection lens ; 7) Observation Mirror ; 8) Microscopic mirror (two such when two lamps are used) ;
9) Laryngoscope ; 10) Chair ; 11) Lens ; 12) Auxiliary camera ; 13) Film ; 14) Cinema camera ; 15) Mag-
nifier ; 16) Optical axes ; 17) Supports ; !8) Points of attachment.

sition of the Laryngoscope. Besides, this was the only method of ob-
taining harmony between subject and operator, the most important and
difficult part of the process.

The Subject, M. Hala seated comfortably in a dentists chair which
was absolutely stable. His head was thrown slightly back, and it
rays from rested on an adjustable support (fig. 5 and 5). In order to
cool the light the arc, which would be too hot for the subject to stand,
a water tank was placed between the condenser and the projector. The
eyes of the subject were protected from the light by a self support-
ing shade and both operator and subject with yellow glasses while at
work.

Ice ing.

180 -

Exposure.

(a) For Normal Cinema 1/40 of a second, too long an exposure con-
sidering the speed at which the vocal chords move. It is obvious that
vibrations taking 1/100 of a second cannot be cinematographed in this
manner for in 1 /40 of a second several vibrations would be made and the
result would be a blurred image without stroboscopic detail.

Even when the shutter speed of the camera is increased, the vibra-
tion may correspond more or less exactly with the period of the camera
shutter and each image will then give only an unclear idea of the mo-
vement. Thus it is seen that ordinary cinema (18 to 20 images a second
can give us only the general aspect of vocal chord movements as in the
actions of breathing in and out, etc. Their true vibrations it can never
show us.

(b) For stroboscopy combined with Cinema : here the factor which de-
cides the exposure is the length of time during which the chords are
lighted which in its turn depends upon the number of apertures in the
stroboscopic disc and the speed of its rotation.

During an exposure of 1/40 of a second the vocal chords are lighted
several times, for example at a frequency of 200 they are lighted five
times. However it will be seen that, depending upon the phase rela-
tionship existing between the disc and the camera shutter and the size of
aperture in each case, the above figure will vary between four and five
illuminations per exposure, assuming that the spacing of the apertures on
the stroboscopic disc is uniform in size with the apertures themselves.
These differences of exposure seem almost imperceptible in consecutive
images and even in the cases of the greatest possible difference (4 to 5 pe-
riods) the film seems evenly lit.

Raising the stroboscopic frequency until it is about equal to the vibra-
tions of the chords at a certain pitch, an apparently very slow movement
is obtained and it may be cinematographed with an almost perfect clarity.
The exact pitch of this sound was fixed by means of a projection of com-
pressed air through the holes in the stroboscopic disc or by means of a
resonator and an electrical sound amplifier. Stroboscopic Cinema there-
fore enables us to reconstitute very faithfully the vibratory movements of
the chords when these movements are periodical but in reality it only
gives us parts of the real movement. The cinema in every case only gives

— 181 -

us periodic visual indications which are completed by our imagination in
order to give us an impression of reality. In the combination of the ci-
nema with stroboscopy this imaginative reconstruction becomes slightly
more difficult but in compensation for this our process has the advantage
of enabling us to register the quickest vibrations in the most delicate
manner.

(c) Ultra Rapid Cinema : in order to render movement in a more real
manner the length of the exposure must be lengthened and in order to
fill up the gaps which would ordinarily be filled up by the imagination,
the number of exposures must be increased. It is therefore clear that
Ultra-Rapid cinema can give us a more truthful image of the original
movement whether periodical or not. In attaining a shutter speed equal
to the vibration period of the chords themselves, the camera registers and
reconstructs their vibrations. But even in the case when the shutter pe-
riod of the camera does not equal the vibratory period of the chords and
when the lenth of exposure is too short (1/600 of a second) the Ultra
Rapid movement of the film with its stroboscopic character helps us the
recognize the vibrations of which it reproduces a certain part (thus with
an exposure of 1/600 of a second and a frequency of 200 it gives us one
third of each vibration). The greatest advantage of the ultra rapid ca-
mera is that besides giving us the movement of non periodical vibrations
it also gives us the most faithful possible reconstruction of reality.

Conclusion.

Normal Cinema gives us only the overall appearance of the vocal chord
movements ; with the stroboscope, it permits of a minute analysis of their
periodic vibrations ; ultra rapid Cinema reproduces the movements in the
most real and universal manner possible, giving us not only all periodic
and non periodic movements but also all accessory movements of the chords,
such as, the entry into position, the relaxation the anomalies and the per-
pendicular movements of the chords.

Our work is not yet finished, and we have the intention to return to it
as soon as possible. We will employ yet another new method whereby we
hope to fix mathematically the movements of the vocal chords in space.

182

KEY TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Besides figs. 4, 5 and 6 these illustrations represent specimens of images obtained by Hala and Hontij by their
three processes. They are (a) Cinema films, (b) enlarged stills, (c) from an avant-garde scientific film. Lack of
space has prevented us from reproducing these in full size. The reader must not on this account suppose that the
originals useful on 1 6 mm. film for all the work was done on 35 mm. film.

The figures 4-5-6 represent devices invented by Hala and Honty for making their films.
Fig. 4. — System for normal Cinema and stroboscopy (seen from above).
FlG. 5. — Universal system for all processes (normal, stroboscopic and ultra-rapid, cinema)
FlG. 6. — Same as fig. 5 except for the fact that it is seen from the other side

a) Films*

FlG. 7. — Normal cinema :

Column 1 : Position of the laryngoscope in the mouth with the image of the vocal chords. Breathing
in with vowel a.

Col. 2 : The articulation of the chords for the vowel a (a long in Czec).

Col 3 : Position of the vocal chords or the consonant h (Czec isolated). The vowel apophyses form
a triangular opening, the vocal chords are near together but not touching. This position brings to mind
what the Czec Prof. J. Cermak called " die Murmelstimme ". and indeed for the consonant h there are both
the consonant sound (produced by the vocal breath expelled from the lungs, escaping during the articulat-
ion of the h across the narrow gap between the vocal apophyses of the atenoids) and voice about as for
sounded consonants (ea. b,d,g,). This agrees with the description given by Cermak in Ges. Schrifter, I,
2, 756, in a note).

The rest of the images in column 2 (7 to 9) represent the passage during breathing in

FlG. 8. — Normal Cinema :

Col. 1 : Transition from the formation of the vowel a (long Czec A) with a deep breath. Across
the glottis is seen the wall of the trochea.

Col. 2 : Normal breathing in and out between two a s ; the opening of the glottis is here very much
smaller than in I. ; the duration of an inspiration and expiration cycle is from 0.40 to 0.44 of a second
(8 pictures).

Col. 3 : Breathing out during formation of the vowel a. The images representing the breathing out
are similar to those in column 2. with the single difference that this time the vocal chords have been taken
rather from the side and at the back (from the side of the arthenoids) and the epiglottis covers the central
part of the chords. Image 7 of column 3 represents the closing of the glottis (which gives rise to the con-
sonant called " explosion of the larynx " or " glottis noise ' , in German " barter stimmeinsatz ' before
the vowell is commenced.

Fig. 9. — Normal Cinema :

Col. 1 : The vowel a whispered.
Col. 2 : The consonant h whispered.
Col. 3 : The same in normal voice.

Fig. 10. — Stroboscopic cinema :

Col. 1 : Two stroboscopic vibrations of the chords for a.
Col. 2 : Four stroboscopic vibrations for a.

{Continued on page 188).

Fig. 4.

Fio. 5.

Fig. G.

1

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9

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Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

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Ifc1 Ik1

WV't'WV

9 ««sJP m3 «^% «^1 •♦_# fegJI

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m mi !*>• !*•• i<- I K Is: It

Fi<j. 12-1.

Fig. 12-2.

Fig. 14-1.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14-2.

Fig. 15-1.

Fig. 15-2.

Fig. 15-3.

Fig. 16.

- 188 —

Fig. 11. — Ultra Rapid cinema :

Col. 1 : Breathing out in the production of the isolated sounded h.
Col. 2-3 : Vibration of the chords for isolated h.
Col 4 : Beginning of a vibration for the vowel a.

b) Enlarged Images (4 to 10 times). (Printed here in reduced size).

Fig. 12. — Above : Combined photo (v. fig. 7, col. 3. image 3). — Below : Ordinary photo (fig. 7,
col. 1 , image 2).

Fig. 13. — 1) Phase in articulation of h, breathing in. (enlargedment of image 9, fig. 7, col. 3).

2) Position of the chords for Czec A isolated (image 3 col. 3, fig. 9).

3) Position of the chords for a (fig. 7, col. 2 ).

FlG. 14. — Above a phase of deep breathing in. (fig. 8, col. 1, image 7). — Below a phase of
breathing out (fig. 8, col. 3, image 2).

FlG. 15. — 1) position of vocal chords for whispered Czec H (fig. 9, col. 2, image 4).

2) a phase of stroboscope vibration for the Vowel a (fig. 10, col. 2).

3) a phase of breathing out in h position taken with ultra rapid (image 8, fig. 1 1, col. 1).

c) Avant Garde scientific film representing the process for the cinemato-

graphy of the vocal chords, composed by M. Honty.

Some specimens of the film.

NOTICE. — Readers interested in these films in pari or in whole can apply to M. Boh. Hala, Phonetic
Institute of the Charles University of Prague. (Praha, I, Smetanovo. 1 Tchecosloslovakia) uheie they
may ohtain copies and slides ot any size.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

a) Chevroton et Vles : Cinematographic des cordes vocales. (Compt. rendus Ac. Sc.

156/1913, 949-52).

Panconcelli-Calzia : Die Kinematographie u. Photographic der Bewegungen im
Kehlkopf, etc. . . (Vox, 1920, 1 foil.).

Russell in Filmtechnik, Berlin, 1930, N° 23, p. 18.

MORRISSON in Filmtechnik, 1931, N° 11, p. 5.

b) PANCONCELLI-CALZIA : Die einfache Kinematographie und die Strobokinematographie

der Stimmlippenbewegungen beim Lebenden. (Vox, 1913, 81 foil.).

Die Kinematographie der Stimmlippenbewegungen beim Lebenden. (In colla-
boration with M. Hegener, Vox, 1920, 114-115).

Eine Zweckmassige Vorrichtung zur einfachen und stroboskopischen Kinema-
tographie von Phonationsvorgangen im Kehlkopf. (Zs. f. Laryngol. Rhinol. Otol.,
Leipzig, 1930, 18, 101-102).

c) Strobokinematographien u. Zeitlupenaufnahmen von membranosen Zungen- und olster-

pfeifen sowie von menschlichen Mundlippen. (Ann. d. Physik, 1928, 85, p. 483).
Zeitlupenaufnahmen u. Strobokinematographie von Vorgangen im Kehlkopf.
(Zs. f. Laryngol. Rhinol. Otol. Leipzig, 1929, 17, 394-5).

/. /. E. C. Studies

HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

(continued)

EGYPTIAN EDUCATION

As in India, we find in ancient Egypt, a powerful holy cast to which is confided
the direction of the great schools of Memphis, Heliopohs, and Thebes, frequented by
studious youth. " On account of the fact that the Egyptians wished to transmit their
intellectual and religious patrimony received from ancestors who themselves boasted of
having received it from even more remote sources, obedience was the cardinal virtue
from in which youth was instructed. This unilateral form had of course, its disadvantages,
the greatest of which was the suppression of all free manifestations and hence of the
personality itself (1) ".

Intellectual and physical education was widespread enough, judging from the fact
that the designation " lettered " generally accompanies all other titles and youths perform-
ing physical exercises are often represented on monuments.

Archaeological documents, left to us by ancient Egypt, the grandiose sepulchral
pyramids, called " eternal houses " and the hieroglyphic writing allow as to believe that
visual education, impressing facts almost effortlessly, existed.

Hieroglyphic writing, purely ideographic, indicates, as does Chinese writing the
temperament of the people and the spiritual needs of the inventors.

It has been justly said that the first attempts at writing in primitive peoples or in
very ancient civilizations now lost from sight, should be looked for on monuments, in
wood and stone sculpture and painting of however rudimentary a character.

As a child, yet ignorant of writing, attempts to draw, so the primitive man, equally
ignorant of writing, feels the need to transmit the memory of a man or an event to post-
erity by a means other than that of the spoken word'and so he raises up monuments
and covers them with sculpture and drawings.

Everything tends ", writes P. Cavazzuti (2) " to make us believe that the first
Egyptian hieroglyphics — already fully formed 5000 years before the vulgar era — were
derived from painting and sculpture. The word hieroglyphic perpetuates the idea of
this link. It derives actually from the Greek hieros (sacred) and glypho (engrave) and
these words according to the eminent French egyptologist MASPERO are the exact trans-
lation of, of the Egyptian skflin-nutri which means divine writings or drawings. It is

(1) From the article " Egypt " in the Illustrated Dictionary of Teaching by A. Martinazzoli and
L. Credaro.

(2) From the article " Writing " in the same work.

- 190 —

scarcely necessary to bring to mind the fact that these divine writings were engraved
on the walls of temples.

' The first elements of hieroglyphic writing are simply drawings or ideograms —
idea-signs. To express the idea of a " bull ", a bull is drawn ; that of a " man ", a man
is drawn and so on. To express more complicated idea the artists saught new means.
Thus, for example, to express the idea " the man goes ", they drew beside the figure of
the man, a pair of legs in the act of walking. The figure of a man with his hand on
his mouth served to express ideas of drinking and eating, and, later by extension, speak-
ing, reflecting etc. . .

" How then did ideographic writing change into syllabic writing ?
In the beginning, the ideogram represented a simple idea, then an idea and its
quahficatives ; it then became a simple phonogram representing one syllable and finally
it came to represent a single letter Thus the alphabet was born ".

The process used in many modern methods of teaching children to read follows this
evolution in its principal stages. Indeed a drawing of a pipe (ideogram) for instance
is shown to a child, then the sound is analysed and spilt up into two syllables pi-pe
(syllabic phongram) and finally the letter p is arrived at (litteral phonogram).

' The Egyptian not only engraved with the burin on stone but also wrote in black
and red ink on papyrus using a rush quill.

The lack of ability on the part of the scribes and the necessity of writing rapidly
soon altered the primitive form of the characters. Also finer quills came to be used and
thus the characters lost their representational aspect with their size.

They became undeciphrable for posterity. The Egyptian ideography should serve
as an example and a lesson to modern educators. As in ancient times, the modern child
is interested only in what it sees, and completely understands only that which it can see.

May, therefore, pictures which enlarge the knowledge of the child and save it from
a harmful and sometimes false hyper-culture, be given to it.

EDUCATION IN GREECE

Whilst oriental education was characterised by its attempt to repeat and preserve
the past by abolishing the personality, the great significance of Greek education lay in its
having for the first time placed the individual forces in a fit environment for their devel-
opment, the progress which resulted was not only well received but positively encourag-
ed. Thus Monroe expresses it in his "Shorten History of Education" (1).

The Greek educational ideal bears then a distinct resemblnce to the modern one
which tends to develope individual characteristics. When one thinks that the Greeks
considered education as " gymnastic for the body and music for the soul ", one is aston-
ished at the fact that in contradiction with this ideal, the task of educating was often
put upon incapable persons, servants and slaves, who on account of some physical im-
perfection or other reason were prevented from doing other useful work. This goes to
prove that the intimate understandig of education as a preparation for life in all its

(1) From the Italian translation by G. Codignola,

- 191 -

aspects and manifestations was not realised by the Geeeks. Nor was clear to the prac-
tically minded Romans who copied Greek Culture even in its imperfections.

In educational fact, the Spartan ideal was confused with the patriotic spirit. The
perfect citizen was the brave and strong soldier, always ready for battle. Outside of
nature's unfortunates, education was applied to everyone even to women in as much as
they were the future mothers of soldiers.

It is only in our time that the education of abnormal persons has been taken in
hand and special institutions founded. There, charity aided by science, helps to make
life more bearable for the unfortunate.

Sparta offers us the typical example of State education in its most absolute and
intransigeant form, carried even to the destruction of the family.

And this form of education is certainly not without appreciable advantages but like
all. that is carried too far, it has at the same time such disadvantages that the question
of its worth is debatable.

The Athenian people, Subtle minded and observant did not fail to give the matter
due consideration. Without being dazzled by the brilliant Spartan legislation which,
if it had the merit of giving a new vigour and authority to old traditions, created nothing
really new or very little — they asked Solon to give them a form of legislation more
natural to them.

Many of the Spartan faults were avoided with care. And so although Athens had
a State education, the family was not touched, and the Spartan ideal, doubtless patriotic,
was enlarged to embrace life in all its manifestations — artistic, scientific, literary etc.
and brought about the magnificent intellectual and artistic movement which reached its
climax in the age of Pericles.

There was then a complex ideal which, advancing on simpler conceptions approach-
ed the modern teaching ideal.

When the Renaissance humanists and the philosphers of the XVIIth and XVIIIth
century reacted violently against the whole of the medieval educational system, they only
returned to the past and delved into past treasures, treasures of idea and thought accu-
mulated in Classic antiquity but always fresh and applicable. For thought does not age
and human nature does not change. By the power of his genius man may master the
elements, tame matter and dominate the world, but be is incapable of changing his own
nature. The evangelical ideal proposed to him twenty centuries ago has remained an
ideal. The masses who know this have not yet made a rule of life. And yet the splendid
example of samts and heroes is there to show that this ideal is realisable, for one man
may do what another has done.

In Greece, whilst polytheism dominated the majority and the great thinkers erected
indestructible monuments in intellectual speculation, the sophists venial and changeable,
with neither faith nor conviction, ready to support either side of an argument at any
time, received for some time only distain. It is only necessary to remember Protagoras .
" Man is the measure of all things " to understand how movable is the moral founda-
tion of a doctrine founded upon man as an individual subjected to all moral com-
promises.

With Socrates, formal and mnemonic education, such as triumphed in the Orient
was completely banished : it was the triumphant moment of the dialectic method, the

— 192 —

most suitable to the Hellenic character, so skilfully handled by the great philosopher.
The Socratic " Know thyself ', applies in the modern world, gives food for reflection
and troubles the modern mind just as it troubled the contemporaries of Socrates, who
heard it for he first time, although Thales of Miletus had already engraved it upon the
Delphic temple.

To the dialectic method in the domain of ideas, there corresponds, in Athenian edu-
cation, an objective method in the domain of action. Even if they were not precisely
formulated, the modern principles of " concrete and abstract ", " definite " and " inde-
finite " were certainly practised by Athenian educators, of whom the better occupied
themselves less in stuffing the childs mind with ill assimilated facts than in developing
in it the faculty of thought and the habit of study and reflection.

" Multum non Multa " is a principal which modern teachers have revived and with
reason. This conception of life was as neglected as it was exhalted and it was very far
from being achieved when the value of a school was judged from the encyclopaedic
knowledge of the pupils. That was what was demanded of the small Athenian for cen-
turies and centuries and it is still demanded today from the child.

What is the importance of a forgotten date or name, it is not upon these things
that culture depends ? A sustained effort, an enlightened and strong will, a severe view
of work and perhaps sacrifice, that society has a right to expect from all — that is what
the educator should insist on and what the child should realise.

Plato adds to and gives precision to the ideal of Socrates, since, according to the for-
mer, education, should not only develope personality but should also determine and
exercise individual faculties, render the pupil conscious of his abilities and consequently
make him capable of fulfilling a useful function in the society in which he lives.

The Greeks understood and approved these principles as is shown in the anecdote
about Agesilas.

Agesilas was asked what one should teach to children : " What they should do when
they are men ".be answered.

We have resumed at the most a very small part of Plato's thought. But every

one can see in it the beginnings of the principle of certain new American Institutions,

Vocational Schools ", in which the masters task consists principally in studying the

inclinations and temperament of his pupils in order to direct them into the profession

most suited for them.

The faults of our epoch are grave and numerous and the judgment of posterity
will perhaps be severe ; but in justice there should be recognized one great merit in us :
that of having borrowed the finest doctrines of ancient philosophy, of having assimilated
the highest thought of ancient geniuses, of having placed the marvellous inventions of
men's mind and enterprise at the service of master and pupil and of having thus by
the most perfect methods of visual education formed the souls of our children in virtue
and knowledge.

We are bringing up the past. Plato says that caused the principal moral precepts
to be engraved on posts at cross roads to remind travellers of their duties (Beware, steep
hill dangerous turn).

The maxims which adorn modern buildings have surely the idea of attracting the
eye and thus penetrating into the conscience.

— 193 —

With Aristotle, the science of education acquired a solid basis upon which less famous
teachers were able to build the imperishable monuments of their genius.

Aristotelian logic, in the examination of the processes of induction and deduction,
gives a decided priority of the one over the other, in as much as the cause preceeds the
effect and reality according to reason preceeds the appearance.

It therefore results that the principle of deduction is that which the Divinity
deigned to adopt in the process of creation.

But the human spirit, enclosed in the body, follows a reverse way before finding causes,
it remarks effects and before understanding reality, it is impressed by the appearance.

The science that derives from it, inductive and empiric, is that which best adapts
itself to human nature : going from the particular to the general, from the known to
the unknown, and has given and still gives the best results in teaching.

In conclusion, we will limit ourselves by stating that the educational value of paint-
ing was understood by the Greeks. They knew that pictorial representation can render
clear the most abstract ideas. They knew too how to use it to inculcate a patriotic ideal
in the people.

Polynote, the Attic schoolmaster, greatly contributed in this respect. " During the
ten years following the Medean war (480-70) (writes, G. NATALI (1)) he painted great
national inspirations ; his mythological composition and his historical pictures were
large and solemn works ".

ROMAN EDUCATION

Educationally the Roman ideal resembles that of the Spartans, in as much as it
requires the formation of strong and brave soldiers. However the education is not
left to the State but is a family matter where all is united under the lenient but firm
discipline of the ' patria potestas ".

The utilitarian and practical spirit of the Romans is reflected in their education.
At first patriarchal education dominated. As soon as the child was old enough to leave
its mother it was confided not to a salaried master, but to its own father ; who prepared
it for life and taught it practically its task in the community.

As regards instruction, the child was only required to learn by heart the law of
the twelve tables just as the ten commandments are learnt to-day. Virtue for the Romans
lay in obedience to the country's laws as for us to-day it lies in respect for divine law.

Consequently the most important virtue was obedience which was not distinguish-
ed from piety in its widest moral sense. The ' pius Aeneas ' exhalted by Vergil is the
typical example of the primitive Roman, strong, constant and obedient to the Gods.

Certain critics have found the Vergilian type of hero insipid and insignificant, bereft
of the cleverness and astuteness of a Ulysses and with nothing of the impetuosity of an
Achilles. Without doubt true. But after all, this is only to reproach Vergil for not
having imitated Homer, which might equally well be considered praiseworthy.

(1) G. NATALI and E. VlTELLl " The History of Art " Pub. S. T. E. N., Turin, 1920.

-> — Ice ingl.

— 194 —

However, the imitative character of Roman education is evident. Children were
told stories of the ancient heroes so that they might imitate them. And this custom
continued under the name of ' games ' in the first private schools. A serene and gra-
cious name which showed a happy tendency.

When Vittono da Feltre calls his new shool, decorated with murals ' Casa Giocosa ',
he surely refers to the healthy old traditions, overwhelmed but not submerged entirely
by the barbarians ?

With progress and increased contact with Greece, grammar schools replaced the
4 games ', then came schools of rhetoric where the youth of sixteen, having taken the
Toga, went to finish his studies.

For the most part young men preferred the oratory art because it opened the way
to public careers. The orator was highly esteemed, Cato said : ' vir bonus dicendi
peritus ', a judgement confirmed later by Quintillian for whom the perfect orator ful-
filled his function ' optima sentiens optimique dicens '.

At the beginning of the Empire, Greek culture began to spread and with it Greek
educational methods. Horace defined the situation thus : ' Graecia capta ferum victorem
cepit, et artes intuht agresti Latio '. Greece was decisively conquered at the battle of
Leucopetra but it was still strong with the strength of genius and the consciousness of
artistic and literary superiority.

How subtle was the Greek revenge. There was certainly nothing military about
it. As water wears away stone, so the poison of Greek corruption, spread in all the
manifestations of Greek life, after entering Rome in fine garments, began slowly and
surely to break down the strong Roman society. The decomposition and fall of the
Roman Empire was as lamentable as its triumphs had been great.

This was the golden period in litterature and art. Augustus did not boast idly
that he had clothed the walls of the Imperial City in marble.

Philosophers and teachers were rare in the crowd of literary men which appeared
like magic as soon as the closing of the Temple of Janus indicated that peace, the time
for meditation was come.

However, the works of Cicero, that last champion of liberty were not without edu-
cational intent. He had an elevated conception of education. ' What greater service
to the Republic can we offer than that of educating the youth, above all in these times
when morals have so depreciated '? (1).

In an interesting essay on " The Educational Doctrines of Cicero, Seneca, Quintil-
lian and Pliny the Younger ", G. B. Gerini, explains clearly the Roman attitude to
education as derived from these writers.

The cultivation of the senses is not only useful but necessary, considering the part
they play in both physical and intellectual education. Through the senses we acquire
knowledge. The more they are developed the more knowledge we acquire.

And, further on : " There is great truth in the senses when art and exercise are ap-
plied to them ".

In De Oratore (II, 86, 87), Cicero describes a teaching method which seems

(I) Ds Divination:, II. 2.

— 195 —

almost to forecast the Cinema. This may well be judged from the following resume
by G. B. Gerini.

Following in the footsteps of Simonides to whom he (Cicero), attributes the inven-
tion of mnemotechnique he remarks that those things which enter the mind through
the senses are the best remembered and of all the senses that of sight conveys the most
permanent impression. Things entering the mind through the ear or the imagination
are better retained if they are confirmed visually. Consequently abstract matters should
by presented in visual forms in order that they may be fixed in the memory. But these
visual forms must have position because things cannot be conceived apart from some
surroundings and for this reason well known situations should be chosen with some con-
nection between them ; the images representing ideas should be alive, active and character-
istic and that should present themselves clearly and sharply to the mind.

And has not the Cinema fulfilled these requirements in the most dynamic manner
and proved its worth also by success ? It is not really surprising that the Cinema should
have thus been predicted. Genius has such intuitions and it is not the only one with
regard to teaching that Cicero had. When we read in De Amicitia : " Men should as
much as possible follow nature which is a guide to correct life " our thought carries
naturally on to the teaching doctrines of Rabelais, Montaigne, Rousseau and Pestalozzi
which have all been based to some degree upon Cicero's concept.

In De Legibus, according to Gerini, Cicero, again says of Nature, "an infallible guide
to life " and thus confirms his faith in the power of Nature to accomplish to ideal of
complete and harmonious development learnt by Rome from Greece.

Seneca belongs, not to the Republican epoch of Rome, but to the darkest period of
the Empire.

Judging simply from results obtained it would be impossible to deny that the
system evolved by Nero's master was a failure. But if results are the chief indication of
the success or failure of a system as applied to numerous persons they are by no means
so when the system is applied to a single person. In the latter case results become
of secondary importance and those qualities of integral character of system which were
hitherto secondary become primary. And this is the case for Seneca : A rational method
enlivened by ethical principles superior to the level of the period, applied to a particularly
difficult nature, both abnormal and corrupt. Nero was what the world knows him to
have been and the efforts of his teacher were powerless to change him for the better.
After trying vainly to advise the Emperor, for whom he wrote De Clementia, Seneca was
the victim of his pupils ferocity who accused him of complicity in the Piso conspiracy.
It seems from certain historical documents that even if Seneca knew of the conspiracy
he took no part in it. Thus he is shown to be not a conspirator but a just man. Ac-
cording to Tacitus, Nero received news of Seneca's death with positive joy. A fierce
and negative joy, for Nero, for he had thus destroyed a life which might serve as a model
both to contemporaries and subsequent generations.

To those who complained of the discrepancies between Seneca's preaching and his
practice while he was in favour, he replied with a humble frankness which had some-
thing of the growing spirit of Christianity : " I speak of virtue, not of myself. I am lost
through vice and when I speak against vice it is above all against my own ".

Besides his tragedies, Seneca's works have a plainly philosophical character. His

— 196 —

speculations are not original because, like all ecclectics he considers all systems and
chooses the best.

Thoughts on teaching are not lacking. Such well known maxims as : " Non scholae
sed vitae discimus ", and " Longum iter per praecepta, breve per exempla " on which latter
might be said to rest the objective method of teaching at present used by educators.

The importance and efhcacity of visual education did not escape Seneca. He
declared explicitly that he preferred oral teaching to written teaching and visual teaching
to oral teaching simply because men believe what they see above all other perceptions.

To support this truth he employed the happy expression we have just quoted by
which he intended to show that teaching by example is better and quicker than teaching
by other means, which are all subject to error in a greater degree.

We find a similar thought in the Art of Poetry of Horace (line 180, 181) " Segnius
irritant animos demissa per aurem, quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus, et quae ipse
sibi tradit spectator .

In these lines the poet prefers the sense of sight to that of hearing for the memory
of things seen is more surely retained than that of things heard.

In a letter by Pliny the younger, we find the same idea expressed in a different form
" Although written words may be more penetrating, those which the aspect, the posi-
tion and the gestures of the orator engrave on the mind are more enduring ".

This seems perfectly simple and yet throughout science the old story of Columbus
and the egg is repeated endless times and never becomes stale. It is simple, evident and
of a blinding clarity but one has to think of it and then the principle has to be applied.
The triumph of an idea needs centuries of trial and effort. The novelty frightens and
the attachment to old habits hinders the progress of civilization.

Quintillian, " the glory of the Roman toga " is another pioneer of the active school.
His " Institutionis Oratoriae Libri XII " are a real treatise on teaching, covering the entire
education of the child. Interest is one of the essential points in his instruction of the
young orator. " Study should be amusing for children " he says understanding that if
the child is driven by interest it will absorb knowledge more easily.

To what does the introduction of Cinema into teaching tend if not to arouse and
sustain interest in the child and thus render the task easier for both teacher and taught.

There is surely not a single educator wno having supported this principle, would not,
had it been possible for him to envisage the advent of so marvellous instrument as the
Cinema, have supported its cause in teaching.

Another one of Quintillian 's original ideas was that of teaching children the
alphabet by giving them wooden or ivory blocks to play with carved in the shape of letters
of the alphabet. Thus the children learnt the first elements of reading while playing.

Finally following in the footsteps of Cicero and forecasting Rousseau, Quintillian
says : " Let us observe nature and order our acts according to it ". The study of nature
and the observation of it were the keynotes of Roman education which applied the prin-
ciple, popularised by Bacon centuries later in the phrase : " Natura non nisi parendo
vincitur ".

(To be continued) M. L. ROSSI LoNGHI

197 —

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200

I.I.E.C. INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS

> The Inquiries under taken in the beginning of 1930 by the I. I. E. C.
into the influence of the Cinema on the mentality of young people are pu-
blished as space permits in the Review. They have had considerable reper-
cussions in the world of ideas generally and especially in that part of it de-
voted to the education of young people. Results and the accompanying
commentaries have sometimes been quoted entirely in newspapers of various
opinions and tendencies.

The Importance of the " I. I. E. C. " has not escaped the Council of the
L. O. N. Indeed at the last session, M. Paul Boncour, in consideration
of the length and interest of those inquiries touching many subjects, suggested
that the Commission for Intellectual Cooperation should keep the Council
in touch with their development.

The Institute likewise receives from individuals and institutions in
various countries demands for information as to the actual state of the va-
rious enquiries. We therefore think it advisable to give here a short sum-
mary of work in progress.

These inquiries are three in number : (a) school inquiry, (b) inquiry
amongst masters, (c) inquiry amongst mothers :

a) The School Inquiry.

This is carried on in various countries amongst pupils and schools of
different types and degrees. More than 30,000 replies have been obtained
in Italy, 10,000 in Belgium, more than 5,000 in Roumania. There have
also been several hundred replies from France and others are expected from
several South and Central American States.

The work of dealing with these answers is difficult. We have already
explained that the I. I. E. C. questionnaire consists of 100 questions divided
into 33 groups. Each group should be the subject of special study and
should be dealt with separately.

The Studies based upon this inquiry already published in this Review
were concerned with the following points :

— 202 —

1 . Investigation into the Cinema as a cause of fatigue in children (visual
fatigue, physical and brain fatigue, etc.). This was published in Decem-
ber, January and February, 1931, and was also published in a I. I. E. C.
Cahier.

2. Investigation into young people's impressions of war films. — This
commenced in a recent number and is still being published. Up to the pre-
sent only Italian results have been given because results are considered and
published as they come in.

The following are ready and await publication :

1 . Investigation of the Cinema as a cause of fatigue in Children,
considering Belgium, Roumania and the few French districts where the
inquiry. has been made. As soon as the South American results come to
hand they will be dealt with.

2. Investigation of young people's impressions of war films, concern-
ing the same countries, etc., as above.

3. Investigation into what the Italian school child thinks of Educa-
tional Films. This, as the War Film Inquiry is of great interest, both for its
results themselves and for their relation to the inquiry amongst teachers
of which we will speak later.

4. Investigation into the child attendance of cinemas, (ready as con-
cerns Italy).

5. Investigation into young peoples film preferences, (ready as con-
cerns Italy).

In progress :

1 . What schoolchildren of Belgium, Roumanian and some French
districts think of the Educational Cinema.

2. Child Attendance at Cinemas in the same countries, etc.

3. Childrens Film Preferences in the same countries, etc.

4. Childrens Impressions of Public Cinema Shows (questions num-
bers 11, 12, 13, 14 and 16 of the general questionnaire) for all countries
which have sent answers.

5. The same, for Type of Cinematographic art preferred by Chil-
dren (questions 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25 of general questionnaire).

6. The same, for the Social Significance of the Cinema (questions
numbers 26, 27, 28, 29, and 32 of the Questionnaire).

4. The same, for The Appreciation of New Mechanical or Musical
Additions to the Cinema (questions 30 and 31).

203

b) Investigation in the World of Teachers.

This inquiry is on the subjects of moral influence of the Cinema on
children (entertainment films) and its teaching value (teaching films). It
was carried on at the same time as the inquiry amongst schoolchildren and
is of great interest.

Like the schoolchildren inquiry, it exceeds, from the number of ans-
wers received, all other similar inquiries as regards size. In Italy alone
3,000 answers have been received, a good number of them most complete.

As concerns Italy, the results of this inquiry were published in the
Review from April to November 1 93 1 . These results were generally found
to be of great interest judging from the echoes which have come from the
press internationally.

c) Investigation amongst Mothers.

In collaboration with the Italian National Committee of University
Women and representatives of other nationalities — especially Danemark
— the I. I. E. C. thought it useful to distribute questionnaires containing
several questions concerning the moral and intellectual influence of the
Cinema on children to mothers.

This questionnaire has been widely distributed in various countries
through child welfare associations.

The answers which have already come to hand are of the greatest in-
terest. Publication will commence as soon as possible.

To return to the inquiry amongst schoolchildren, this requires the grea-
test work for, besides the number of answers received, there are preliminary
classifications of age, sex, of pupil, type of school and class of parents to be
made. Then partial and general summaries are made and expressed in
tables from whence the conclusions are drawn.

/. /. E. C. Enquiries

WAR FILMS AND YOUNG PEOPLE

(continued)

Much of the exaltation of military heroism has its origin in two essentials, patriotism
and the cult of the dead. Those answers expressing the opinion that war films exalt
national values derive from the first of these essentials, the idea of reviving the glory of
the heroes of antiquity. The sentiment of virtue, duty and sacrifice, carried to the
extreme of death itself re-occur like a leit-motiv in those answers giving war a tragically
sublime character, an unavoidable necessity, inevitable because through it Nations be-
come great.

Some declare that war films elevate and purify the popular soul ; that they accustom
children to deplore the unjust, to react against all oppression and seek liberty, that
they teach love of country and family.

Answers deriving from the second essential Motiv are inspired by a deeper and more
vivid humanity. The heroic sacrifice of the soldiers is a subject for veneration, recog-
nition but also for sadness. One speaks of those who left their fields, their houses and
their families to die calmly in the line. ' They were even starving " writes a twelve
year old boy, " and they fought on to the death ". Others remember thei nscription
of an anonymous hero on a rock in the Carso. " It is better to live one day as a
lion than a hundred years as a sheep ". Another speaks of the fallen with nobility :
" I wish that our heroes might have lived to give us their great example . Seventy-
two little girls are amazed to see soldiers " sufferhunger, thirst and other torments and
die heroically ". The feminine mind cannot perhaps conceive of such heroism but it
is profoundly felt.

Other exalt the pain of mothers ; one child wished to share in the troubles of the
fighters. Yet others — as we shall see farther on — without criticising the war film,
are of this same inclination when they say that the war film should be used more sparingly
in order to preserve the force of its epic and heroic content.

In this opinion, expressed by two young girls of sixteen years of age, is probably
to be found the explanation of the diverse sentiments — pro and con — provoked by War
films. The fact " war " is extraordinary even on the screen. Whether it be inserted in
a favourable or unfavourable context, in a theatrical drama, passionate of heroico-senti-
mental, or in a document simply, it is and and must remain the evocation of a moment
which should not be profaned nor made the object of commercial speculation.

The war film should be either documentary or propagandist ; it should not be-
fantastic.

— 205 —

Surely from respect for the victims of war it should be sober. Whether it is a
propagandist work or a simple record of facts has only relative importance. It is al-
ways a war film when it refers to incidents that have actually taken place, when it shows
on thescreen soldiers wearing the uniforms of one country or another.

The war film should not then be abused but adapted to the different and often spe-
cial psychologies of the publics concerned.

WAR FILMS INSPIRE OPINIONS CONTRARY TO THE PHENOMENA " WAR "

DIVISIONS ACCORDING TO CENTRES, SEX AND AGE

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

Age

10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

SMALL CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

Boys : 207 — Girls : 227 — Total:

434.
They give only impressions of

sadness, trouble, pain and

melancholy.

Boys : 132— Girls : 1 10 — Total :

242.
They make me think with pain

of those dead in the war.
When one goes to war one does

not know if one will return or

not.
I think with sadness of all the

dead.

Boys : 130 — Girls : 94 — Total :
224.

Thoughts of hatned for atro-
cious war repulsive, bloody,
painfull, destructive of lives,
towns and harvests.

Boys : 185 — Girls : 25 — Total :

210.
They only living back thoughts

of past pain.
They make old pain live again.
They are devoid of humanity.

Boys : 135 — Girls : 49 —Total :
184.

Sentiments of pity for mothers
who have not sons and for
children who have lost fathers.

Boys : 75 — Girls : 97 — Total :

172.
I do not like them. They are

useless and harmful. They

are reminiscent of pain and

inspire anger.

56

38

98

111

97

89

94

15

61

20

12

73

14

25

47

33

50

65

11

24

9 12

50

13

14

33

32

76

13

37

13

13

206 —

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

Age

10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

i

o

o

o
CQ

6

>>
o
CQ

u

o

a

>>
o
CQ

6

o

CQ

6

Boys : 11 — Girls : 68 — Total :
140.

Sentiments of pity for parents
killed or wounded.

59

50

2

—

—

1

—

17

11

—

■

—

Boys: 13 — Girls: 119 — Total:
132.

Srntiments of profound pain on
account of the ravages of war.

10

104

—

—

—

—

2

14

1

—

1

Boys : 71 — Girls : 42 — Total :
113.

Disgust with war.
War spoils young lives.

—

3

14

16

4

— ■

35

9

17

14

1

—

Boys : 105 — Girls : 2 — Total =
107.

I prefer to see war on the screen
because the reality and death
frighten me.

84

2

.

21

.

.

Boys : 69 — Girls : 36 — Total :
105.

Sentiments of horror and com-

passion.
They make me pray to God to
avoid others wars.

29

4

14

1

21

17

9

10

Boys : — Girls : 98 — Total : 98.

They frighten children who
should not be allowed to see
them.

98

_

Boys : 83 — Girls : 14 — Total :
97.

They only bring to mind atro-
cious suffering and the sacri-
fice of life in young men and
parents.

67

16

14

_

Boys : 92 — Girls : — Total : 92.

Sadness thinking of the dead.

—

—

—

86

—

—

—

—

—

6

—

Boys : 60 — Girls : 30 — Total :
90.

They make us hate war as the
source of the worst evils and

pain.
They excite race hatred.

53

19

—

11

7

—

Boys: 22 — Girls 37 —Total:
59.

They show the beauty of peace-

Sentiments of Christian love and
pardon.

9

8

6

6

3

1

2

22

1

—

1

—

— 207

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age

10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

Age

10-12

Age

13-15

Over
16

o
CQ

o

>,

o

pa

o

>>

o
CQ

o

o
CQ

6

>.

o
CO

u

o
CQ

6

Boys : 55 — Girls : 8 — Total :

63.
War contradicts the Christian

ideal of brotherhood.
Pain at seeing those who are all

children of the bearenly father

killing each other.
To kill ones neighbour is a sin.

4

2

—

22

21

2

10

2

Boys : 10 — Girls : 43 — Total :

53.
They show cruelly the terrible

reality of war

9

3

20

12

6

1

2

Boys : 6 — Girls : 45 — Total :
51.

Sentiments of terror. Pity for
the innocent victims of bom-
bardments.

5

21

1

6

1

17

Boys 41 — Girls : 9 — Total : 50.

I think of the hunger, thirst and
all the other privations of the
soldiers. They make the hard
life of soldiers and their great
sufferings known.

33

5

8

1

3

Boys: 9 — Girls : 38 — Total :

47-

Peoples fight with bestial fero-
city and think themselves civ-
ilized.

There should be no war amongst
civilized peoples.

37

7

1

2

Boys : 38 Girls : 9 — Total : 47.
They reincarnate the most ter-
rible moments of existence.

3

38

6

Boys: 27 — Girls: 19 — Total :
46.

They are the most vital represen-
tations of bloodshed.

6

17

2

31

5 oys : 24 — Girls : 21 — Total :

45.
They are harmful because they

excite a warlike feeling in

people.

18

2

6

6

3

10

Boys: 30 — Girls: 14 — Total

44.
I am against war films.

12

13

13

1

4

1

Boys : 7 — Girls : 25 — Total :

32.

I think of mothers praying for
their sons and of those that are
lost.

2

25

3

1

1

- 208

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Above
16

Age

10-12

Age
10-12

Over
16

M

>•
o

oa

o
CO

o

pa

o

o
B0

o

2.

0

6

Si

o

03

Boys: 41 — Girls : — Total : 41.
The sight of blood and death

affects me and makes me

tremble.

Boys : 5 — Girls : 26 — Total:

31.
They give a clear and suggestive

idea of the barbarity of war.

Boys : 2 — Girls : 24 — Total :

26.
War spares nothing, not even the

churches where we pray.

Boys : 24 — Total : 24.

Desire for love, concord and
brotherhood amongst peoples
and above all the abolitions of
war of conquest.

Boys : 22 — Total : 22.
To see men kill each other like
beasts is an atrocious thing.

Boys : 17 — Girles : 4 — Total :

21.
I think of the economic disasters

that inevitably follow war.

Boys: 16 — Total: 16.
A little love and humanity would
avoid all the bloodshed.

Boys : 7 — Girls, 4 — Total : 11
War is the cause of mourning,
distress, illness, unemployment
and ruin. If all the nations
would renounce such a vain
glory there would be no more
war.

2
20

1

1

11

25

3
1

20

1

24

1

5
4

—

21
5

10

3

4
11

3

—

There follow other answers, each supported by a total of less than 10. Here
they are :

(a) Even when war is necessary it is tragic : 8 girls from 10 to 12 years.

(b) These films give no exact idea of the terrible consequences of war : 6 boys, 2 from
10 to 12 years and 4 from 13 to 15 years.

(c) In showing war in all its horrors they eliminate war like feeling : 5 boys from
13 to 15 years.

(d) War films are harmful because they inspire a sensation of terror that always pre-
vails over sentiment : 5 boys, 2 from 10 to 12 years and 3 over 16 years.

(e) / detest man hunting even in war : 5 girls from 10 to 12 years.

— 209 —

(f) In accustoming men to the horrors of war these films make them cruel: 4 answers:
2 girls from 10 to 12 years, one boy and one girl of 13 to 15 years.

(g) War must be avoided at all costs : 4 girls from 10 to 12 years.

(h) These films inspire a terror of war because they show the consequences of defeat :
2 girls from 13 to 15 years.

(i) They are an excellent antidote to patriotism : 2 boys of 13 to 15 years.

(j) They evoke the sad times of the invasion : one boy of 13 to 15 years.

(k) Of all the suffering, the worst is that of the mother who tries to recognise her lost
son amidst the soldiers : 1 boy between 1 0 and 1 2 years .

(1) They reproduce War badly, and as a matter of fight it is better so : 1 boy over
1 6 years.

(m) They give the nervous system a bad shoch : one boy between 10 and 12 years.

(n) She sees nothing but dead people and there is certainly nothing amusing in that :
one girl between 10 and 12 years.

(To be continued)

G. de F.

4 Ice ingli

— 210

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211

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— 212 -

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Legislation

CINEMA CENSURE
IN POLAND

Laws relative to the examination of films
are included in the decree of Feb. 7th,
1919 on public spectacles (Journal Officiel,
N. 14, An. 1919).

This examination takes place at the Cen-
tral Cinema Office in the Home Office of
which it is a dependency.

The fundamental principe is that no film
may be shown to the public without first
having been examined by a censor appointed
by the Home Office and duly approved. The
examination certificate and authorisation
contain the sub-titles of the film, its length,
and its origin.

An examination tax of 0.02 zloty per
metre for theatrical films and one of 0.01
zloty per metre for educational and scien-
tific films is levied. Projection permits cost
10 zlotys for any length or type of film.

There is a single censor who may, if need
be, consult experts. In any case the cen-
sor and the experts can only express an
opinion. Finally it is the Home Office
itself that grants or witholds the projection
certificate.

Examination Criteria.

All films then, unless for strictly private
use, are subject to examination. Films
destined for schools, institutions and limit-
ed societies where the general public are
definitely not admitted are exempt but even
in these cases the Home Office reserves
the right to ban any film that presents
moral, social or political dangers.

Only indications of actual motives for
film banning are given in the decree of Feb.

7th 1919. Each individual case is left to
the commonsense of the censor and the Home
Office authorities who deliver the authorisa-
tions.

The following are motives for banning
which are mentioned : films of a revolution-
ary character which might endanger pub-
lic order ; films ridiculing the State author-
ities ; films capable of being harmful to
foreign relations ; films treating religious
and social subjects without due regard to the
susceptibilities of the people ; films repre-
senting negative aspects of life or contrary
to the family spirit (Adultery, domestic
differences, lack of respect for parents, etc.)
and films which, by presenting crime in a
favourable light, might exert a pernicious
influence over the spectators.

The principles of censorship involved
require a certain degree of discernment in
the censor. For instance, according to
the official report communicated to the
I. I.E. C, nudity is in principle considered
immoral but it must be considered in different
lightas according to whether it appears in
scenes of physical education, artistic represen-
tation or intimate relationships and places of
debauch.

Censure and Minors.

One of the most delicate duties of the
censor is to preserve children and adolescents
from the pernicious effects of certain films.
Consequently he is obliged to distinguish
between films for general projection and
those unsuitable for children and adolescents.
The decree of Feb. 1919 forbids children

214 —

under 17 to enter cinemas where films de-
clared to be unsuitable for minors are being
exhibited. The decision of the censor in
this matter should be contained in all film
publicity matter. Even after their seven-
teenth year, students may not see adult films
unless they are authorised to do so by the
school authorities. Films forbidden for
minors include :

films showing the preparation for and
the carrying out of crimes ;

films of an erotic character ;

films showing negative aspects of life
and those contrary to the family spirit (adul-
tery, domestic differences, lack of respect
for parents, etc. . .) ;

all films that might have an ill effect on

children from a teaching point of view or
those to which the censor's attention has
been drawn by the school authorities.

In large towns the civic associations con-
trol the application of these regulations.

Statistics.

Numbers of films presented to the censure
in 1928, 2,303, total length, 2,893,000 me-
tres; in 1929, 2,253 (1,549 American, 263
German) total length, 2,921,000 metres;
in 1930 — 2,366, of which 719 were sound-
films (1,904 American, of which 621 were
soundfilms, 179 German, of which 42 were
soundfilms) total length 2,425,000 metres.

IN LITHUANIA

Censorship Commissions.

In Lithuania, Cinema Censure is exer-
cised by local commissions appointed by
departmental Heads, according to instruc-
tions issued by the Government of the
Republic in November 1923. The activity
of the commissions is analogous to that of the
police in their various capacities of censure
which are not uniform throughout the
Republic but vary according to place and
circumstance.

The Commissions are composed of three
members : the Departmental Head, who
is president, the representatives or their
delegates of the Church and the Local Mil-
itary authorities.

A film which has been shown in Kaunas
can be shown elsewhere without further
examination but communication of the fact
should be made to the Departmental Head
within 24 hours.

All films of every kind must be submit-
ted to the Commissions and this involves
no charge.

Films may only be projected with the

original title and sub-titles for which the
authorisation was issued. Sub-titles should
be in good legible Lithuanian. Sub-titles
in foreign languages are allowed but they
must be preceeded by ones in Lithuanian.

Right of Appeal.

Interested parties can appeal against the
decision of the Commission either to the
departmental Head asking for a re-exami-
nation of the film or to the Home Office.
The decision with regard to the first appeal
is final.

Minors of less than 17 years are not al-
lowed in cinemas unless accompanied by
responsible adults or unless the film shown
is approved for minors. Consequently the
censor is obliged to indicate whether he
thinks a film suitable for minors or not.

Private and School Projections.

Films destined for strictly private projec-
tion where no admission is charged are

215

exempt from examination as are films for
schools whose censorship is left to teachers.

Auxiliary Organs of Control.

In cooperation with the activity of the
Commissions there as that of the police
which consists in the control the halls and
the shows themselves. The police can
forbid the projection of a film on moral
or orderly grounds subject to appeal to high-
er authorities.

Projection permits should be shown to
he police on request.

Censorship Criteria.

Films are not classified for purposes of
examination and there is no exact code of
censure which is applied in a general man-
ner except in special cases.

a) Political : films likely to upset for-
eign relations or to cause revolutionary
or other disorder are forbidden.

b) Moral : films showning crime in a
favourable light and exhalting immorality
so as to constitute a danger to youth are
forbidden.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEAGUE OF RED CROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or l/»
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8 -

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

— 216 —

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for
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for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Stok Ti. 4

for Variable Area Process

Information and Comment

THE NATIONAL ROUMANIAN COMMISSION OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

The influence of the I. I. E. C. increases constantly in every country and domain in
which it is active. In the January issue of our Review we had the great satisfaction of
announcing the official constitution of the French Committee of the I. I. C. E. which con-
tributes largely to our activities, stipulated by in our statutes and by the deliberations of
our administrative body.

And now today we have the honour to announce the constitution of a similar organisa-
tion in Roumania, a country near to Rome in origin and culture.

Among the members of the new Roumanian Commission we may mention particularly
M. G. Oprescu, member of the administrative Council of the I. I. E. C. and M. C. Kiritzesco
one of our first collaborators in this Review.

The Roumanian Committee was created under the best of auspices. The I. I. E. C.
hopes that similar organisations may be formed in various countries as soon as possible. Its
task would be greatly facilitated by them because it would be able to count on numerous and
able collaborators who, thanks to their ability to enter into direct relations with the Govern-
ments and Institutions in their various countries, would be more likely to attain in the
National fields those aims which this Institutes pursues in the International field.

On the 9th of January last, at the School Administration Headquarters, the first meeting
of the Roumanian Commission took place. Having realised Roumanian interest in the larger
distribution of educational films, both publicly and in educational institutions, and with the
conviction that for a real solution of the problem it was necessary to enlist the cooperation
of many interests under the patronage and with the help of the Institutions concerned, the
persons present decided to form the National Commission of Educational Cinema whose
activity will be in close touch with that of the Rome Institute.

M. C. Kiritzesco was appointed President of the Commission which was composed of
the following members :

MM. Th. ALESSEANU, School Administra- MM. CuNESCU Stavri, Director General
tor (Cassa Scoalelor). of Workmens Education.

V. BRABETEANU, Legation Secretary, D. IoNESCU-MlHAESTl, University

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Prof.

Em. Bucuta, Director of Popular C. KlRITZESCO,

Education.

A. BusuiCEANU, of the Press Bureau, G. OPRESCU, University Prof., Mem-

Foreign Office. ber of the Administrative Council

of the I. I. E. C.

The I. I. E. C. extends its welcome to the Commission and is happy to announce this
new step forward in Educational Cinema.

— 218 —

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CINEMA ACTIVITY IN THE U.S.S.R.

From information and figures received from the U. S. S. R. we learn of the development of
the cinema in that country.

The Ten Year Plan according to our information is in full development. Cinemas and
dependant enterprises multiply every year. Silent and sound films in the characteristic Russian
technique are being rapidly produced.

In the following statistics two facts are of special interest ; the number of cinemas in schools
which was 3,000 in 1931 will reach 17,000 in 1932 and one-third of the sound installations
scheduled for 1 932 are destined for rural centres.

This shows that the U. S. S. R. wishes to face integrally the problem of popular
instruction and education both in town and country.

Thus the U. S. S. R. understands the formidable and magnificent task of the screen and
wishes to place itself first among the nations as regards the use of the educational Cinema.

In the beginning of January 1932, the
first pan-federal Cinema Conference in the
U. S. S. R. was held in Moscow.

This conference established the statistics
for cinemas and films and traced out the
development plan of the Soviet Film In-
dustry.

Cinema figuies

Number of Cinemas

1914 1.045

1927 7.251

1930 (1-X) 21.985

1931 22.704

1932 (1-1) 32.000

In 1931 a milliard spectators attended
cinemas.

In 1932 this figure should be doubled.

In 1931, 23 millions of roubles were in-
vested in the Cinema. In 1932 credits of
131.21 1.000 roubles will be used.

In schools and educational institutions
of all kinds there were 3.000 projectors at
the end of 1931, at the end of 1932 they will
reach 17.000.

In January 1932, there were 53 sound
installations in cinemas, at the end of 1932
there should be 3.586 (450 in towns, 1,206
in workmens clubs ; 300 in schools, 300 in
Red Army and 1,330 in rural centres).

Silent films scheduled by the plan will
be as follows :

1932 320

1933 660

1934 950

1935 1.150

1936 1,550

1937 1,900

Sound films :

1932 87

1933 193

1934 307

1935 550

1936 985

1937 350

Film consumption will increase in the
same years as follows : 44, 98, 253, 479, 557
(millions of metres).

At present there are two film factories.
A third will be built with an output of 1 50
millions of metres a year.

The number of cinema cameras in use
will be vastly increased. Thus in 1932 there
will be 38,000 new ones, in '33—60,500, in
'34_72,500, in '35—88,600, in '36—108,300,
in '37—122,500.

219

FILMS IN SCHOOLS, BRERAULT AND LAURENT REPORTS

The material from which we have extracted the following information has only come to hand
recently and although it is several months old we feel that it is too interesting to be neglected.

These documents are relative to the National Congress of Educational Cinema held in Paris
from Sept. 28 to 30 1931 and more precisely to two reports presented to the first committee (pri-
mary education section), one by M. Laurent, secretary of the Paris Cinematek. and the other by
Jean Brerault.

The latter gives the results of an enquiry which has something in common with those pur-
sued by the 1. 1. E. C. For that reason we feel it opportune to give here particular importance
to the replies given by French teachers to the Brerault questionnaire.

The Laurent Report resumes several
psychological observations made on cinema
shows in primary schools.

The audience was composed of children
from 10 to 12, boys and girls. Lack of
space obliges us to condense the matter of
this report into its essentials.

(a) Children like films, because they re-
present movement, l. e., life. Besides the
Cinema represents variety in the school
routine.

(b) Films should not be given without
comment, or they have only a recreational
value. Foreword and running comment are
essential.

(c) C inema, whose medium is sight, may
be considered as appealing directly to the
senses. This explains why pupils who can
draw well succeed with cinema teaching.
Drawing requires more a power of obser-
vation than a clever hand.

(d) As concerns the memory, drawings
and exercises done by children after Cinema
shows flatly contradict those who say that
in the cinema one image wipes out the me-
mory of another. The child remembers.
If it expresses itself badly it is a matter of
vocabulary and expression in writing.

(e) The film does not appeal particularly
to the intelligence. It presents a series of
facts which have impressed by observation
and memory rather than by judgement or
deduction. Hence the necessity for the
master.

(/) The film awakens and develops the
spirit of observation. This is evident in
long and short films, especially when pupils
take notes during the projection.

(g) Making drawings often and during
the projection is a good excercise. The
search for form and details is excellent train-
ing in expression. An effort is needed in
this excercise which develops the perso-
nality.

The Brerault Report is based upon the
answers given by a certain number of teach-
ers using the cinema to many questions.
Here is a resume of the answers.

QUESTION 1 . — Have you employed the
cinema in teaching ? In what subjects ?
General answers.

Films have been employed in History,
Geography Science, Hygiene, Agriculture,
Professional orientation.

QUESTION 2. — What observations have
you made on the method ?

Replies nearly all optimistic — films con-
stitute a vital teaching method, attractive,
captivating and extremely interesting — they
provide an acute and lasting attention —
of exceptional interest to the majority of
teachers.

Question 3. — What difficulties have
you met with ?

Chief answers :

lack of variety in films,

— 220 -

impossibility of forming a rational pro-
gramme,

lack of a teaching method for the cinema,
absence of literature permitting masters
to know films better,

difficulties in upkeep and repair of pro-
jectors ,

lack of funds for a general installation,
lack of special halls
distance from railways and lack of elec-
tricity in the country places.

Question 4. — If you have not already
used the cinema, do you think it would be
suitable for teaching?

M. Brerault's correspondents all used
films and one said that he could not con-
cieve of modern teaching without them.

QUESTION 5. — Is the Cinema dangerous
for children's health ?

The majority replied no provided that

shows are short and not too frequent and

that they are givem in well ventilated rooms.

QUESTION 6. — Is the Cinema suitable

for children of all ages?

The majority replied yes but some stipu-
late the adaptation of films to suit the age
level of the children. Others think that
films should only be used in the middle an
higher grades.

QUESTION 7. — To what mental faculties
does the Cinema appeal in particular?

The answers to this question have numerical
significance and can be compounded as below:

Observation 66 votes

Memory 61 »

Visual Memory .... 27 »

Imagination 33 »

Attention 15 »

Intelligence 14 »

Judgement 13 >»

Sensibility 11 »

Reasoning Power ... 8 >'

All faculties 5 »

Also mentioned : aesthetic sense, associa-
tion of ideas, capacity for generalisation elo-
cution.

Question 8. — What type of lesson do
you prefer ?

(a) Film with commentary, before, dur-
ing or after projection.

Three preferred projection without com-
mentary, the rest were for it and of these
the majority were in favour of its being
given during projection.

(b) Films accompanied by slides.

In general, slides with films were pa-
proved of.

(c) Films used cheifly as observation exer-
cises to show children what there is to be
discovered.

Majority approved of this use. Rare
disapproval.

(d) Films resuming one or more lessons.
Such films are in demand especially for

revision purposes.

Question 9. — What subjects are most
suitable for cinema teaching.

Replies consist of uncommented votes and
here they are stated numerically :

Geography 161

Science 156

History 76

Agriculture 36

Hygiene 29

Object lessons 24

Morality 22

Professional Instruction . . 10

French Composition ... 2

It is interesting to note that in the teach-
ing inquiry conducted by the I. I. E. C. this
same question was put and the results as
as concerning Italy were published in our
August number. We repeat them here :

Subject

General Culture
History . . .
Geography . .
Science . . .
Hygiene . . .
Agriculture .
History of Art
Religion . . .
Domestic Economy
Classical Subjects
Plastic Arts. . .

Number Percent o{ total
of replies replies

2,312

2,157

2,099

1,874

1,113

1,016

812

715

473

312

115

93.66
87.01
84.67
75.59
44.89
41 —
32.75
28.84
19.09
12.58
4.63

— 221 —

In spite of the somewhat general indi-
cation of General Culture, there are subs-
tantial likenesses in the answers given in the
two inquiries. This confirms the value of
the Cinema in certain subjects.

QUESTION 10. — How do you conceive a
good teaching film ?
(presentation, titles, length, etc.).

Universal opinion : — That films should
be simple and clear. Otherwise, some whant
short films, max 300 feet — some up to
1200 feet — the majority between 600 and
900 feet.

The question of sub-titles greatly concern-
ed teachers ? Some wanted many long
ones, others many short ones, the majority
however wanted short and clear titles. Cha-
racters should be large and easily read.

It was stressed that the sub-title should
be a title not a cojmmentary. " Avoid use-
less details and too technical terms " says
one, " No encyclopedic films " says another
and " the principal ideas should be titled at
the end " says a third.

QUESTION 11. — How long and how fre-
quent should projections be ?

69 teachers would have projection once
every week, 28 would have it twice a week,
12, three times a week and 6, every day.

In contrast 1 5 teachers want two projections
a month and three teachers want only one a
month.

QUESTION 12. — Should the entry of fo-
reign films into France be facilitated ?

The Majority (94 teachers) reply yes
but 49 of these qualify their affirmative
with " if they present real value superior
to French films and if they are well produc-
ed ". 12 masters suggest preferential terms
for geographical films, 3 for scientific films,
6 suggest that France should be self suffi-
cient and 26 reply no.

QUESTION 13. — In the affirmative, what
measures would you have taken to relieve
the educational film of customs duties ?

This question is really more applicable to
legislative and International experts. How-
ever, a variety of replies were received. Some
suggested a reciprocal reduction of customs

duties, others that the creation of a central
international bureau, through which per-
manent or temporary exchanges could be
made. Others again suggested that only
films destined for the Cinematek should be-
nefit. But in regard to this question
M. Brerault says that the I. I. E. C. are
dealing with the matter in a qualified man-
ner. We may add that the solution of this
question merely awaits the gathering of a
special diplomatic conference ; which in all
probability will meet in the beginning of
January, 1933.

QUESTION 14. — How do you conceive
the general organization of educational
cinema ?

On this point, opinions differed, but they
all tended towards the formation of a cine-
matek distributing its films through the
already existant regional offices, but depart-
mental, cantonal, and even comunal bran-
ches were suggested.

As regards M. Brerault, he finds the
matter well stated in the following resume
of two opinions : At the moment the ques-
tion of the teaching film seems to be studied
in a very haphazard manner. The State
should take the matter up. The Minister
of Education should fit every school with a
projector. The teachers should be able to
procure suitable films and project them
without too much trouble.

Question 15. — Have you any suggest-
ions as to the arrangement of classes, the
purchase and maintenance of equipment,
film rental, etc. ?

Most replies show a desire for unification
of projectors and the intervention of the
cinematek for maintenance purposes.

As regards films, a teacher observed that
many films now disappeared from the cine-
mas might be of use in schools.

This very just statement has often been
repeated in this Review. It is not neces-
sary that the educational film should be
strictly a teaching film. Many old enter-
tainment films such as " The Gold Rush "
and the many historical films that have been
made are well suited to this purpose.

— 222

It would seem therefore to be a question
of collecting a Cinematographic repertory
something like a dramatic repertory. This
could be done in connection with the" film
archives " in which the I. I. E. C. is so
interested.

Question 16. — Is 35 mm film perfectly
satisfactory for school use ?
183 replied yes
8 replied no
20 said it was too expensive, bulky
and difficult to project on account
of the installation necessary.
6 prefer Pathe-Rural 17 mm.
6 prefer Pathe-Baby 9 mm and fixed
projectors.

QUESTION 17. — Does the introduction of
sound film in schools seem desirable to you '?
Replies differ greatly.

77 say desirable.

83 say impossible (32 financial reasons).

44 say possible.

53 say not desirable.

Question 18. — Do you expect real help
in teaching from the Radio and the Gra-
mophone ?

Here again results are numerically stated.
64 reply yes
40 reply no
26 prefer Phonograph.
15 prefer Radio.
3 are not satisfied with phonograph.

We will complete the summary of M. Bre-
rault's report by giving some of the general
conclusions that he has drawn from it.

The film is an excellent method of educa-
tion ; it interests children a priori.

It permits showing scenes to pupils which
it would not be possible to show otherwise.

Each time it is employed, the results are
very encouraging.

Films composed of excepts from old pu-
blicity, documentary and touristic films more
or less well arranged, cannot be considered
as teaching films. Indeed there are practi-
cally no primary teaching films. In this
domain, a solution is urgently required.

The question of the projector is also im-
portant. A simple, strong and efficient mo-
del should be devised, approved by the Edu-
cation Department and furnished by mass
production to all schools.

For the security of the pupils, all films
should be on non- flam stock.

It is with satisfaction that we give the
summary of this enquiry which corroborates
to some extent that made by the I. I. E. C.

After the publication of the entire enquiry
on war films, the I. I. E. C. will commence
publication of the results of the series of
enquiries it has made amongst thousands
of school children and students in several
countries, in order to find out what they
think of the Educational Cinema.

THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN ENGLAND

(An Address by Mr. J. Fairgrive, M. A.)

Upon the occasion of the Annual Con-
ference of the Geographical Association, of
which he is Vice-President, Mr. J. Fair-
grieve, M. A., reader in Education, London
University and Member of the Commission
on Educational and Cultural Films, gave an
interesting address. Mr. Fairgrieve is not
a new-comer in the educational Cinema
world. For many years he has devoted
his energies to the cause in general and to
the geographical film in particular. His

special interest in this branch is apparent
in the first lines of his lecture and he con-
tinues in stressing thes uperiority of the film
over fixed projections. He then deals with
the success of the teaching film in the past.

" Eleven years ago

The Northampton branch of the Geographical
Association reported that as the result of experi-
ment it appeared that those who saw films even
without any oral lesson grasped more details than
did those who had had a lesson but had not seen
a film. In 1925 Philpott with some rather poor

223

geographical material showed that the film gave
particularity while the oral lesson gave generalisations
In 1927-28 Knowlton working with probably the
best history teaching film made — produced by
Yale University — demonstrated that films contri-
buted to a gain in knowledge besides producing
more classroom discussion and inducing people
to read more widely. In the spring of 1928 Free-
man and Wood carried out extensive tests with
geographical and science films though we may be
permitted to doubt some of the geography and some
of the science ; but there is no doubt as to the re-
sult. The film used in my lesson tihs morning
was a part of one of these films very kindly cut for
me by Mr. Tout of the Kodak Company. The tests
were most careful and accurate. The experiments,
in which 230 teachers and 1 1000 scholars took
part, shows that if the ^ame time is given to geo-
graphy, as taught in the United States, by two sets
of children of the same mental capacity, of which
one set uses a film and the other does not but has
the advantage of all other teaching aids, that group
which has seen the film knows slightly more geo-
graphy than the other. The important fact, how-
ever, was not the statistical result but the prac-
tically unanimous opinion of the teachers that
among other gains were a clearer appreciation of
the richness, accuracy and meaning of personal
experiences and an increased interest in school
work. It is the little details which get missed out
in oral teaching which are so vital to an understand-
ing of what is talked of. The remark of one child
after seeing a film crystalises the argument for
using pictures as the basis for further teaching " I
know now what the teacher means ". In prac-
tically all experiments, those I have cited and others,
emphasis is laid on the fact that the children say
that the film makes things real and is unreality
is the bane of teaching surely the film has some
value.

Mr. Fairgrieve then rapidly examines
what has been done in other countries in
educational cinema and states that interest
is at length awakening in England. This
is shown by the fact that various teaching
assemblies have lately discussed the matter
and the Commission on Educational and
Cultural Films has been appointed to exam-
ine the whole question throughly.

Also I referred last year to the establishment of
the Film Commission as a symptom of what was hap-
pening. That Commission was set up in 1929 at
a conference of 1 00 educational and scientific orga-
nisations. It is concerned with the improvement
and extension of the use of films for eduational
and cultural purposes. It has setup five committees
which deal respectively with Adult education, with
the education of children and adolescents, with
film production and technique, with foreign rela-
tions, and documentary films and with science,
medicine and public health. A good deal of in-
vestigation has taken place.

A committee of the Geographical Association
working in conjunction with the Commission has
done a good deal of work in getting together a cat-
alogue of films ; over 100 full size 35mm films have
been seen and a beginning has been made with
those of 16mm. The Science Masters Association
has also reported on films seen. Another commit-
tee has investigated projectors and a list of avail-
able projectors will shortly be published. Most
important of all the Commission has acted as a
centre of enquiry a place were information may be
given and where it may be obtained.

Under the auspices of the Commission two exhib-
itions of material aids to teaching have been held
at both which the film was prominent. Indeed at
the second in connection with the centenary meet-
ing of the British Association last September there
was over a weeks continuous demonstration, com-
monly two or three films being shown at the same
time, illustrating physical training, sport, phon-
etic, oceanography, eurythmics, geography, tele-
vision, history, industry, mathematics, geology,
physics, archaeology, physiology, botany, zoology,
anthropology, nature study, agriculture, music and
engineering.

Mr. Fairgrieve then gives what he thinks
to be the best way of getting the maximum
results from the educational film and he
deals more particularly with the pedagogy
of film teaching. These matters have been
already amply dealt with in the Review and
will continue to be developed as the Inqui-
ries of the I. I. E. C. proceed. Mr. Fair-
grieve forecasts the system of short projec-
tions interspersed with short commentaries.

My experience, he says, shows me — at
least as regards geography — that in one pro-
jection lasting fifteen minutes there are
too many facts to be assimilated purely
visually by children ". As for that most
important question, the length of teaching
films, Mr. Fairgrieve believes that three or
four lessons should not be recapitulated
into one fifteen minute projection, but ra-
ther that three or four short projections
should be given instead.

After speaking at length on the subject
of the most suitable projectors for schools,
he returns to the geography film. This quest-
ion will be fundamentally treated by M.
Felix Lampe in one of our next numbers.
Here is what Mr. Fairgrieve, as an emminent
English specialist, says about it :

— 224 —

And now I come to the most difficult question of
all and one to which there is no simple answer
" What is the content of a geographical film ".
Producers cannot make a eographical film without
this knowledge and some producers badly wish
to know. My own belief is that we shall learn
what a geographical film is by trial and error.

There arc some films tol which are useful in the
teaching of geography although they are not defi-
nitely geographical. They may tell us something of
the connotation of the things which we cannot keep
out of geography lessons, our old friends, " spinning
and weaving ', " coal and iron , farming of all sorts
and industrial processes. To judge by the Eastman
films which were specially made for the experiment,
and still more to judge by the questions on the
test lessons authorities in the United States seem to
consider such topics as the chief content of school
geography. We do wish a few films of this kind
but geography with us is mainly regional. We do
not wish films to teach regional geography (at least
I don't ; 25 years ago I did but now I don't) but
we do wish films which will supply material for
teaching regional geography, the regional geogra-
phy that is taught in recognised syallabuses. And
such films should have certain characteristics.

Points to be emphasised.

(1) Whatever length the film is, 5 minutes or 15,
it should be coherently planned ; it must tell a
story ; it muxt march ; it must not consist of scraps
just thrown together because that may be useful
later but it must form one coherent whole ; there
must be some kind of unity. If there is this unity
the separate bits will fit into their places. Travel
films almost always lack cohesion and unity.

' Thirst " has unity ; " Corn " to some extent. In
the original " Corn " was not wholly coherent and
even in the extract I used the end was bad. It
should come together with a snap.

(2) The film should be short, whatever short may
mean. This at least may be said that if youcan
get all you want and all you can stand into 5 minutes
it is a waste to take 15. We must cut and cut and
cut but we must not cut to the bone to leave a skel-
eton. The film, long or short must be vital.

(3) Captions should be simple, sincere, written

in plain type, written in good English, suitable to
the age of the children for whom the film is intend-
ed. A film for Standard III should have a differ-
ent kind of caption from that intended for Stan-
dard VII. It is to be remembered that suitable
captions may aid the reading of young children.
They wish to read the captions as I have found in
teaching these people they wish to read them for
the information they give, another reason for using
films with children under 9 years of age. The
captions should be mainly used to direct attention
to what is going to be seen. Far too many cap-
tions are merely allusive. In the opinion of those
who have seen them the Kodak films have too few
captions. Of course a teacher can point, put by
word of mouth what to look at but unless the teach-
er knows the films intimately this is impossible.
If the point of the picture is evident without the
caption then of course th? caption should not be
used but it is better not to take risks. Even in the
Middlesex experiment with sound films many
teachers expressed a wish for more captions.

(4) Maps should be inserted where they are ne
cessary to follow the argument. When the pla-
ces spoken of are well known they may not be ne-
cessary. They may not be necessary where the
film is short and is to be used " interrupted " as
a lesson film. The wall maps and atlasses can be
used simultaneously ; but in longer films and in
those which deal with unfamiliar places maps are
absolutely necessary. Nor is it any use to intro-
duce one map at the beginning of the film showing
a number of names that occur as the film progresses.
A map should be shown for each place.

(5) Though it scarcely applies to geographical
films it may be said also that there is no use showing
things on a film which are better shown otherwise.
It is for example of little use exhibiting the mak-
ing of a thermometer on a film, as was done in one
of the test Esatman films, if the class can see an
actual barometer made or better still make one.

Mr. Fairgrieve concludes his address
with some brief considerations on the pos-
sibilities of the educational Cinema in India
and the colonies.

HOV PRACTICABLE ARE MOTION PICTURES IN SCHOOLS

(An Investigation by Albert H. Covell of Oneida, New York, U. S. A.)

Mr. Covell's inquiry differs from the
recent Middlesex Experiment and similar
investigations in that it is not actually con-
cerned with the relative effectiveness of
educational films nor does it take into con-
sideration the sound film. From a purely
practical point of view the investigation has
interest but this interest is limited by the
fact that it deals only with the problems
of finance and arrangement involved in the

use of silent films in schools and not with
the more recent and vital problem of sound
films.

Recent experiments have shown that the
efficiency of sound films as teaching aids
is such that there exists a strong case in
favour of the extra expense involved in their
use. However Mr. Covellls investigation
has the supreme merit of being based upon
facts and although these may not be consi-

— 225 —

dered of the most recent interest the report
as a whole shows in an able and effective
manner the expense of installation and main-
tenance of silent film projectors in schools
and gives in a concise form the opinions
of the various school authorities upon the
value of the installations.

The Investigation deals with all State
schools in New York exclusive of those
situated in New York City. Of these 26 %
are shown definitely to be using films.
361 projectors are in use, of which 190 are
standard size and the remainder 16 mm.
The tendency is to install 16 mm rather
than 35 mm at the moment. A total of
247.000 dollars are invested in films and
machinery.

Upon being questioned 70 heads of schools
said definitely that they considered the use
of films worth the trouble and expense
involved and only 5 replied definitely in
the negative. Obviously many gave inde-
finite answers or no answers at all. Five
directors of Visual Education in large Cities
were also questioned and all were in general
favourable to the Cinema.

School superintendants and school heads
were asked what they thought the State
should do to further the use of films in
schools. The majority replied that the
State should distribute films as it does
slides at the present moment. Sound films
were only used in ten schools and no results
are given.

Mr. Covell draws certain conclusions from
his figures. Most of these are of an extre-
mely elementary nature and deal with the
most simple of practical problems such as
the installation of projectors in accordance
with fire regulations, etc. But from his
conclusions three facts emerge : (1) That
16 mm films should be used as represent-
ing the solution of school film problems,
(2) That the projectors should be installed
in the Classrooms and not in separate as-
sembly halls, etc. (3) That the State should
give help and leadership in the matter.

From these few figures the limited nature
of the investigation is evident : it deals

with the problem of projectors in a practical
manner, but this problem is inevitably se-
condary to that of the films themselves.
What do the various authorities think of
the films they have used ? It is not pos-
sible to draw general conclusions as to the
efficiency of a complex system by examin-
ing only the efficiency of half the units
therein. Mr. Covell deals with projectors
and the finance of installation, he also deals
with the opinions of heads on the success
of films in schools, but he neglects to state
that a poor film is never practicable in a
school however well and cheaply it may
be projected because for a given outlay
it may produce little or no result. We
cannot help feeling that the following ques-
tion should have been added to the inquiry
to make it complete even in its own rather
limited sphere. Are the films at present
available worth projecting in schools (irre-
gardless of projection costs) ? In short the
problems which this investigation deals
with are to be solved not in the choice of
format and machine but in the production
and organized distribution of really good
school films. We suggest that the intrinsic
value of the film in education is such that
when good school films are made they
will be ipso facto practicable in schools.
Whether or not films deserve an important
place in schools depends purely and simply
upon the excellence of the film as an educator
and not upon the expense of film machinery.
The question really is not " How Practi-
cable are Motion Pictures in Schools ?
but " To what Extent can Schools adapt
Themselves to the Use of Motion Pictures ? "
For Mr. Covell is careful to stress the fact
that the value of good motion pictures in
schools is established beyond doubt.

In spite of this particular conception of
the whole question, which seems to us a
wrong conception, Mr. Covell's investigation
has, as we have said, the merit of being
based on facts and the figures contained
in it will doubtless be of interest to those
concerned with the more practical and local
problems of film projection in schools.

5

ingl.

226

THE DISTRIBUTION OF CULTURAL FILMS IN HOLLAND

On June 20th, 1931, the " Culturfilm-
centrale " was formed in Amsterdam after
two preparatory meetings. Its object is the
development of cultural and educational Ci-
nema in Holland and the evidence of the
work that has been done since that date is
ample proof of the sincerity of the zeal
shown in the two preparatory meetings.

The C. F. C. has only been in existence
six months but it has already many mem-
bers. These are not only private indivi-
duals but especially large institutions, admi-
nistrations, industrial enterprises, schools,
and associations with several hundreds of
members. As examples may be given,
The Post Office, the Philips Co., the Insti-
tute of Workmen's Education, the Society
for popular Education, child welfare works,
popular universities, friendly societies, etc.

The Laws of the C. F. C. have been offi-
cially approved.

The C. F. C. has upon numerous occa-
sions been called upon to act as an inter-
mediary in the rental of films but the dis-
tribution of films to various groups will be
one of its regular services. To this end
it has approached the big producing houses
and educational film owners. The U.F.A.
agency has already arranged to provide its
entire stock .; M. Mol of Haarlem has placed
his collection at the disposal of the C. F. C.
and many industrial institutions have done
the same. In fact the C. F. C. an already
obtain a number of good films for its mem-
bers, so many in fact that a catalogue may
soon be issued and this involves a great
deal of work. However the Secretariat is
already in a position to answer all ques-
tions relative to educational films in Hol-
land and abroad, and to say whether films
on given subjects exist, etc.

Apart from the question of distribution,
which was the most urgent, the Direction
of the C. F. C. have dealt with other matters.

In the first place a commission of five

University Professors has been charged ot
ascertain the value of a large number of
scientific films made in Dutch Universities
and the possibility of putting these films
into circulation to obtain a profit for the
University funds.

This commission should also study the
possibilities of using the cultural film on a
larger scale.

The C. F. C. has started a movement for
the preferential taxation of those halls show-
ing educational films in their programmes.

Soon there will be organised in Holland
technical courses in cinema projection, up-
keep of projectors, etc. for teachers on lines
similar to those of courses in other countries.

The C. F. C. has already aided various of
its members in the purchase of projectors, etc.

The C. F. C. proposes to study in colla-
boration with teachers and professors, all
questions relative to the technique, organis-
ation, and pedagogy of Cinema teaching.

There are still more items on the C. F. C.
programme, which will be dealt with as
time permits.

The C. F. C. has adopted the monthly
Bulletin, " Het Lichtheeld " as an official
organ and all members receive it gratui-
tously.

It should be noted that the various perso
nalities of the teaching, financial, agricul-
tural and press worlds have readily accepted
to form the supervising council of the C.F.C.

Thus this young Institution has already
the elements of power necessary for accom-
plishing its aim, that of creating a central
organism for solving problems of educational
Cinema and dealing vigorously with them.
The I. I.E. C. always sees the constitution
of such bodies in different countries with
great pleasure. It extends its sympathy to
the undertakings of the C. F. C. and its
greetings to M. Van Staveren, the presi-
dent, an authority in matters of educational
Cinema.

227

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN BRAZIL

An Official Decree of the State of Sao Paolo.

The General Direction of State Education,
on Oct. 12th, 1931. (Officiel Gazette of
22-X-1931) adopted a series of measures
destined to accelerate the use of the Cinema
as a means of education and teaching.

These concerned a regulation relative
to the use of 9.5 mm. projectors and
the constitution of a cinematek for this
format.

The regulations governing the formation
of the cinematek and the distribution of
films are of the greatest interest. First of
all a consortium of 9.5 mm. film users is
envisaged. Users can be either individuals
or schools. In virtue of art. 5 of the de-
cree each member should, besides paying
the ordinary subscription, give a certain
quantity of films in order to constitute the
original stock. The subscription money
will go to the purchase of new stock and the
upkeep of the films. In addition interested
persons can have films made according to
their directions even of quite local inte-
rest. For these they will pay only the cost

price and the films will be added to the cine-
matek.

The distribution of the films is arranged
to allow the combination of instructional
and recreational parts.

We welcome this new proof of the grow-
ing interest which governments have in the
educational Cinema. Originally the Cinema
should have been documentary according
to the spirit of its creators. Its use as a
theatrical medium should have been purely
secondary. The contrary happened. It
may now be hoped that this may be righted
by the intervention of public authorities.
It is our most sincere hope. In any case
the Review will publish an I. I. E. C. study
of the legal measures taken in all countries
with regard to the cultural Cinema, within
a short time. This study will document
the interest shown by public authorities of
all countries in this matter and will show
that producers are not always right when
they claim not to be supported or to lack
leadership.

PROPAGANDA FILMS FOR THE ABOLITION OF THE TRAFFIC
IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN

According to the resolution passed by
the 8th International Congress for the Sup-
pression of Traffic in Women and Chil-
dren a Committee met at The Hague on
May 26 and 27 1931 to discuss the ques-
tions relative to the production of propa-
ganda films for the Suppression of the
Traffic. The principles decided by the
Committee were submitted to the National
Committees, The Basel Film Chamber and
to the I. I.E. C.

The Committee was composed of repre-
sentatives from the International Bureau,
Danemark, Holland, France, Germany, Po-

land, and Switzerland. A lengthy report
was adopted by the Committee, the essen-
tials of which are given below.

The Committee as a whole recognised
the value of films as propaganda against
the traffic but it was of the opinion that
the question of making these films should
be left to National Committees on account
of the extreme variety of mentalities to be
dealt with throughout the various countries.
However the Committee did not stipulate
the impossibility of making such films on
an International basis. It was stressed
that the production of films should be con-

— 228

fided only to the most serious of firms.
The Committee expressed its satisfaction
that several National representatives declared
that good results had been obtained with
films in their various countries and that
the German National Committees is willing
to send the film, " Tanzerinnen fur Slid-
Amerika gesucht " to any other national
Committee interested provided that inci-
dental expenses are paid by that Committee.

The examining Committee expresses no
opinion on whether the above named film
overcomes the difficulties of such interna-
tional films or not but a defense of the film
was by the German National Committee
and the favourable opinion of Dr. Weiss of
Berlin was quoted.

In forwarding the Committees report to
the interested authorities, the International
Bureau has added certain observations on
the opinions contained in the report.

It points out that propaganda films of
this kind which are not made with the coo-
peration of National Committees cannot be
considered as representative and therefore
the effectiveness of such film propaganda
generally can only be judged from those
films which have been made with the help
of National Committees. Such films have
been made only in Germany and Poland
and the opinion of the German and Polish
National Committees is summed up in the
three following points :

(1) The effectiveness of such film propa-
ganda cannot be ignored.

(2) Although there is danger the applica-
tion of definite rules is possible and is effective
in removing that danger.

(3) Those films actually shown have
proved useful.

It will be seen therefore that the opin-
ion of these well informed and experienced
National Committees is distinctly favour-
able to the films.

Opposition to the films came from Hol-
land and the general opinion of the Dutch
National Committee was supported by that
of Belgium. The views of these two Na-

tional Committees were founded on two
beliefs : that the depiction of traffic in wo-
men on the screen is likely not to deter
girls from accepting doubtful engagements
abroad, etc., but simply to give a general
sexual stimulus which would probably have
eveil rather than good results ; that commer-
cial producers, having financial motives in
their work will naturally present the warn-
ing facts in so sensational a manner that
their value as warnings will be entirely lost.

There was a general opinion that propa-
ganda films dealing with the traffic should
not be put into international circulation
without the specific approval of each Na-
tional Committee concerned.

The National Committee of Great Bri-
tain declares that it cannot approve of any
film dealing with the traffic, that it considers
such films as positively dangerous and on
no account to be encouraged.

It is thus obvious that the widest difference
of opinion on this matter exists in the va-
rious National Committees but two facts
seem to stand out :

The production of films dealing with the
traffic should be a National matter and that
the opinion of certain National Committees
(Great Britain, for instance) would make
it extremely difficult for any film however
succesful in some countries to obtain official
approbation in all countries.

That opinions favourable to propaganda
films of this type come from those National
Committees who have actually cooperated in
the production of such films and are therefore
in a position to know more of the facts of the
matter at any rate within their own countries
than those National Committees who express
opinions based upon observations of a diffe-
rent nature.

Presumably the purpose of a traffic pro-
paganda film is to help in the suppression
of the traffic. Germany and Poland claim
to have made successful films of this kind,
Great Britain, Belgium and Holland claim
that this is not possible. Logically Germany
and Poland seem to have more positive

229

evidence for the films than Great Britain,
Belgium and Holland have against them.
The objections of the last named countries
are based upon the fact that in films dealing
with the traffic, scenes representing the
worst results of thab traffic must be shown
in order to convey the necessary warning
and that such scenes are apt to stimulate
the sexual instincts generally without bring-
ing about the desired state of mind. Howe-
ver it is clear that there is no type of scene
required in a traffic film nor even a story
which has not already appeared thousands
and thousands of times in ordinary enter-

tainment films. Thus the traffic film may,
without introducing new and more immoral
scenes than already exist in ordinary Cinema
entertainment, have at least the chance of
conveying the desired warning. Therefore
while it would appear that no definite en-
couragement need necessarily be given to
the producers of traffic films there is no
reason why they should not simply pass the
ordinary form of film censorship in force
in the country concerned.

The Committee concluded their report by
quoting some German film censorship me-
thods.

AN EXHIBITION OF PUBLICITY FILMS

This Exhibition, the first of its kind, was
held recently in Paris. Inspite of its pu-
rely commercial character we must make
mention of it here as the I. I.E. C. is in-
terested in the publicity film which has
much of the instructional film in it. This
interest has already been shown by the at-
tendance of Dr. de Feo, by invitation from
the Spitzenorganisation der Deutsche Film-
industrie and the Lehrfilmbund, at the
International Congress of Cinema Publicity,
organised by those two large German bo-
dies in Berlin, the first of its kind in the
industrial world and the second in the world
of Cinema education.

The use of publicity films in schools
through lack of others shows that they often
have educational value. Not that they can
ever be considered as substitutes for the
latter but they can help to educatel the Ci-
nema public in many ways. The essential
aim of the publicity is after all to show and
to convince.

The Paris Exhibition was organised by
the producing and distributing firm " Dam-
Publicite " and it corroborates the above
opinion.

Curent types of publicity films were
shown : the entr'acte film, which with a
smaller format may become the shop win-
dow film, the documentary film with con-

fessed publicity motives and the big propa-
ganda film.

The first type is generally short, often
made of animated cartoons or a combination
of these with natural photography or simply
the latter. These have, in spite of their
generally comic nature, a certain instruc-
tional value. A film that shows how an
automobile can move off a pavement into
the street without shock is in a certain way
instructive. This is surely the same for films
showing the manufacture of foodstuffs, etc.?

Let us pass to the documentary film with
avowedly advertisement aims. These films
are too long and too obviously publicity to
be shown in the ordinary cinemas. They
are generally lent for use with potable pro-
jectors or in travelling cinemas.

In this connection, there is to be found in
Italy an interesting combination of educa-
tional and publicity Cinema. A large ma-
nufacturer of foodstuffs has offered to the
educational Cinema authorities of various
towns, fine film projectors mounted in mo-
tor vans which are also fitted with radio and
pick-up gramophone. Naturally every edu-
cational programme shown in public places
from these machines, includes a publicity
film adversiting the products of the firm.
This is good business combined with public
service.

230

The Paris Exhibition offers us an exam-
ple of this type of film made for a large
chain of provision merchants with branchs
throughout France. This film shows how
such a great firm can, by keeping an immense
stock of goods, sell them at the lowest price
and it instructs by showing the internal
organisation of such an immense concern.

As for big propaganda films dealing with
regional or national corporative propaganda,
many of them are shown in ordinary cinemas
without any one knowing of their real in-
tentions. These are perhaps the most ins-
tructive publicity films. They are made
for big organisations such as those for en-
couraging tourists, industrial syndicates, rail-
ways and steamship companies, etc...

The Pans Exhibition showed many such
films from various countries, films showing
the different uses for steel, the domestic,
industrial and agricultural use of electricity,
films showing the natural and artistic beau-
ties of different regions, etc. Some of these
films are silent, others sound and talking,
with commentaries by well known people.
Of this type is " Armor ", a film describing
the Breton seaside resorts with a commen-
tary by the late Charles Le Gome of the
Academie Francaise.

In conclusion, the publicity film is wort
the attention of all those interested in edu-
cational cinema, because it can and should
be a film of knowledge and progress and of
this the Paris Exhibition has been a proof.

REDUCTION OF PRICES THROUGHOUT THE GERMAN
FILM INDUSTRY

After discussion with representatives of
all branches of the film industry, the Govern-
ment Price Control Commissioner, Dr.
Goedeler, published a circular dated Feb-
ruary 15th, 1932, giving price reductions
relative to the cinema industry under law
No. 4.

In his introduction the Commissioner
remarks that cinemas have an increasing
importance on account of their cultural
influence, above all in times of crisis such
as the present when they constitute a means
of relaxation.

The law in question aims at reducing

entrance prices and to permit all classes to
attend cinemas, thus avoiding a rise in ad-
mission prices and a deterioration in the
quality of German films.

The price reductions operate in all bran-
ches of the cinema industry. Wherever
possible a reduction of at least 10 % has
been stipulated.

When uniform reductions might not feas-
ible, the commissioner saw to it that the
spirit of the law should be enforced in
order that the German cinema production
may be excellent and the prices adapted to
the paying powers of all classes of the public.

THE CINEMA AND BACTERIOLOGY

No one who is even superficially concerned
with the biology of protists will deny the
progress which the use of the Cinema si-
multaneously with the microscope, has made
in this domain. Microscopic photography
had already eliminate the subjective element
from these researches. Micro-Cinemato-
graphy will enable us to grasp their develop-

ment more easily and to control to speed of
their growth to suit our perception by means
of ultra-rapid and fast motion cameras.

In one of our next numbers we hope to
publish an article covering this entire
subject by a competent authority. Today
we will simply mention some information
which has come to us from the U. S. A.

231 —

At a session of the American Bacteriol-
ogists, Professors Stanhope Bayne-Jones, and
Edward F. Adolphe read a report on their
researches into the growth of micro-or-
ganisms (Bacilli and Bacteria).

The pictures showing the development of
organisms under certain conditions and at
a constant temperature had to be taken over
a period of several hours and with a speed of
from 2 to 30 images per min. Eventually
the numerous images thus obtained at de-
termined intervals were projected one by

one on a screen which enabled their relative
measurements to be taken.

It was hoped by this means to obtain the
growth curves of bacilli and bacteria through-
out a complete cycle of their development.
It was discovered that the width of the ba-
cilli is about constant but that it doubles its
length in one generation : growth did not
appear to slow down at the moment of
division. In yeast bacteria on the contrary
the growth varies in speed and is slowest
at the moment preceeding division.

THE CINEMA IN THE SERVICE OF MEDICINE

At the 101st session of the "Deutsche
Kinotechische Gesellschaft " at Berlin, Dr.
Hoefer, who has used the Cinema for
scientific observation at the Chanty Hos-
pital in Berlin, gave a talk on the service
rendered by ultra rapid Cinema in Me-
decine.

Supporting his speech, Dr. Hoefer showed
ultra rapid microcinematography of the
muscular tissue cell movements. Dr. Hoe-

fer s film first shows the process for extract-
ing arterial plasm from a chicken or fertilized
egg for the preparation of a culture of tis-
sue cells. According to microscopy the
cells do not seem to more but the micro-
cinema in its ultra rapid form shows that
they move considerably.

Dr. Hoefer's film also shows ether phe-
nomena of cell life, such as destruction and
subdivision with great clarity.

THE FIRST WORLD RECREATION CONGRESS

The First World Recreation Conference
will be held at Los Angeles, California,
U. S. A., from July 23rd to 29th, 1932, dur-
ing the week preceding the Olympic Games.
President Hoover is the Honorary President
of the Congress which has been organized
by the American National Recreation Asso-
ciation and the International Advisory Com-
mittee consists of such well known European
personalities as The Earl of Derby, Dr.
Theodor Lewald of Berlin, Dr. Alice G.
Masarykova of Prague, The Comte de
Baillet Latour of Brussels, Dr. I. Szuko-
vathy of Budapest, Albert Thomas of Ge-
neva, etc...

It is probable that sport and physical

exercices will capture the attention of this
congress to a great extent but more intellec-
tual pursuits are sure to have their place.

The Cinema tends to occupy a more and
more important place in the recreational
world. Before the foundation of the I. I.
E. C. the International Labour Office un-
dertook an inquiry into the place of the ci
nema in the amusements of workpeople.
This is now being carried out by the I. I.
E. C. Mr. Albert Thomas, director of the
B. L. 0. and member of the Congress
Comittee is a great friend of the Institute and
his presence at Los Angeles ensures the
educational Cinema an important place
in the discussions.

232

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C@*<^

===== Telegrams : =====
ANONIMA PITTALUGA

Works

R O M E :« Cines >, (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S.Giovanni).
TURIN: « Positiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON: Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams: Pittafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10

Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel. : 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel. :
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

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— 234

AT

VENICE

1932

APRIL 28th to NOVEMBER 4th

The " Biennial „ at Venice is the largest and most important permanent
exhibition of Modern Art in the World

Sixteen Nations have pavilions

ITALY

GERMANY - BELGIUM - DENMARK - SPAIN - UNITED

STATES - FRANCE - GREAT BRITAIN - GREECE

HOLLAND - HUNGARY - JAPAN - POLAND

SWITZERLAND - TCHECO-SLOVAKIA

and the U. S. S. R.

= THE XVIIIth BIENNIAL 1932 =

will present large personal exhibition of the works of Pablo Picasso and Ignacio
Zuloaga. And retrospective exhibitions of Giov. Boldini, F. P. Michetti, V. Gemito,

E. Menet, C. Meunier, etc.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CONTEMPORARY ART

April 30 - May 4

INTERNATIONAL COURSES IN MODERN ART

by eminent critics and authors. June and October
Hugust

First international Cinema Festival

September

Second international Festival of Music

Traditional Venetian Fetes ~ Travel facilities

Technical Notes

THE STANDARDISATION OF SOUNDFILM

In order to return to the normal ratio of
3 to 4 in the dimensions of the film image,
which had been reduced to accomodate the
sound track to about 1 to 1, The Academy
of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences has
proposed the standardisation of the camera
mask to 16.54 mm by 22.05 mm and that
of the projector to 15.62 by 20.83 mm.

These figures have been approved by all
the authorities that met to decide them and
the big producing houses will soona dopt
them. Others must necessarily follow. Me-
tro Goldwyin have already introduced the
new masks on production and Paramount
will do the same.

Besides a return to a more aesthetic form
than that employed at present and the ad-
vantages of standardisation itself, the adop-
tion of the new standard also facilitates the
technical side and even the work on the floor.
Sets will be easier to light, they can be
lower by a yard or more and reduced in size
by about 10 % , hence lighting and micro-
phones can be placed nearer to speakers
which will improve optical and acoustical
quality.

A New Type of Air Cooler.

The increasing size of cinemas and the
distribution of more colour films make it
necessary to have illuminants of increasing
intensity in the projectors.

The introduction of the concave reflector
into general use has increased the light in-
tensity but has at the same time raised the
temperature in the gate. It is therefore ne-
cessary to find new cooling systems to cool
the film in the gate. Amongst such cooling
systems air coolers with fans are the most
efficient.

However, they are not without disadvan-
tages. The noise of the vans are such that
often it is impossible to have them in the
projection room. It is therefore necessary
to lead the air in by a long pipe which results
in decreased efficiency.

The firm of E. Bauer of Suttgart, have
just produced a cooling system, Type K. G.
7, which shows considerable advantages
over others. " Filmtechnik " published a
description of this machine from which we
will quote here.

The efficiency of a cooling system relies
to some extent upon the pressure under
which the air is applied to the projection
gate and to some extent on the temperature
of the air itself. An attempt has been made
to reduce this temperature to a minimum by
an air contraction and expansion cooling
system with a water element and a copper
tube coil with radiating vanes. The fan
functions on ball bearings which make it
practically silent so that it may be placed near
the projector. To avoid the cost of a double
installation the machine is fitted with a
three-way tap, one a release tap and the
others leading to the projectors. When
the change over from one projector to another
is ordinarily automatic this tap can also
be attached to the automatic device.

The Bauer fan type K. G. 7. produces,
at 1,400 rev. p. m., an air column of 100 dmc
a minute. The cooler requires 100 litres of
water an hour.

But what is particularly important is the
cooling capacity of the machine ; with a
surrounding temperature of 25 deg. C, the
Bauer system reduces the temperature of
the air applied to the projection gate to 20
deg. C., i. e. a reduction of 20%.

236 —

Preservation and Regeneration of
Films.

For a long time technicians have been
studying this question for it is of the great-
est practical interest and its solution would
certainly bring about a great economy by
lengthening the life of films.

In certain countries, chiefly in Germany and
America, the regeneration of films is ac-
complished on quite a large scale and by
various methods.

These methods are of three kinds depend-
ing upon how the liquid compositions
employed act on the surfaces of the film :
first, processes consisting of a simple varn-
ishing of one or both surfaces ; second,
processes such as Recono, in which both
surfaces are subjected to a real fusion (this
after polishing does away with scratches, etc.);
third, absorbtion processes, in which the
composition employed is applied only to
the emulsion surface of the film.

In this last category we have the ' Smalto-
Chromo-Film ' process, recently invented
by an Italian, M. Ottorino Tedeschini, which
seems to give really satisfactory results.
This consists of a chemical composition
which has the property of preserving posi-
tives from scratches resulting from repeated
projection, above all on the emulsion ser-
vice.

This composition is not a varnish with a lac-
quer, resin or nitro-cellulose base which rende
film brittle and liable to break, but a chem-
ical which is entirely absorbed by the emul-
sion base itself. It renders the latter more
flexible and supple so that when the film
passes through the steel rollers it does not
lose particles of gelatine which by accumula-
tion cause scratches, etc. and thus ruin pro-
jection.

In the sound film it also eliminates para-
sitical noises caused by deterioration of the
sound track. This " Smalto " also strength-
ens the joins and avoids laceration of the
perforations.

In thus reducing the friction between film
and roller, sprocket lubrication is less fre-

quently required and oil, well known to
harm the film by deteriorating the emulsion,
is less likely to get into the film track.
Oil and dust together form a coating on the
film which obscures the image and impairs
the clarity of the sound reproduction. Ad-
ditionally, oily gelatine tends to melt under
the heat of the illuminant and it then begins to
peel off from the celluloid et film treated with
" Smalto-Chromo-Film " also gains in trans-
parency thus the image is more perfect and
the sound more clearly reproduced. This
applies to new positives. The Tedeschini
Process also really regenerates old films.
It cleans away grease and the oily coating
which eventually covers both sides of the
film and gives back to it its original flexib-
ility. What is more important it does away
with all but the most serious of scratches.

Finally the Tedeschini Process preserves
film from heat and damp and it is therefore
useful for the treatment of negatives which
it preserves from deterioration caused by
the action of hyposulphites and other chem-
ical impurities absorbed by the gelatine.

" Smalto-Chromo-Film " is applied to
the emulsion after printing by means of a
special machine.

An optically compensated portable
projector, the " Simplicine-Gau-
mont ".

The special advantagesof optically compen-
sated projectors are well known. Amongst
these must be counted, that of the sim-
plicity of the mechanical organs (but
not that of the polical organs) ; that of
a more regular film traction due to a total
absence of jerks ; that of less deterioration
of the perforations, that of a greater lumi-
nosity in certain cases, and finally owing
to the elimination of the shutter, a great
degree of silence in operation.

These advantages are due to the essential
fact that the film traction is continuous and
they are often cancelled out by the complica-
tion of the optical system and by the difficulty

237 —

of its proper regulations (prisms, mirrors,
mirror drums, multiple objectives, etc.).
On the other hand the principal advantage,
the reduction of film wear has not in public
presentations the importance that it might
at first seem to have, for the continual change
of programmes often leads to films being
renewed before they are really deteriorated.

In teaching, educational and propaganda
Cinema this is not the case, for the films
represent an important investment of cap-
ital. The assurance of the long life of the
latter is then highly desirable. This ex-
plains the attempts of the industry to produce
portable optically compensated projectors.

The difficulty in this line has always been
to produce a projector that is both simple
and cheap, essential qualities of educational
apparatus.

The " Simplicine ", made by " Gaumont
Franco-Film Aubert ", represents a fairly
satisfactory solution of the problem.

The system is very simple. It consists
of a cylindrical and hollow traction drum, on
one end of which is mounted a ring of ob-
jectives which constitute the compensator.
The part of the drum which would ordina-
rily support the image is cut away so that
the film rests only upon the traction teeth
and upon small metal bars spaced exatly
to cover the lines between the images. Thus
each image passes through the light rays
from the luminous source behind it and the
latter pass through it and enter the drum
itself. In the interior of the drum and in
its axis there is a triple faced, total reflection
prism. Therefore, after the light has pass-
ed through the film and entered the drum
it strikes the first inclined surface of the

prism which reflects it, it then follows the
axis of the prism and is reflecteds a second
time by the second face of the prism and
thrown back into one of the rings of
objectives which faces the second face of
the prism.

The light ray thus leaves the drum and
is collected by a lens which projects it on
the screen.

The focal lengths of the compensating
objectives and the size of the drum are cal-
culated in order to produce through the
projecting lens, a compensating effect be-
tween the continuous movement of the film
and that of the compensating lenses.

It is obvious that the distance between
the film and the compensating objectives —
in other words the distance travelled by the
light ray inside the drum and through the
prism — being fixed and it being necessary
to have the screen situated on the focal plane
of the projection lens and the compensating
lenses combined, it is essential in order to
be able to project at different distances from
the screen to be able to change the focal
length of the projecting lens. In other
words for each distance a different lens must
be used. The " Simpli-cine " has a turret
of five projection lenses so that any one of
these may be brought before the compensat-
ing lenses according to the distance of the
screen which may be from 1 m 80 to 1 0 m
away.

The projector is completely enclosed in a
rectangular box, whose sides are removable
during projection and then constitute the
upper spoolbox. The light is derived from
a Phihpps incandescent bulb of 225 Watts —
7.5 volts, 30 Amps giving 525 candlepower.

238 —

TREVES ~ TRECCANI ~ TUMMINELLI

3Vi:irvA.IV and ROM©

PUBLICATION OF THE GIOVANNI TRECCANI INSTITUTE

Three years from the commencement of publication, The Italian Encyclopedia
today issues the Xllth volume to the world. One" third of the great task is thus accom-
plished exacdy to schedule. The use of this Encyclopedia becomes every day more
essential to Italians.

The Xllth Volume bears the signatures of 152 collaborators and comprises : —

2,007 items

1,098 inserted illustrations
192 tables in monochrome and colour
13 large trichromes
2 maps.

hors de texte

The volumes of the Encyclopedia are sold at very moderate prices in compari-
son with other books ; from the point of view of word content it costs only the third
as much as the ordinary Italian book.

This has been made possible both by efficiency of organisation and by the volun-
tary sacrifice made by the firm in order that a given number of copies might be
collected in Italy. This quota bas already been filled and therefore the increased prices
already announced will be applied: but the new Treves • Treooani-
TummineHi company will maintain its prices until the 31st of March
1932 for the benefit of new subscriben.

On the first of April 1932 prices will be modified as follows :

until March 31st 1932 subscriptions :

Monthly . . .
Three months ,
Six months . .
Annual . . . .

67 liras
200 »
390 »

760 »

after March 31st 1932 subscriptons :

Three years 1.950 »

Entire 5.500 »

Each volume separately 275 Liras.

Monthly . . .
Three months .
Six months . .
Annual . . . .

75 liras
220 »

430 «

840 »

Three years 2.150 »

Entire 5.500 »

Each volume separately 300 liras.

Old prices apply until March 31st 1932

For information, illustrated prospectuses and conditions of sale apply to

TREVES-TRECCANI-TUMMINELLI

Via Palermo 12, MILAN — ROME, Piazza Paganica 4

= and at all the companies shops and authorised agencies. ^

Review of periodicals and newspapers

I. 1. E. C. Activity.

In answer to the appeal made by the I. I. E. C,
the Presidential Council of The Italian National
Commission of Intellectual Cooperation decided,
at the first meeting of the year to favour the creation
of a National Phono-Cinematek. (Il POPOLO DI
Roma, 30-1-1932).

Social Aspects of the Cinema.

Mr. M. A. Lightman, President of the Motion
Picture Theatre Owners of America, has addressed
an appeal to producers to discontinue the production
of " thrillers " as these have a detrimental effect
on children's nervet,. (FlLM Daily, N. Y. C,
28-XII-1931).

In an article entitled " Et void des enfants-- "
Lucien Wahl rejoices in the fact that children have
finally been given their true importance on the
screen and mentions many films in which they
have shown themselves to be excellent actors.
(Cine, Paris, Jan. 1932).

The Birmingham " Cinema Inquiry Committee "
will hold a meeting at the University on Feb. 27th
in order to discuss the inherent problems of the
Cinema and more particularly its effects on chil-
dren. (Today's Cinema, London, 11-11-1932).

The XXth world conference of the Y. M. C. A.
was particularly concerned with the influence of
Cinema on youth and it deplored the fact that more
use was not made of the Cinema in education.
(The Worlds Youth, Geneva, Oct.-Dec. 1931).

In a report published by the sub-Commission
of the Public Morality Council, it is stated that im-
moral films are not the rule but the exception.
(Today's Cinema, London, 8-II-1932).

In a lecture on educational methods at Glasgow
University, Dr. C. D. Burnes formally denied the
reality of the bad effect attributed to certain films.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 5-1 1- 1932).

Dr. Carleton Simon, a specialist in crimonology
declared in a speech to the N. Y. C. Federation of
Womens Club that in the examination of 30.000
criminals he did not find one that had been influenc-
ed into crime by films. (New York Times, 19-1-
1932).

The Disarmament conference and the problems
of National minorities were dealt with at the meet-
ing of the Union of Jewish Societies held recently
at Manchester. Speaking of war films it was stated
that although these show the horrors of war they are
inclined to inspire young people with the desire
for it. (The Manchester Guardian, 18-1-1932).

In an article, " Negro Psychology, Natives and
the Cinema ", M. Perricone said that natives at-
tended the Cinema enthousiastically and stressed the
necessity for showing them only those films which,
are easily understood and not liable to be falsely
interpreted. A special type of film, amusing and
instructive should be developed for natives. (Il
Popolo d'Italia, Milan, 27-1-1932).

Winnipeg cinemas will give benefit shows for
the unemployed on Sundays. It is hoped to raise
ten thousand dollars very quickly by this method.
(Canadian Digest, Toronto, 16-1-1932).

Censorship.

In England cinema managers have asked the
Censorship Office to divide films into three classes
instead of two ; the third class to include those films
absolutely forbidden for children. (Today's Cl-
NEMA, London, 1-1-1932).

229 films out of 1369 submitted to the Censor
of the Irish Free State during 1931 were banned.
(The Kinematograph Weekly, London, 28-1-1932)

Mr. L. W. Post has proposed a law for the
abolition of the Censor in the City of Albany.
(Film Daily, New York, 20-1-1932).

— 240

Cinema and Religion.

The John Wesley Picture Foundation has been
constituted in New Jersey with the aim of produc-
ing talking films of a religious character to be pro-
jected in all the methodist churches in the U. S. A.
It is proposed first to collect 100.000 dollars in or-
der to produce a film dealing with the life of John
Wesley, founder of Methodism. (The New York
Times, 28-1-1932).

The " Spitzenorganisation ' of the German
Film Industry has made announcement of a decree
issued by the Prussian Ministry of the Interior,
dated 23-XI-31, which stipulates that only films of
a religious or high moral character may be projected
on Good Friday. The Berlin Cinema Office of
the Central Institute of Education will be the judge
in the matter. (Kinematograph, Berlin, 15-1-1932).

Cinema Statistics.

From figures dated Dec. 1st, 1931, it appears
that there is a total of 1748 sound cinemas in
France, North Africa, Belgium and Luxembourg.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris, 26-XII-
1931).

From figures published by Swiss cinema managers
there appear to be 325 cinemas in Switzerland dis-
tributed as follows r

Berne, 47, total of 17.700 seats ; Zurich, 35, one
of 2000 seats, total 19.000 seats; Vaud 39, total
1 4.200 seats ; Geneva, 1 6, one of 1 .400 seats, total
8.830 seats; Neuchatel, 22, total, 9.140 seats; va-
lais, 14, total 2,890 seats; Lucerne, 7, total 2.300
seats ; Appenzell, ! . (Nieuw Weekblad voor de
Cinematographie, The Hague, 23-X-1931)-

According to a recent inquiry in Germany 335
cinemas, 264 of which were in the small theatre
class, have shut down. Of the 5.267 cinemas
in Germany, 2.867 have less than 300 seats. At
the end of 1931 3.000 were equipped for sound.
The effective value of the cinemas is estimated at
273.912.360 marks. 139 new ciemas have been
opened of which 1 36 have more than 500 seats and
53 more than 1000 seats. Although the number
of theatres has decreased, the number of seats
has gone up by 22.378. (As above, 8-1-1932).

In the U. S. A. in 1925, 50 millions of people
went to the cinema, in 1927, 57 millions, in 1929
(coming of soundfilms) 95 millions, 1931, 115 mil-

lions. These figures are based strictly on tickets
sold and do not include free passes. (AcENZIA Film,
Rome, 28-1-1932).

In England two years ago 93 % of films shown
were foreign (from U. S. A.). This is at present
reduced to 80 % and tends to reduce further to the
advantage of the national industry. (NATIONALITY,
Dublin, 30-1-1932).

According to information supplied by the U. S.
Dept. of Commerce, there are at present 64.000
cinemas in the world. (Motion Picture Daily,
New York, 25-1-1932).

There were 20.100 cinemas in America accord-
ing to the last census. On the 1st of January 1932
the number had fallen to 14i-761, of which 13.223
have sound installations ; the former number
has therefore been reduced by one fourth. (FlLM-
Kurier, Berlin, 9-1 1- 1932

During the fiscal year of 1930-1931 the Cinema-
tographic Office of the Swedish Government exa-
mined 4.262,810 metres of film. Half of this was
American film and 1 ,054,998 Swedish- 61,126 metres
were banned by the censure. (Film-Kurier, Berlin,
9-II-1932).

Italy has used 319 films as against 410 in 1931 ;
187 of these were American and 132 European, of
which there were 14 by Cines, 13 by Ufa, 36 by
M. G. M., and 27 each from Fox and Paramount.
(Film-Kurier, Berlin, 10-11-1932).

2606 cinemas in the United States are in the hands
of large production trust companies. There are
971 Paramount cinemas in the United States and
169 in Canada, 529 Wanner cinemas, 521 Fox
189 Leow's 161 R. K. G. and 66 Universal. (Film-
Kurier, Berlin, II -II- 1932).

According to a report from the central British
film Office, 1951 films composed of 1.900,000 me-
tres of film were submitted to them in 1931. 34
films were banned of this number. (FlLM-KuRIER,
Berlin, 19-11-1932).

In Spain only 3 out of 500 films shown in 1931
were of na tional production, 260 were American,
102 were German, 36 French, 56 from various
countries besides 43 Spanish films made abroad.
(Agenzia Film, Rome, 4-II-1932).

241 -

Cinema Technique.

William C. Plank, describes several optically
compensated projectors with continuous film trac-
tion and stresses the advantages of these machines
from various points of view, notably as concerning
physiology. (INTERNATIONAL PROJECTIONIST, New

York, Dec. 1931).

M. Gunes, a South African Astronomer, has in-
vented a new system of stereoscopic projection
employing a series of mirrors near the screen. The
system will be patented shortly. (OESTERREI-

chische Film Zeitung, 6-II-1932).

In a very complete article, engineer A. R. Schulze
resumes the optical problems of projection and de-
scribes methodically present day solutions. (KlNO-
technische Monatshefte, Berlin, Dec. 1931).

t
' C. Roy Hunter and M. Pierce describe a new

automatic developer for negatives, in use in the Uni-
versal studios. This can also be used in inversion
processes. (Journal of motion picture Engineers
New York, Dec. 1931).

A new Osram lamp for dark rooms where panchro-
matic film is treated is announced. The inside of
the globe is ground instead of the outside and only
rays not affecting panchromatic emulsion are allowed
to pass. (Thotographische Industrie, Berlin,
13-1-1932).

Hans Pander describes new apparatus for sub-
marine cinematography by means of television in-
vented by Dr. Hartmann. These cameras are
being manufactred by Krupp and are destined for
the exploration of sub-marine depths. (700 rntres
and deeper). (Filmtechnik UND FlLMKUNST, Ber-
lin, 9-1-1932).

M. Tager describes sound cameras and projec-
tors at present manufactured in Russia. The de-
scription of his own system, the Tagefon, employing
a Karolus cell and a variable density sound track
and also ihe details of the researches leading up
to its development are of particular interest (As
above).

In an article on theatre acoustics, illustrated
with many diagrams V. A. Schenker studies the
methods of compensating sound absorption. (PRO-
JECTION Engineering, New York, Jan. 1932).

After many experiments the Academy of Motion
Picture Arts and Sciences has demonstrated that
sound recording is improved when studio walls
are draped in muslin. (The New York Times,
17-1-1932).

W. C. Jones and L .W. Gilles, describe a new
type of moving coil microphone. High sensitiv-
ity, constant working and resistance to temperature
changes are the principal advantages of this new
microphone. (Journal of the Society of Motion
Pic i ure Engineers, New York, Dec. 1931).

R. C. Curt describes a new optical system for
sound recording which eliminates the light gap.
The system consists of an arrangement of positive
and negative lenses whose axes are at right angles
to each other. The image of the illuminating source
is drawn out and reduced in breadth as required
by this optical device and the light is then focussed
on the film. This gives the maximum luminosity,
clearness and consistency of light across the whole
image. (As above).

Under the title of " S. M. P. E. Heats New Disc ",
news of the vertical system of record cutting em-
ployed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories is an-
nounced. Results seem very satisfactory and are
of particular value in disc synchronised sound films.
(The Motion Picture Projectionist, New York,
No. 3, Jan. 1932).

The engineer Winnek has invented a nevr system
of stereoscopic film projection. A screen coated
with several layers of colophane is used. Each layer
acts as a lens. Every square inch of screen carries
576 layers. The camera has a double objective
system and the images thus obtained are superim-
posed by means of a binocular projector. Insuffi-
ciency of details makes it difficult to get a clear
idea of this invention. (As above).

Hygiene, and Safety of Spectators.

A study by M. D. C. Lindsay on the ventilation
systems for small cinemas (up to 900 seats) and on
the installation costs. (MOTION PlCTURF. Herald,
New York, 19-XII-1932).

In London, The Entertainment Committee has
asked the City Council to modify some of the regu-
lations relative to public safety in cinemas in order
to avoid all possibility of danger. (Daily Telegraph,
London, 1-II-1932).

6 — Ice ingl.

242

A decree issued by the Prussian Police announces
that for the projection of sub-standard films, no
projection box is necessary, the projector itself need
not be approved nor need the operator be certified.
(Deutscher Filmzeitung, Munich, 30-1-1932).

From March 31st, all cinemas under the juris-
diction of the London County Council must be
provided with uninflammable screens^ (Kinemato-
graph Weekly, London, 4-1 1-1932) .

of educational films dealing with natural history,
geography, morals, etc. (Excelsior, Paris, 12-1-
1932).

The National Board of Review of Motion Pic-
tures recently held its annual assembly in New
York. In his inaugural speech Dr. L. I. Harris
classified those schools which have not accepted
the educational cinema, as " routine ' schools.
(New York Times, 22-1-1932).

Cinema in Schools.

An interesting experiment took place in Madrid
last December with the authorisation of the In-
spector of Primary Education and in the presence
of the staff of the Argentine Embassy and Consulate
and the school authorities. The schoolchildren
of the public schools in the " Latina " district were
gathered m the Cinema " Castilla " where a lesson
on the Argentine was given to them with the aid
of a film commented upon by the Argentine
journalist, Lopez Torres an accompanied by pop-
ular music. After this show the children wrote their
impressions on a special form and these were then
sent to the school authorities in Buenos Aires as
informatory evidence for a projected scheme of
educational film exchange. (La LlPERTAD, Madrid,
20-XII-1932).

The Royal Holstentor High School at Hambourg
announces that it has made a film 1928 metres in
length of which 845 metres are devoted to the
management of the "' Hamburger Schulheim ".
(FlLM-KuRlER, Berlin, 27-II-1932).b

The London school authorities in their report
note the favour with which the pupils look upon
cinema shows. 10% of the pupils go to the cinema
twice a week and 30 % go once a week 48 % go
from time to time and the remainder do not go at
all. It seems that a bad influence is not attributed
to the Cinema which appears on the contrary to
develop powers of attention. (Fiom-Kurier, Ber-
lin, 26-11-1932).

A new experiment to test the value of the sound
film in teaching biology, geography, and natural
history will take place in New York schools this
Spring. (New York Times, 10- 1- 1 932).

Conforming to ihe resolutions passed at the re-
cent Paris Congress, the Permanent Commission
on educational fims is working on the preparation

A new test of six silent films and three talking
films has been held in Edinburgh during February
in nine elementary and intermediate schools in
order to test further their efficacity. (KlNEMATO-
graph Weekly, London, 28-1-1932).

Sandyford Road Council School, Newcastle,
which has made use of films for teaching for the
last eighteen months, has now undertaken an ex-
periment to determine the value of the teaching
sound film. (Daily Film Renter, London, 9-1 1-
1932).

Six Glasgow schools have begun a test of educa-
tional films which will last for six months. (1 HE
Scottish Educational Journal, Edinbourgh 12-
XI-1932).

Technical Instruction.

" The Apprentice Course " is the title of a film
projected by the General Electric Co. in order to
accelerate the progress of their apprentices. (Movie
Makers, New York, Jan. 1932).

At Leipzig a cinematek of technical instructional
films showing the construction and working of
different machines has been formed. Up to date
10.500 metres of film have been collected and are
at the disposal of the schools. (DEUTSCHER Ff.UIL-
lf.ton Dienst, Berlin, 26-1-1932).

Arts, Sciences and General Culture.

In France a film on modern architecture has been
made in which examples of modern French archi-
tecture are illustrated and commented upon. (Co-
MOEDIA, Paris, 10-XII-1931).

The Government Commissioner for Fine Arts,
Dr. Redslot, and E. Frohwein have together writ-
ten the scenario for a film about Goethe for the ce-

243

iebration of his anniversary. (Film-Kurier, Berlin,
20-111-1932).

A series of lectures and projections dealing with
French art are being held at the Victoria and Albert
Museum in London. (The TlMES, London, 3-XI-

1932).

The American Optical Company has made a
scientific film called " Through Life's Windows
showing that headaches often result from defective
sight. (Movie Makers, New York, Jan. 1932).

Atlantic Film is producing a scientific film call-
ed " The Discovery of the Earth " in which the
various conceptions of the origin and life of our
planet will be shown. (Agenzia Film, Rome,
3-XI-1932).

In Moscow a colour film illustrating the experi-
ments of the Russian scientist, Witschourine in the
selection and reproduction of plants is being made.
(Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst, Berlin, 2-XI-1932

In New York, the opening of a new type of cinema
in the Museum of Science and Industry is announ-
ced. It has 150 seats and is open free to the public
from noon to two o'clock when programmes of
scientific and industrial films are given. (The

Educational Screen, Chicago, Dec. 1931).

The Railway Workers Dopolavoro 1 heatre in
Genoa has shown for the first time a film illustrating
the activity of the Experimental Institute of the
Ministry of Communications (Railway Section)
The projection was followed by a technical lecture.
(Popolo d'Italia, Milan, 30-1-1932).

Gordon S. Mitchell, in a long article, examines
the progress made in medical and surgical Cinema.
(Projection Engineering, New York, Jan. 1932).

Considerations of Dr. Hans Curlis, president of
the " Bund Deutscher Lehr- und Werbefilm-Her-
steller " on the desiderata of the German producers
of educational and propaganda films for the year

1932. (Licht-eild Buehne, Berlin, 1-1-1932).
Some Documentary Films.

Under the direction of a committee of professors
of the Kiev Academy, cameramen of " Ukrain-
film " have made a search under very dangerous
conditions in the waters of the Black Sea for traces

of the legendary city of Cherson which is supposed
to have dissappeared in 1300 A. D. Traces of the
town ia a remarkable state of preservation have been
found. 1 he walls are partly in ruins but there are
still about twenty towers standing. In the centre
of the town is a large public square with many
fountains from which several avenues lead to
what was the old port. Subterrenean passages
have also been discovered. The wealth of this
city must have been extraordinary judging from
what has been found. The Cameramen worked
in special diving suits with electrically operated
cameras. (AcENZIA FlLM, Rome, 21-1-1932).

At a recent meeting of the Cinema Club of Chi-
cago a new documentary called : " A trip to the
South Sea Islands and New Zealand " was shown.
(Mov;e Makers, New York, Jan. 1932.

J. A. Fitzpatrick has made two new films, " Lon-
don, City of Tradition ", and " Ireland, the Melody
Isle". (Educational Screen, Chicago, N. 10, 1931).

Father P. A. Bell of the Society of the Divine
Word, has made the first sound film to be taken in
the Southern Pacific Islands, more precisely on
the Island of Flores, east of Java. The actors are
all natives. (The Universe, London, 22-1-1932).

At the Modern Cinema, Lyon, a film entitled
" From Dakar to Gao ", made by the white fathers
to illustrate the natural beauties of Senegal, the
Soudan, etc. and the progress made there in military,
civil and missionary matters has been shown. (MAR-
SEILLE Matin, Marseille, 28-1-1932).

H. C. Wing has brought back a 16 mm film of
native and missionary life from the Cameroons.
(Movie Makers, New York, Jan. 1932).

U. F. A. Has produced a new cultural-documen-
tary film, " China, Japan and Manchuria " showing
the aspect and habits of these countries, contrasting
the industrial development of Japan with its attach-
ment to old traditions (Der Montag, Berlin,
1-II-1932).

Industrial Symphony " by Joris Ivens and
" The Song of the Hoggar " made in the Sahara
by Pierre Ichac were presented at two meetings of
the Parisian society, Cinedocument, frequented by
those interested in the documentary and educa-
tional Cinema. (Les Actualites Cinematogra-
phiques Internationales, Paris, Feb. 1932).

7 — Ice in*/.

244

E. Cohen, of Paramount Sound News has ob-
tained the film rights for the work of salving the
Lusitania which is to be undertaken by the " Lake
Riley ". (Nieuw Weekbijvd voor de Cinemato-
grafie, The Hague 8-1-1932)

Atlantic Film are producing a documentary deal-
ing with the construction of a transatlantic liner
from start to finish, treating rapidly but efficiently
each stage of the work. (AcENZIA Film, Rome,
4-II-1932).

" Christian Civilization in the Black Continent "
is the title of a film made by the missionary father
Alexander Ferrans of the order of the Serviteurs
de Marie which has been successfully shown in
Italian cinemas. (La Vita Cinematografica,
Turin, Dec. 1931).

The Dutch Life Saving Society has charged Man-
nus Franken with the production of a film on its
organisation and activity.

Author's Right.

A bureau of author's rights has been formed in
Berlin to deal with the disposal of sound film rights.
This Bureau is called " Der Tonfilm C. m. b. H. "
and is situated at Berlin, 24, Friedrichstrasse 129.
It will dispose of soundfilm rights of German lit-
erary works to films producers throughout the world.
(Reichsfilmblatt, Berlin, 30-1-1932).

The controversy between French industrials
and the Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Edi-
teurs de Musique has been submitted to the decision
of M. Petsche, Under-Secretary at the Beaux-Arts
In the meantime the non-payment of dues has
been postponed until April 1st. (La Cinemato-
graphie Francaise, Paris, 30-1-1932).

Finance and Legislation.

In England the Cinema Exhibitors Association
has asked the London County Council to reduce
the charity tax on Sunday takings by 25 %.

At the sub-standard film conference of the Bran-
denburg Ass., held in the Berlin Cinema Bureau,
many speakers gave their opinions upon the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the new decree deal-
ing with this matter. Dr. Gunther emphasises
the fact that the conversion to sub -standard film

would have to be a gradual one as there were al-
ready 2.500 standard size projectors in use in Ger-
man educational institution. (Film-Kurier, Berlin,
20-11-1932).

The Swedish Government has raised customs
duties on films imported into Sweden from 0.80
crowns to 15.80 croswns per kilo. (Film-Kurier,
Berlin, 22-11-1932).

In Germany the Reichsverband and the Berli-
ner Verband have petitioned the Preiskommissar
for a radical reduction of the taxation levied on the
cinema industry in order to avoid an increase in
admission charges which will otherwise be neces-
sary. (Reichsfilmblatt, Berlin, 30-1-1931).

Owing to the currency exchange regulations in
Austria which even forbid private clearing of foreign
bills, the importation of films has become almost
impossible. The Cinema Induqtry League has
notified the Government that if this state of af-
fairs continues all Austrian cinemas will have to
close. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 9-1-1932).

In Hungary, the Government have passed a
measure according to which film projectors will
be considered for customs purposes as component
parts not as complete units. (Locht-BIL.D Buehne.
Berlin, 1 -1 1-1932).

In Roumania, the Government have passed new
measures regarding the importation of films and
incidental publicity matter. From now on the
latter will be subject to a duty of 85 lei per kilo,
raw stock to a duty of 50 lei per kilo, and printed
film to a duty of 1 50 lei per kilo. (Der Film, Berlin,
30-1-1932).

In Czecho-Slovakia, the Ministry of the Interior
has decided that each cinema must show at least
eight national programmes a year in order to en-
courage home production (Variety, New York,
12-1-1932).

The Society of Motion Picture Engineers will
hold its annual meeting at Washington D. C.
fromt the 9th to the 12th of next May. (The KlNE-
MATOGRAPH Weekly, London, 28-1-1932).

The Ninth Parisian Exhibition of Photography
and Cinematography was held from February 18
to 28 at Versailles. (Film-Kurier Berlin, 23-1-1932).

245 -

The International congress of Cinema Managers
will be held this year in London pfrom May 30th
to June 4th. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 3-11-1932)

In Milan from April 19th to 20th , there will be
held a general assembly of the C. U. C. E. (Consor-
zio degli Utenti del Cinema Educativo). Agenda
includes : projection halls and attendant questions

— the sound film — La Rivista de Cinematografo

— Insurance etc. (Rivista del Cinematografo,
Milan, Jan, 1932).

Premieres.

The first film spoken in Dutch, entitled " Zijn
Beloonging " (Recompense) has been made at
The Hague. (Nieuw Weekblad voor de Cinemato-
GRAFIE, The Hague, Jan. 1932).

The first Turkish sound film was shown recently
at Stamboul. It is called " Semira Hanoun
and is a product of Ipesksji Brothers Ltd., of
Stamboul. In spite of various faults in production
the film is interesting for the beauty of the songs
reproduced. (Der Film, Berlin, 32-1-1932).

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REVIEW

EDUCATIONAL C1NEMT0GRAPHY

ROME

APRIL
19 3 2

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of Justice, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome. President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Corp.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MILLIKEN Carl E„ Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela.

OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, at the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation,
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director.

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Dr. G. Noxon

de FEO, Giuseppe GlMENO, Jose Maria

de Lavallaz, Maurice Jordan, H.

APOLLONIO, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. APRIL 1932 N. 4.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

— LEAGUE OF NATIONS —

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1a - ROME

INDEX

Pag.

Prof. Felix Lampe ... — Geography Teaching with Films 253

M. LuciEN VlBOREL ... — Hygiene Propaganda by the Cinema in France . 263

Prof. A. HuBL — Cultural Films and Sound News Reels .... 268

Doctor St. ZuRUKZOGLU . . — Statistics on the Screen 270

/. /. C. E. INQUIRIES

War Films and Young People (cont.) 273

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

History of Visual Education (cont.) 285

LEGISLATION

Cinematographic Censure in the Baltic Countries : Lettonia, Finland and

Esthonia 295

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

Towards the Creation of an International Cinema Archives — Will Italy and
France have State Cinemas ? — What kind of life should the Cinema
show ? — How many Cinemas are there in the World ? — Amateur Ci-
nema and Theatrical Cinema — The Cinema Instrument of Religious
Propaganda. — A Course in Cinema Culture in Barcelona — The Acad-
emy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 303

TECHNICAL NOTES

R. Namias, Colour Cinema — Fast Motion Cameras — The Patin Photo-

Electric Cell 313

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS

Portuguese Cine-Education Committee — Social aspects — Censure — Re-
ligion — Statistics — Labour — Technique — Schools — Technical
Training — Arts — Sciences — Agriculture — Author's Rights —
Finance — Legislation — Documentary Films — Cinema Reform . . 317

BIBLIOGRAPHY .323

GEOGRAPHY TEACHING WITH FILMS

by Prof. Felix Lampe

A film becomes a teaching film by reason of the presentation of its con-
tents and the possibilities which it presents for use in teaching and study.
In the geographic teaching film, it is first necessary to know how geographic
matter can be adapted to the cinema and how it can best be registered on
film for use in education.

I.

Geography is a science of space and the film is simply a representation
of space and the objects contained in it. Geographic matter is therefore
suitable for statement in Cinema. It may always be asked, however, whether
the film, permits of showing one by one the properties of geographic space
or whether some of these are omitted by elimination.

The terrestrial surface studied in geography has three dimensions :
the film like all other images has only two. Relief models accurately made of
geographic objects are the only true method of demonstrating them and then
it is upon a very greatly reduced scale. But they are very expensive, difficult
to handle and difficult to place so that each pupil of a class is able to see all
details clearly. Two dimension graphic representation, particularly, in the
form of luminous projections does away with this inconvenience. Globes,
reliefs and models can still be used but they are projected on the screen
and in a film the globe can be rotated so that its details may be visible to all.
In the same manner all faces of models and reliefs can be shown consecu-
tively and thus the film makes up by movement for the lack of a third
dimension. The film will always give better representation of geographic
space than fixed projection, better even than photos taken during a voyage,
for by its qualities of changing perspective it augments the plastic value or
country-side.

But besides its many advantages the geographic film has also its faults
and these must be recognised both to put into relief the advantages and to
eliminate the faults themselves.

— 254 —

Reality is the true field of geographic study. The eye is for master and
pupil in geography the most precious instrument of study. It is upon the
quality of vision that the influence of images depends. No one could see
in one glance the whole terrestrial surface and its evolution over thousands
of years and conceive of it as a unit impression and even if it were possible
to do so it would be even more impossible to communicate the impression
to other people who had not noticed the same points. Excursions and travel
with pupils are useful and necessary ; however they must be complemented
by other means and even what pupils have seen with their own eyes should
be explained to them if only to show them the method of creating a living
image from one on paper or on the screen. Ancient Egypt had maps and
plans ; and in ancient Greece the science of geography was termed : descrip-
tion of the earth.

The geographic map is a means of representing earthly space ; it is marked
with inscriptions and symbolic signs. It leaves aside the unstable factors
and includes only the stable. It does not show in the plan of a town the chan-
ges in the buildings, streets and public squares, nor the pedestrians, nor the
vehicles, nor the vegetation. The coastal map does not show the movement
of tides, the river map does not show high and low water levels and the moun-
tain map does not show the snow limits for each month in the year. Maps
and plans are not necessarily fixed projections they may be included in films
and thus the above particulars may be communicated. The map begins to
live and shows the modification of lakes, changes in sea coasts, the increase
and decrease in the size of marsh lands, the shifting of population and the
variations in frontiers showing the enlargement of States, their building
up and breaking down and in the same way the transformation of the earths
surface by volcanic disturbances, earthquakes, geysers and also the move-
ments of glaciers. The Cinema map modifies the scale of space but it does
not differ from the ordinary geographic map simply by its mobility of content,
a geographic map is not instantly and easily readable to everyone who sees
it. It is essential to learn how to read it, to learn how to learn the sym-
bols for rivers and towns, etc. A synthesis is far easier when these facts have
been shown one after the other, when a complete idea can be built up from
clearly perceived details.

The special aim of the geographic film is to render the map comprehen-
sible by the study of those elements which act in geographic transformations
and by using the principles of teaching.

Besides the map, other means serve to indicate what might be represent-

- 255 -

ed by pictures, statistics, figures and words, these are diagrams, curves and
graphs of all kinds. Elevation and profiles complete maps and plans ; the
attempt to give a vertical reconstitution of the the layers of earth, water and
air which form the earths surface. What we have said of geographic maps
and plans applys equally to theses aids to study. Films on a synthetic
basis can also show the formation of geographic matter as well as fixed
projections which must be analysed with effort on the part of the spec-
tators.

All these means of describing the content of geography have something
abstract in them ; they are not in constant touch with reality. It is as if a veil
of thought separated maps, diagrams, graphs and elevation from the life of
the country, at least for those who have not yet learnt to read in them Nature
and the surface of the earth. Views of towns and country contain the most
immediate impression of reality ; they represent exactly the freshness of the
vegetation by which plains and mountains are covered. They give the real
impression of the countryside, with an indication of its climate and natural
resources without which it is difficult to know the influence of heat, wind and
water on the soil. The indication of vegetation in geographic space is of the
greatest importance if only to show the aspect of the place. So too are the
representation of man's works upon [the earth, they are the evidence of
agriculture, industry and transport. Geography known that!:the analysis of
a countryside is its principal task. The geography master brings back pho-
tographs and drawings of the countries he visits in order to be able to inter-
pret and describe them. He shows his pupils how to analyse a countryside
from certain pictures of it in order that they may subsequently be able to
do this for themselve with other pictures of different countrysides and so
sharpen their powers of vision. The film, an essentially synthetic instrument
of teaching seems out of place here as in the study of architecture which deals
with immobile masses.

Geographic space cannot be understood as dead, without movement,
purely stationary. The world of water, the sea, rivers and lakes is alive, the
atmospheric layer is full of coulds, dust and rain and a quantity of atmos-
pheric phenomena which furnish excellent opportunities for the Cinema.
Even in the most immobile part of the earths surface there are a variety of
phenomena such volcanic eruptions, earthquakes which form excellent subjects
for the Cinema.

The geography of the organic life of plants, animals and men is rich in
movement ; this does not consist simply in a collection of animated objects,

— 256 -

on the contrary it must be stressed that nothing on earth has absolute im-
mobility but the rythyms of the many movements are simply extremely
various. The speed of a river is different in mountain and plain, the transfor-
mation of a river bed may require decades or centuries, islands appear and
disappear, mountains rise up and subside but most movements in geography
are too slow for the human eye to perceive. The memory of even a generation
cannot fix the changes of the countryside during that time. Other geographic
movements on the contrary are so rapid that men cannot realise them. And
from all this it is apparent that geography should start from the concept that
the surface of the earth is not immobile. No less imagination is required
to conceive of mathematical space although this has no corresponding real-
ity it is a pure conceit ; the mathematician works in a unlimited space of four
dimensions. The geographer works in a restrained space gifted with
dynamics. Exterior and interior forces act on the earth surface, cosmic and
telluric forces emanate from the globe itself. The play of these forces can
perhaps be observed in nature but in many cases it can be seen and studied in
the physical, geological and geographical laboratories in a simplified form and
without secondary manifestations of a confusing nature. The film can register
these forces in their movement either in the laboratory or in nature and re-
produce them for the benefit of those who can never attend the actual hap-
penings. Besides those dynamic phenomena which are perceptible to the
human eye, the film permits also of the geographical inspection of impercep-
tible phenomena by means of slow and fast movement Cinema. Perhaps
it is only an intellectual distraction to represent geographic events such as
the movement of glaciers, the formation of dunes, silting up of harbours,
erosion, etc. in the same way as the growth of plants is shown, for the latter
move so much more rapidly but it is nevertheless a means of demonstrating
geographic dynamics on a large scale. In this matter the geographic film is
a far more efficient aid than the fixed projection which might seem in the
first place more adapted to the purpose on account of its immobility of content.
It must not be thought that in geographic dynamism, particularly as
concerning morphological processes, verbal exposition is to be done away
with for it remains the most supple and in some cases the unique means of
communicating facts which no visual representations even when simplified
and distorted for instructional purposes, can replace. Cinema projection
and fixed projection can never give a perfect illusion of reality. When we see
in a film of country or town, the grass blowing in the wind, the leaves falling
from trees in the storm, clouds running across the sky or waves on the sea,

— 257 —

we imagine that we are finding reality. However it may easily be asked whe-
ther these movements and rhythms are essential to geographic space or
whether they are simply incidental phenomena whose absence would not
change the character of geographic matter and whose movement serves
merely to distract the mind from geographic facts. If the importance of a
Cinema scene rests in what is inanimate all movement would diminish its
value. A geographical film like all other films should be full of movement but
this should not be accessory or the film will not be a teaching film ; on the
other hand without movement the film is always geographic teaching projec-
tion even if it has no particularly cinematic qualities. It is not necessary that
each scene should be animated but each scene should exercise a certain
dynamic influence ; the passage from one scene to another is more important
that the movement in each individual scene for this is what constitutes the
essential value of the film. In the theatrical film, the action, the haracters
and the drama are the continuity. In the teaching film the continuity is
simply the sequence of ideas. In the biological teaching film, the matter is
grouped according to life phenomena ; it is not easy to know what should
give the continuity in a geographical film. It is certainly an error when a
sequence of views are shown in which the movement is purely accessory
and when the sequence of the views rests upon no logical evolution of
subject matter.

Certain properties of geographic space are opposed to film representa-
tion, geography is a world science, the objects studied are immense. No
one would think of including Rome, Italy or Europe in a single glance. A
series of detailed observations are necessary which form in reality and then
in the images a true representation of the original. The film is synthetic
but it nevertheless is composed of single images, the whole idea is conveyed
by mental process. Besides the globe, the map is the only method by which
we can give a visual impression of a whole country, continent or hemisphere ?
The map reproduced in the film at the end gives form to the foregoing details.
Even in views which the eye could grasp in one glance, the film is synthetic,
cutting up the horizon into several pieces and thus reconstructing the original
scene. Reality is contained in the field of our vision but it is rarely confined
as is the field of a cinema camera in a precise manner. When looking out of
a window the same effect is obtained. The screen often groups or selects
from reality in a manner which is agreeable aesthetically and from a pedagogic
point of view for it thus draws attention to a particular part of the whole
scene. It is then both artistically and pedagogically important that the con-

— 258 —

tent of the scene should correspond to the size of the cameras field. The im-
mensity of the sea and the imposing aspect of a complete chain of mountains
are thus hard to convey in films.

Vesuvius seen from Pompei has not same the aspect as when seen from
Marigliano ; in order to know the mountain well one must go all around it,
ascend to the summit and see the lava flows and then from all these aspects
compound a general impression. The film should do all of this and even
fly across the top of the crater in an aeroplane, then one would have a real
impression of the volcano to which might be added a map of the surround-
ing territory showing the course taken by the airplane. The same system
applies to films of towns, etc. In reality the observer is always in the centre
of his geographic subject, he forms a part of the countryside which he has
to study while when looking at a picture or relief work he feels himself be-
fore it and apart from it. Above all is this dependant upon the point of view.
In order to bring out all geographic characteristics the observation should be
made from above, from a tower, mountain or airplane. Then the panorama
has something in common with the map or plan. Thus, films taken from
airplanes have the advantage of a certain plasticity and eliminate the neces-
sity of learning to read as in a map.

By geographic totahsm is meant the entire contents of the region to be
studied and all its particularities — the form of the earth surfaces, the climate,
the hydrography, the flora and human activities, they are all interdependant.
They are also the result of influences distant both in time and space.

All these aspects can be presented in a geographic film, partly by real
views, partly by maps, graphs, sections and plans. But the frame, the limit-
ation of the cameras optical powers sometimes gives a similar limit to the
value of the film. I once passed many hours in on a hill behind the Stolzen-
fels Castle on the Rhine in order to take films of the countryside first in sun-
light and then with a cloudy sky ; in the foreground were the castle and the
valley of the Lahn. I wished to register the different aspects of this country
which seemed to live and breath in the sun. The films were photographically
successful but they did not give this impression. The spectators thought
that the variations in the light were defects of camera or projector. The
limited frame cut out sun and clouds upon which depended the light
changes ; also the changing temperature which had added greatly to the
original effect was of course lacking.

This leads me to speak of the soundfilm ; in geography the noises and
sounds have not the same value as in biology, technology or other subjects

— 259 —

using the film. In the first place here is an example furnished by a biological
film. A sound and colour film of seals was taken in a zoological
garden. Ensemble views gave the relative colour values excellently but in
close up it was seen that the colour of the animals changed according to whet-
her they were wet or dry. Suddendly the sound of birds came through.
This incongruous noise had been caused by birds out of the original camera
field but within range of the microphones. The sun was likewise out of the
visual field but its influence was better known to the spectator and therefore
was less lacking than in the alternately bright and overcast scene of Stolzen-
fels. It is here evident that the effect of a film depends not only on the pre-
sentation of its content but also on the aptitudes of the spectators. The
teaching of geography is accomplished with the aid of the eyes ; sound
however also plays its part in, for instance the sound of the sea, the roar of the
avalanche, the thunder of the storm and the noise of the brook. All the
sounds of organic life, and particularly that of men, the noise of the town,
the sound of bells, the din of a factory, and the call of the muezzin help to
characterize a countryside, they are however very much less important than
the visual side and they are not very well reproduced on the sound film so
that in teatrical films these sounds have to be produced artificially in order to
give the illusion of reality. Sound film recording gear is also very expensive
and difficult to transport so that it is questionable whether it is worth while
taking such apparatus on long geographical trips. Post synchronisation can
help in this matter but then the documentary quality of the sound is lost.
To end these considerations of the Cinema as adapted for use in geography,
it is necessary to observe briefly that the genetic element, as concerning
human geography and the teleological element also belong to geography
but they cannot be shown in films as thexare to be explained only in words.
When the geographer describes the actual state of the earth surface or one
part of its surface, he knows that this is the description of only one moment
in a continuous transition acting under forces whose rhytms are extremely
variable. This conception does not make geography a science of time for it
already is th at, for there is init a confusion of time and space, the rotation
of the earth, the course of the moon around the earth, the astral revolutions
in the universe, the deplacement of earthly poles and axes, all these telluric
movements in space regulate the duration of days and nights, years and
months, the condition of seasons and so the film can give a representation
of these facts in space both by real views when these are obtainable or deal-
ing with greater things by drawings. It would be useful if the lecturer would

- 260 —

sometimes give a verbal explanation of the film and the soundfilm makes
this easy but here we come to the second part of our problem, the use of the
film in the teaching of geography.

II.

Up-to-date, very few geographers have gone into the question of what the
film can bring to geography and very few producers are familiar enough with
this science to have a reliable judgement in the matter.

And this is the reason for there being so few successful geography films.
There are many cases where geography has made bad use of the film and where
film has made bad use of geography. Teachers should be informed, not only
on the matter to be taught but also upon the manner of teaching it. The
nst ruction of children and even adults should not be limited to the exercise
and application of discipline and the master should try and construct a bridge
between the pupils and their subjects generally and in this case between pu-
pils and geography. In this connection the film can be a precious instrument
but its method of use must be known and adapted so that it can be used ea-
sily. It is false to think that the geographic film can teach by itself that and
therefore the master is superfluous. A country side must be explained to
children by a master so that he can open their eyes to certain things. The
indications given in the first part of this article have shown that globes, sec-
tions, reliefs, models, maps and fixed projections should be explained either
by a master or a manual which the film does not replace. It is above all ne-
cessary to consider the age of the pupils and their class ; the teaching film made
for a large public is less suitable for individual tuition than the manual, the
globe, slides, etc. The master should not only know his pupils and what he
has to reach them but also the rudiments of the Cinema as a teaching aid and
the details of films available.

From the purely scientific geographic film to the popular geographic
film, there are all kinds of films having to do with geography, different in
the way in which they present the subject which is in turn dependant upon
the public for which the film was intended. We will leave entirely to one side
geographic films with plots and also those publicity films made by travel
agencies, etc. They are to be reproached less with wishing to amuse than with
using the magnificent scenery of India, Africa and the South Seas as a back-
ground for love scenes, crime and detective stories whose sensational nature
distracts the mind from the geographic aspect of the country.

— 261 —

The films often falsify the natural material, the lives of animals and
even the lives of the inhabitants. Even films of hunting and exploration
have been tricked and changed to attract and excite the public. These
films serve to falsify impressions and are thus anti-educational. As all
teaching films the geographic teachng film should be accurate and natural.

The scientific geographical film does not seek to excite the public, it
has an aim simply to furnish the material for the extension of human know-
ledge. Its role becomes greater and more important in scientific exploration ;
much progress in this way has already been made but still it plays but a small
part as yet in measurements, observations, research and the organisation of
the traveller's safety, etc. Only the purely scientific work affords it what
is as yet a small place. Many incidents are placed outside the power of
the camera because they are of an accidental nature. An attempt could be
made to re-enact these happenings but the scientific film should not sacrifice
its documentary quality in this way.

A true geographic teaching film should pay attention both to the public
and to geography. The presentation of the scenes, the " montage li, the titles
must vary according to wether the film is intended for children of ten years
of age or for adults or for pupils of a professional school. Artist and teacher
do not conceive of a film in the same way. The master will naturally con-
sider not so much his own viewpoint as that of this pupils. In the beginning
of film teaching the master must observe the faculties of his pupils and their
facility for describing what they have seen and for developing it according to
their imaginations. It is a mistake to think that the child is passive before
the film for it often participates in the action on the screen. The master
should be careful to note the confusions which a film may bring to the minds
of pupils and to give precise information on the subject so that the confusion
is removed. The film can also be used for the study of several predetermin-
ed questions. To extend the study maps and pictures can be used. In
certain cases advance preparation for a film is advisable. But in this care
must be taken not to eliminate the interest of the film by describing the ac-
tion too closely. The movement in films influences pupils unconsciously ;
the more films they see the greater their powers of perception and appre-
ciation become. After showing part of a film it might be good idea to stop
the projection and then ask how they think the film will develop. This
stimulates the imagination and interest. Another idea is to make the children
describe the scenes verbally as they pass on the screen and thus develop
power of expression, teaching them to produce concrete ideas and to make

— 262 —

abstractions from their impressions. This is particularly important in geo-
graphy. Geography is rich in detail. There are no two mountains, towns
and rivers that are exactly alike, however, geography has to establish cat-
egories and types after taking all aspects into consideration. This system of
induction from details to typical forms by comparison of characteristics,
facilitates the cinematic synthesis. A verbal exposition is however always
necessary in order to give the relative importance of characteristics in the
analysis. The less titles there are the more attention the child will give.
A film accompanied by a lecture, synchronised or not, gives matter for dis-
cussion between teacher and pupils.

The synchronised geographic film with a lecture is preferable to the
silent film with some musical accompaniment for an adult audience. But
in any case a film accompanied by a lecture given on the spot by a person
acquainted with the film is the best method, for then the lecture can be
adapted to the audience. It has been the fashion to accompany films with
soft music and a lecture simultaneously. This merely serves to distract
attention. The film lecture should say only what is not shown and what can-
not be perceived easily by the spectator. It should rather suggest trains of
thought and point out details which the public would be really likely to miss.

The educational film is not yet sufficiently appreciated as a method of
continuing the education of children after they have left school and as a
method of adult education. It has been desired to create for these audiences
a type of film with a light dramatic action. This might be done by giving
the commentary or attendant conversation something of the form of the pop-
ular scientific essay. Other domains akin to geography such as the history
of civilization, ethnology, sociology and political economy could also be treated
in this way. When the traveller gives this impressions not as a geographer
but for the public in general he gives to the instructional film as very fas-
cinating quality.

What we have said in the preceeding pages on the subject of the geo-
graphy teaching film might be equally well applied to the teaching film in
general. Whether a film be artistic or pedagogic, its contents has less im-
portance that they way in which it presented but the intervention of the
master in the use of the teaching film is of the greatest importance. A geo-
graphic film of any kind, used by a really capable master can have better
effects on pupils than a good film used by a poor master.

(From the German)-

HYGIENE PROPAGANDA BY THE CINEMA IN FRANCE

by M. Lucien Viborel

of the International Office
for Hygiene Propaganda.

Social Hygiene Propaganda.

Novelists, heirs perhaps of the great Jules Verne, amuse the public of Both Europe
and America by their " anticipations ". They show us how We will live a few centuries
hence, how future inter-planetary wars may be fought and how we may travel to the
moon. Let us instead reserve the action of this " time machine " and cast our minds
back to fifty short years ago (not a long period in the history of human affairs) when it
is certain that few people would have understood the meaning of " social hygiene ".

What is meant by Social Hygiene.

Hygiene is the art of preventing disease. But, individual prevention loses its value
when contamination reaches throughout society. And is the society not menaced by
such things as : tuberculosis, venereal disease, infantile mortality if we do not take
care to propagate prophylactic measures to the majority of the population ?

And so social hygiene must accomplish its purpose by educating the public.

Ignorance is the greatest of our ills and that ignorance which was general fifty
years ago still persists in some quarters. People risk their own, their childrens lives and
the future of the race because they are ignorant of the dangers.

Here then is the role of Social Hygiene Propaganda ; it first task is to educate the
public, to show the evil and the remedy to the populace and to teach in a practical and
attractive manner the way to bring up healthy children.

For this work there is no more precious aid than the Cinema, under clever direction
it can become the most excellent of educators.

The Cinema attracts and demonstates :
it can create Hygienic Education.

In France educators are coming more and more to appreciate the value of the Cinema.
It is considered as a powerful element in intellectual, moral, technical and sanitary edu-
cation which has proved its merit and should be systematically adopted.

It must be stressed that the number of " visuals " is considerably greater than the
number of " auditives ". There are supposed to be eighty per cent of the ormer. From
this it is easy to explain the striking success of the Cinema. DESCARTES remarked that
. there is no thought without image ", today he might have said " animated image "
which is not only an aid to thought but to memory.

Professor Leon Bernard, the great authority, wrote : hygiene cannot become part

— 264 —

of habits until it has become part of the mind psychologically automatic ; nothing can
be expected from force or from theoretical teaching ; the effects of the lack of hygiene must
be shown ; the facility and efhcacity of hygiene and the social and individual benefit
resultant. No instrument could be better for this purpose than the Cinema, which
by documentary films can expose ideas which have been but hazy and which by films
with plots can succeed in making hygiene attractive.

Children like life and movement and that is why the Cinema is one of the most po-
werful ways of influencing the child mind and that of the adult. What the eyes have
seen is added to what they have read and what the ears have heard. The " universal
language " of the Cinema is to be stressed. No lecture on hygiene is profitable without
the projection of a film. This latter is understood by everyone because it teaches directly.

What is the Educational Value of the
Cinema for adults?

A school inspector for the Sarthe answers :

" Many young people come to adult courses because they known there will be pro-
jections. The Cinema teaches them all to avoid temptation and return to what they
Were taught in school ".

Another says :

" It is a precious aid in popular education, in hygiene and an excellent way of
spreading prophylactic measures ". And again : "It facilitates the work of doctors
and social societies for it teaches people not to avoid medical help ". (primary inspector
of Chatillon-sur-Seine).

' The Cinema brings joy and health into the villages. It is a great help in hygienic
education for rural populations unaccustomed to intellectual effort ".

The role of Automobile Units and Their
Working Methods.

It is for these reasons that the 1 0 motor units of the General Propaganda Commission
of the National Office of Social Hygiene fulfill so crying a need and meet with such
success .

All districts in France and North Africa are provided with regional motor units for
social hygiene propaganda each within an area of about 1 0 departments working all the
year around.

Each Unit comprises the following staff : one lecturer, one chauffeur-projectionist ;
material : generating set, projector and screen, collection of films, collection of pictures
and stock of brochures, tracts and posters.

The result, apparent and concealed, in benefit to the population of these must
remote and isolated villages, of these lectures free film demonstrations and tracts, can
scarcely be imagined.

The work of the motor units is the essential and fundamental task of social hygiene
propaganda. It has far-reaching and certain results.

An Ardennes schoolmaster writes :

— 265 —

" Besides hygiene lessons given to children in accordance with the circular issued
by the ministry, an attempt has been made to instruct the public with a view to avoiding
social diseases. The Cinema has been the principal instrument in this attempt and I think
that the influence of the images on the public is greater than that of the finest lectures ".

Almost the entire population, on account of the shows being free, as a result of con-
siderable publicity given to them in the local press and the fact that the children take
home circulars from school with reference to them, attend these informal entertainments.

I have never failed to hear after a show many expressions such as " It was fine
and instructive ". This suggestive phrase shows that the object of the shows is attained.

We might give hundreds of such incidents which are very valuable to us.

The Educational Cinema.

And now the school cinema. Thanks to a great inquiry made amongst school
teachers in France and Algeria and approved by primary and secondary inspectors we
are able to get some general idea of the use of the Cinema in hygiene teaching
throughout 69 departments.

The Working of Educational Cinema.

At the moment educational Cinema is rapidly extending throughout France and
North Africa and we perceive the organization which has gradually evolved.

School cinemas are dependant on departmental offices ; regional offices have come
into being in some districts and these will cover an ever extending field. Our inquiry
has already shown us their working.

L'Office Cinematographique d'Enseignement et d'Education de la Region du Nord.
— L'Office Regional d'Enseignement Cinematographique de Nancy. — La Cinemathe-
que Regionale du Massif Central. — L'Office Regional d'Enseignement et d'Education
de Nimes. — L'Office du Cinema Scolaire et d 'Educateur de la Region Stephanoise. —
L'Office Regional du Cinema Educateur de Lyon. — L'Office Algerien du Cinema Edu-
cateur. — L'Office Regional du Cinema Educateur du Maroc. — Un Office Regional
dans 1 Quest and l'Office Regional de la Region Toulousaine, are perhaps already in
existence. Finally, l'Office Cinematographique d'Enseignement et d'Education de
l'Academie de Paris.

These offices serve the various film users in their departments but all French schools
are also supplied by the various central film libraries : Musee Pedagogique, Rue Gay-
Lussac, Paris (which furnishes films to regional Offices and several universitites such as
Bordeaux and La Gironde); Ministere de 1' Instruction Publique ; Ministry of Agricul-
ture (which also supplies regional Offices) ; Cinematheque Nationale d'Enseignement
Professionnel (dependant on the Sous-Secretariat d'Etat de l'Enseignement Technique);
La Cinematheque de la Ville de Paris (founded as a result of a municipal vote, for uniting
all films for use in Paris schools).

We may note particularly the Cinematek which provicdes films specially made
for the fight against social diseases, La Cinematheque de l'Office National d' Hygiene
Sociale et du Comite National de Defense contre la Tuberculose.

— 266 —

In 1929 the National Federation of Educational Film Offices was formed in Paris,
and the inaugural session of the I. I. E. C. was held in Rome. In April 1930, the
Congress on International Educational Film Activity was held at Algiers.

The development and organisation of Educational Cinema in France are now there-
fore accomplished facts. Let us consider the ground covered. We may say that the
educational film movement began during the war in 1918 when the Comite National
de Defense contre la Tuberculose, seconded by the Rockefeller Commission had the
intelligence, at a time when very little educational Cinema was used, to understand that
the film could undertake a great part of the task of teaching social hygiene by rendering
it in an agreeable form.

With this aim, motor units traversed France for a period of five years, stressing
hygiene lectures with cinema shows. The result was a tremendous movement of
public opinion towards the perfection of public health.

This campaign continues throughout France and North Africa as we have said
above. During and just after the war, educational films were unfortunately very rare
but this is now changed. The first motor units showed films lent by the American
health services : the Rockefeller or the Red Cross mission ; then came scientific films
by Doctor Comandon, microscopic films dealing with microbes, etc. a small total. Now
our cinematek contains more than 500 educational films and other are being constantly
added by production.

On the subject of tuberculosis alone, we have nearly 1 20 : we either show sanatoriums,
preventoriums and dispensaries, which form our anti-tubercular, armament or the
prophylaxy, causes and effects of the disease together with the hygienic methods used
to prevent it. We have also admirable films on child welfare certain of which arouse
the interest of all mothers ; films on the dangers of venereal disease : squalor in the home,
cancer, decreasing birth-rate, contagious diseaes ; malaria, diphteria, general hygiene ;
milk hygiene and propaganda for the beneficial effect of water.

We have the satisfaction of seeing projected in the local cinemas of Pans and in the
large halls in provincial towns, some of our admirable films against venereal disease :
II etait une fois trois Amis ", " Le baiser qui Tue ", " Le Permis d'Aimer " ; that
destined for North Africa and produced in French and Arab editions, " Conte de la mille
et deuxieme Nuit ", also " Le Voile Sacre " showing the high office and duties of nurses,
" Ames d'Enfants " for the struggle against squalor, " Maternite ", equal in poetic coun-
try scenes and high moral quality and enthousiastically received by the masses.

We owe to M. Jean Benoit-Levy the greater part of the films cited above and above
all one which contributes in seven lessons to child welfare, " La Future Maman ". How
many future mothers and school girls have had heart and mind prepared with the finest
precepts of child welfare through this effort of Doctor Devraigne and M. Benoit-Levy !
I am pleased to thank them here on behalf of many thousands of teachers.

Criticism and Plans.

Should we then conclude that all goes as well as possible in this branch of the Cinema
and let it develop as it will ? Teachers themselves have given us their criticisms.

It would be excellent to fulfill the demands made by the users of these educational
films which seem to us to have so much wisdom of a practical kind :

— 267 —

1) In making films, the age of the intended child audience should be taken into
account.

2) Obtain from the Ministry of Public Health a list of all organisations supplying
films dealing with hygiene together with the conditions of loan and rental so that
teachers may be able to procure suitable films as quickly and easily as possible.

3) Films and projectors allowing fixed projection of the single image should be
universally employed as this is an instructive practice for drawing attention to particularly
interesting parts of the films.

It is also interesting to note the way in which the propaganda of Hygiene by films
has been organised in various parts of the country. For instance, the working arrange-
ment adopted in Meurthe and Moselle, the homeland of social hygiene.

A special hygiene commission of the Cinema Office was charged with the organisa-
tion of hygiene teaching in two degrees :

1) Elementary hygiene instruction by means of the Cinema in schools popular
and post-scholar education lectures accompanied by films.

2) A reinforcement campaign made by the technicians of the above commission
or other qualified technicians. Lectures are preceeded by public invitations ; films are
of a more advanced type and contribute to the propaganda against social diseases.

Here is another system working in the department of the Rhone : Every Thursday
the following may be found in the Lyons press :

" 28 educational and recreational Cinema programmes will be given today ".A list
of halls and programmes follows. The programmes of these Thursday shows are com-
posed and controlled with care. The films are chosen by the Commission de Vision
and they assure the success of this controlled Thursday. They are also distributed
around Lyon and in corresponding departments. The Regional Office originally or-
ganised these controlled Thursdays. It now sends out every Thursday 18 program-
mes totalling 20.000 metres from the beginning of October until the end of January.

Must the educational sound film predicted by William Fox at a recent meeting
of American film personalities be taken into account ?

William Fox declares that he wishes to extend and improve educational films of all
kinds according to a large programme for both children and adults.

Let us judge this new scheme by its results. It seems rather premature and
scarcely likely to improve on our present excellent methods in France.

Can we in France accord a certain value to the results obtained by the Cinema in
the battle against disease or the teaching of hygiene ?

The almost unanimous opinion of our correspondents is that it is yet to soon to
judge the future of the Cinema in this field by the results already obtained but the
general opinion is that these results have the greatest promise for the future.

With the instrument which we have already perfected to such a remarkable degree,
with the rational and practical organisation at present in existence, with our competent
and devoted teaching staff, all hopes are permitted us for the complete success and
triumph of the educational cinema and by this triumph we may assure the extension
of good public health.

(From the French).

Ice ingl.

CULTURAL FILMS AND SOUND NEWS REELS

by Professor A. Hubl.

The Lampe Commission has upon several occasions drawn the attention of the
German public to the educational value of sound news reels and we think it opportune
to recall the fact that the " Urania " of Vienna, the principal Austrian sound projecting
cinema, has given many programmes of this type of film since June 24th, 1930. The
programme usually included six American sound news (Fox, Paramount), two Euro-
pean sound news, 1 or 2 European silent news or other European item, and finally a short
amusing or artistic film.

It was possible to commence this series of programmes early in the summer of
1930 as sound films from America were not barred from entering Austria.

The following speech made by the author at a special press view of the above series
of programmes given on June 20th, 1 930 will serve to show the spirit in which the
programmes were given :

Ladies and Gentlemen,

We have had the audacity to invite you here where we have become your com-
petitors and we do not even hesitate to ask for your support in our enterprise. The sound
film, made known to Austria two years ago by the Urania — perhaps in another ten
years it will introduce the sound telefilm — now competes with the press by the repro-
duction with sound of current events and by the lifelike manner in which it is able to
render events.

The silent film had already entered this field although insufficiently equipped. In
New York, cinemas the arrival of an airship was shown on the screen three or four hours
after the event and you will certainly remember the occasion on which the Austrian
Chancellor M. Schober attended the first showing of a film about the police ; he was
filmed as he entered the cinema and the print was shown on the screen at the end of
the programme — an extremely rapid instance of reporting.

You know too that in Germany the registration on sound film of election speeches
was accomplished with success. The orator himself was not present but his speech was
reproduced before the crowd by means of a sound film reproducing unit contained in
a motor car.

The sound film is not yet in a condition to reach the individual as does the news-
paper, but telecinema will doubtless establish this relationship in the not very distant
future.

The importance of sound film reporting is already understood in America where
special sound news theatres are working. Paris has also a cinema of this kind.

— 269 —

In consequence of this new reporting development, the Hearst Press has already ob-
tained interests in several American cinema enterprises and not without good reason.

A new era dawned five hundred years ago when printing was invented. The print-
ed word began its reign to which we owe the present development of civilisation in all
classes. School, popular and scientific education received a tremendous stimulus and
journalism became a world power. The phisosophical movement of the XVIIIth
century was the end of the triumphal march of the printed word and from that time
its domination began to fail. Does not Schiller talk of a century of terrible paper
spoilers ?

In the XlXth century this lassitude became more evident ; teachers began to ask for
an intuitive method and newspapers began to publish illustrations. Then came the
discovery and slow improvement of photography and finally about 1895, the Cinema
and now thirty or so years later the sound film.

As five hundred years ago a new age now commences. Already schools use photo-
graphy, the child no longer knows the world simply through cold printed descriptions,
the true image is projected by means of slides. Today progressive teachers are fighting
for the introduction of films into schools, Weekly and even daily papers can no longer
do without illustrations because the Cinema has its own visual reporting system and the
results are now being shown with sound. Whilst previous centuries knew the world
in abstract, our epoch sees and hears events themselves and is thus able to form a more
vived and striking impression.

If one also considers the invention of radio which foreruns that of television and the
telefilm one begins to see the future very clearly. The decline in reading becomes more
and more accentuated whilst the development and success of radio, the great attendance
at cinemas and the approval of sound films show that the modern man, tired by an in-
creasingly mechanical work, seeks direct impressions of sight and sound which save
him the trouble of assimilating and imagining the meaning of printed words.

This state of affairs has influenced the " Urania to organise on Tuesdays, Wed-
nesdays and Thursdays throughout the coming summer matinees devoted to the projec-
tion of sound news from all over the world. These will go by the name of " Tonfilm-
Wochenschau ". Each week a new series of films will be shown. These shows are
destined to complete the presentation of geographic and ethnographic films which gen-
erally treat in a fairly complete matter, large subjects such as : travel, exploration, etc.
They will give a series of contemporary events, a glance at our epoch as seen by the
camera and above all by the sound camera.

The sound film permits the presentation to the public, of the most recent events
throughout the world in a particularly lifelike manner, a great number of more or less
important incidents all of which are characteristic of the countries from which they come.
Trials of modern Cinema art and technique, songs and dances, an amusing cartoon will
complete these programmes following on the news items.

This kaleidoscope of the modern world will try to give a true representation of
life through sound and image without tiring the spectator as the book or newspaper does
the reader and at the same time to be more captivating than the illustrated paper.
(From the German).

STATISTICS ON THE SCREEN

by Doctor St. Zurukzoglu.

of Berne

Statistics, that arid science whose publications seem a mere conglomeration of dull
figures to the uninitiated, would not at first seem to lend itself to presentation on the screen.
The Cinema has, however, conquered one domain after another so that it was not riduculous
on the part of the Swiss Federal Statistics Office to decide to make a film upon the occasion
of the Swiss Exhibition of Sport and Hygiene at Berne. The aim was to show the flux of
Swiss population and those factors which influence it, in other words to show the public
the statistical side of Hygiene. The task of writing script and making the film was confided
to me and 1 had to study the matter of demonstrating statistical results in a way suitable
for screen presentation.

In the following, I will expose briefly my conception and the results obtained in the
making of this film. Let us first see how it is possible to show clearly marriage, birth and
death figures. In the first place the statistician must renounce his complicated figures and
limit himself to the most important facts, then he must achieve the reality which he has aban-
doned for abstract thought by quoting examples from daily life. The style should be some-
thing like that of the newspaper narrative and the need for charts and drawings is obvious.

Another way of setting about it would be to compose a literary episode something in
the type of Tristan Bernard's " The Statistician's Fiancee ". The other shows, through
the mouthpiece of the fiancee and by a letter the importance of their marriage in relation
to that of all the marriages in the world. In a very witty way he ridicules the habit engaged
persons have of considering themselves the centre of the world, and this by statistics. It
is a question of adapting either of the two methods mentioned above for the screen. In
principal this is possible. It would indeed be easy to invent a plot and sow the speeches
liberally with statistics. But there is one objection ; artists would be necessary and of the
best kind, even then it would scarcely be possible to disguise the fact that the story would be
purely secondary to the figures. Difficulties increase with the complexity of the figures which
are to be communicated.

There, therefore, remains only the film which follows thought with illustration, the
" idea-film ". The old type of educational film, such as one always used to see and which
is still all too common, consisting simply in a string of boring explanations, may be of in-
structive use to specialists if accompanied by a lecture. But for a large public, dryness must
be abolished. Happily, the technique of the Cinema has advanced sufficiently to enable us
to take illustrations of our thesis from all types of life. The art of the composition of these
scraps into a whole consists in giving them a logical sequence. From the impression given
by the image the spectator passes to the thought.

For the film in question we chose as the principal theme the progress of hygiene in the
preservation and prolongation of human life. This permitted us to show death rate figures
and causes of death. These have a great effect upon the fluctuation in population density
and so we could go on to show the relations between birth and death rates and dwell upon

— 271 —

the problem of the decreasing birth rate without however suggesting any solution to this
grave problem. The film presented by the Federal Statistics Office shows the dynamic
advance of Hygiene and Medicine in Switzerland and its influence on the population with
a view to the future.

The first part of this film, which forms an introduction, shows a mother's care for her
child and also various scenes in a nursery. These first scenes represent the text : " Life is
the supreme gift ". Scenes in the life of a medical student are then shown, followed by scenes
from life of all descriptions, always accompanied by the suggestion of the continual menace
of accident and disease against which protective measures must be taken : a tram passes at
full speed but the crossing gates shut just before it passes ; workmen cut down a tree but
make sure first that its fall will not injure them ; other workmen take cover to avoid the flying
stones resultant from the explosion of a mine, etc. Finally the sound of bells announce the
arrival of Death in its traditional form, scythe in hand, to remind the spectators that pre-
cautions must be continually taken.

The views which follow are representative of the following text : " In our fine country
of high mountains, with a difficult soil, the happiness of the population depends upon the
preservation of its strength and health ". Man is finally represented as making his own
happiness and that of the entire people ; means must be found to enable him to do this. Dif-
ferent scenes in the lives of individuals are then shown, a baptism in the Appenzell country
provides an opportunity to include beautiful views of a splendid country side in early spring
vivid with the peasants in native costume of charming tradition. But another text appears
stating that death must always be fought against and the same country is shown in the win-
ter ; the villagers accompany a corpse to the cemetery.

The end of the first part is devoted to several incidents at the Federal Office of Statis-
tics during the compilation of birth and death rates. Adding machines are at work compil-
ing these figures from original information.

The second part of the film opens with a shot of a river flowing out into the sea, illus-
trating the flux of the generations into infinity. In times past, plagues, wars, and high in-
fantile mortality prevented the normal increase in population. This thought is illustrated
by a Holbein engraving showing the dance of death and that of the high infantile mortality
is represented by a distinctly impressive picture of the mortality in a noble Zunc family in
the 1 7th century. Here the tree of life is represented with 1 8 blossoms of which 1 2 fall dead
thus illustrating the premature deaty of 1 2 of the 1 8 children in the family. Animated draw-
ings then show the growth of the Swiss population from 1.600,000 in 1780 to 4,100,000 in
1930. This increase is cheifly due to the spreading of hygiene and science to figth against
disease. Great plagues and epidemics have been partially conquered. This is shown by
the names, in flaming letters, of the various human dangers such as cholera, smallpox, etc.,
which are dispersed by the blow of a fist representing sciences of hygiene and medicine.
Graphs then show the reduction in deaths due to tuberculosis and the reduced infant and
general mortality etc. Then figures on a clock, the angels of life and death, show that a child
is born in Switzerland every 7 minutes and that a death occurs only every 1 1 minutes from
which it is evident that the population is steadily increasing. It is then shown that emi-
gration is practically balanced by immigration. This examination of past figures leads to
a forecast of a future one and here the question of the declining birth rate is dealt with.

The film shows, by means of the figures of clock again, how few marriages and those at
an advanced age incline to reduce the birth rate ; and this is accentuated by the tendency
for the size of the family to reduce. A diagram then illustrates this tendency and a similar
device shows that if the reduced birth rate is at present balanced by the decreased death rate
what will happen in the future. 1940? 1950? 1960? " Here lies the problem of the

- 272 -

future of our people ". The film then shows the measures taken through hygiene to decease
yet more the death rate, leaving aside the question of the birth rate. Diagrams show, how-
ever, that deaths from cancer, heart diseases and accidents are on the increase. A glance
into medical laboratories shows that work is going on there constantly to prevent disease
and another glance into the operating theatres during an appendicitis operation shows what
surgey is doing, in those cases where hygiene has failed. A few statistics then show that
precautions must be taken against accidents. The end of the film consists of several texts
accompanied by images particularly significant for the Swiss public : " Protect the Chil-
dren , Protect Workmen ", " Air and Sunlight give long life and preserve our people .
This film is the first attempted in Switzerland to explain to the general public in a
throughly comphrehensible fashion the population problem and the function of hygiene.
This attempt by means of the "idea-film " seems to have been quite successful and the tech-
nical part of the work due to Praesens-Film of Zurich has contributed to this to a considerable
extent.

{From the French).

/. /. E. C. Enquiries

WAR FILMS AND YOUNG PEOPLE

(continued)

The opinions against war — opinions, We repeat, not replies, for many pupils
gave answers which we had to group by analogy — amount to 2,317 and are sub-
divided as follows :

Large Centres : Small Centres :

Boys : Boys :

10 to 12 years 679 10 to 12 years 276

13 to 15 years 203 13 to 15 years 281

16 years and over 254 16 years and over .... 28

Total . . . 1,136 Total ... 585

Girls : Girls :

10 to 12 years 882 10 to 12 years 146

13 to 15 years 257 13 to 15 years 105

16 years and over 105 16 years and over .... 1

Total . . . 1,244 Total ... 252

Total for large centres : 2380 ; small centres : 837.

Contrast of thought. These children and adolescents are in the minority but they
express their opinion distinctly : they are against war in all its aspects of death, horror,
sacrifice, conquest, destruction. From this point of view, opinions contrary to war
should be considered as favourable to the projection of those war films which have
anti-war propaganda in them. But the difficulty of the classification results from the
terrified note of the replies — a difficulty of which we spoke at the begining — it allows
only of this remark that it should not permit that element to be accentuated.

Those who have given such terrified replies have parhaps lived in direct contact
with the horrors of war. They have perhpas heard from their mother or their father back
from the trenches or from their mutilated brothers of the life in the trenches. They
may perhaps have been terrified by such tales. They have perhaps thought that the
world has strayed from the doctrine of fraternity contained in Christianity. They are
also affected perhaps by the cult of the dead, a sentiment which resist all circmstances
and dominates the spirit by uniting the life about us with the divine mystery of eter-
nity.

These children and adolescents are against war because they are for life. They
think perhaps of the material ruin following on war, of the sincere fraternity of peoples

— 274 —

united in one ideal which should form the foundations of a new life ; a life of work,
active, intense, in factory and field in which they seethe instruments of war turned
into plows and spades which are instruments of life.

Opposed conceptions of life in the same district, in the same school, even in the
same class. All these children and adolescents, free to express their heroic sentiments
of sacrifice and love have said freely what was for them the meaning of life.

* * *

Opinions against war are motivated by two general sentiments : the christian
sentiment of human fraternity and the sentiment of horror inspired by war, its mani-
festations and consequences.

AJ1 men are brothers or ought to be so. Why then do they kill each other ? " Peo-
ples fight with bestial ferocity and call themselves civilized " observe several children.

From this sentiment there often derives an aversion for those films which arouse
warlike instincts and desire for man-hunting and renew the crime of Cain against the
divine law.

In the group of replies inspired by the horror of war, by the idea of the variety of
suffering undergone by the soldier away from friends and home the pam of mother
and child is frequently evoked. The house is empty and silent. The fire is out. Sen-
timents of pity for mothers who have lost their children, for children who have lost
their fathers, for mothers and children who will have before them throughout their
lives the spectacle of their mutilated children dead on the battle field.

A child of eleven says " Of all the pains the most atrocious is that of the mother, who
m the film, seeks to recognise her son amongst the combattants ". Her son is dead and
she will never see him alive again.

Then comes the vision of the fields covered with dead, murderous engines of war,
economic disasters overcoming all countries, the memory of invasions and the hopeless
flight of the populace, the thought of the wounded who will bear their scars throughout
life.

The contrast between the replies of the majority and the minority is the morestar-
tling because the first of these had really something of the epic in them and all were drawn
from children of the same race, living within the same frontiers and loving the

same country.

* * *

To sum up, the number of opinions exhalting war were 19.831, that is 86.06 %
of the whole and those against war were 3,21 7, representing 13,94 %. Naturally, doubt-
ful replies were not included in these figures even when they might have been included
in one or the other but on account of their wording Were placed in a separate category.

It may be remarked that the proportion of replies favourable to and contrary to
war corresponds almost exactly to the number of children who gave positive replies in

any sense.

* * *

A particular importance may be accorded to the impressions and opinions expressed
by teachers on the subject of war films and the children.

It must be remembered that the I. I.E. C. sent out a questionnaire of a rather

- 275 -

didactic nature specially destined to teachers at the same time as one was sent to the
children. However although there was no precise question with regard to war films,
sixty one teachers thought it proper to include their own personal thoughts with those
of their pupils.

Only one of them is against war films and then chiefly on account of their manner
of presenting the subject.

Indeed, he observes that films of this kind are often unreal and exaggerated ; they
present certain historical personnages in the darkest of lights ; animated by an absurd
fanaticism and deformed by the coventional lies involved in certain historical prejudices.
In the opinion of this teacher these soi-disant historical films, often the fruit of the highest
fancy, are more harmful than real war films.

The other sixty teachers are definitely favourable to war films, they maintain that
they are agreeable to the children and are very useful especially to adolescents as they
exhalt the double life ideal, " God and Country ", they state that even when there is a
romantic plot, war films are preferred by children and are the best films for their for-
mation.

Man3' of these teachers however agree that some war films leave much to be desired
from a technical point of view and also from thatof their conception of the subject. They
are against the erotico-sentimental type and accuse many films of falling into the ridiculous
by reason of they way m which they represent certain events worthy of admiration and
respect.

These errors are not confined to running a dramatic thread through war scenes,
which are tragic enough on their own account, but also they are to be found in the de-
formation of certain definite operations of war. War is history. It should be represent-
ed in its entire truth, on the screen it should constitute a document and as such it should
be a faithful reproduction of events which interested and moved humaniry and whose
repercussions on social life constitute tosay a phenomena worthy of the most diligent
study.

Concerning the strictly documentary element necessary in good war films ; one
observation is repeated both by children and teachers is the following : apart from short
documentary fragments, without didactic idea there are only foreign war films shown in
Italy which naturally exhalt the heroism of other peoples.

In these observations, there is little talk — especially on the part of the teachers
of those peoples or nations that had very little share in trench warfare ; nevertheless it
is clear that although war films generally please children they prefer to see the uniforms
worn by heir fathers and their brothers.

Fundamentally, although this is but a relative observation, it is very human and
represents a characteristic of the child mind. According to the masters the following
are sentiments aroused by War films in children :

(a) Patriotism : After seeing war films children have sometimes declared that they
wished to fight for the country, the weak and oppressed, thus to become heroes.

(b) Exhaltation of heroism : It is stated that examples of heroism seen on the
screen can stimulate the best altruistic sentiments in a way which cannot be imitated by
other means on account of the vividness of cinematic impressions.

(c) Enthousiasm : War films, write several masters, enthuse children. They

— 276 -

often excite the desire to imitate. In the classroom and in the presence of masters these
films often give rise to a warm discussion and questions concerning the action represented
from a historical and military point of view.

(d) Hatred or Traitors : This is often expressed vehemently but — a prove of
the natural delicacy and goodness of the child — such hatred always goes with a real
sentiment of pity for the vanquished or Wounded.

(e) Feeling or Liberty and Neighbourly Love : It might at first sight appear that
such sentiments are in contradiction with the warlike ones expressed by children, however
they are in harmony with the sentiments of pity for the Wounded enemy.

War is at once creator and destructor. Bloodshed gives birth to new physical and
spiritual life ; renewed consciences. From pain is born brotherly love. Children only
hate superficially and momentarily. They only know how to love. Victory, liberation,
war of conquest, do not answer to their mentality.

Some teachers write that war is a great school of life. Consequently films which
show it constitute a lesson. They form weak characters and strengthen them, they are
a means of moral elevation and appeal to the most sensitive side of the child's nature.

Other teachers add that such films are a great help to them in demonstrating the
principles of civic and patriotic life.

What teachers say of the sentiment of sadness provoked by war films and expressed
by several hundred children in their replies, must be quoted.

One of themiwrites " the expression " sadness often used by pupils should be in-
terpreted as ' lassitude '. Indeed, upon questioning them I undertood that the pro-
longation of scenes showing corpses gave them a sensation of moral and physicallassi-
tude. In such scenes cuts should be made to avoid these exasperating lengths of film
which provoke in children a feeling of ' sadness ' or " Lassitude .

Such are the observations of quite a large group of teachers on war films. They
are of the greatest interest in as much as they give precision to the effects both moral
and physical of the war film and add to the meaning of the pupil's answers.

* * *

The I. I. E. C. inquiry also furnishes interesting information relative to the differ-
ence between the masculine and feminine school elements, for the character of the
refilies necessarily varies with the particular psychology of the sex concerned.

The total number of opinions contrary or favourable to war was 23.048, of which
15,496 were made by boys and 7,552 by girls. A more complete sub-division of these
gives the following results :

Favourable to : Large Centres Small Centres Total

Boys 9,940 3,835 13,775

Girls 4,755 1,301 6,056

Contrary to :

Boys 1,136 585 1,721

Girls 1,244 252 1,496

As concerning boys, favourable to and contrary to opinions Were proportioned as
follows :

- 277 -

Large Centres ■

Favourable to 89.75 %

Contrary to 10.25%

Small Centres .-

Favourable to 86.75%

Contrary to 13.25%

All together :

Favourable to 88.90%

Contrary to 11.10%

As concerning girls :

Large Centres :

Favourable to 79.25%

Contrary to 20.75 %

Small Centres ■

Favourable to 83.75 %

Contrary to 16.25%

All together :

Favourable to 80.10%

Contrary to 19.80%

From whence it follows that both in large and small centres the proportion of girls
expressing opinions contrary to war films is larger than the proportion of boys.

It also appears interesting to note that the boys in large centres — more open to
the influences of the knowledge and propaganda spread in towns — give a proportion
of contrary votes much smaller than that given by boys in small centres.

The first of these results might have been predicted as it merely answers to fem-
inine psychology. Women have a natural horror of bloody, tragic and painful scenes.
She is a potential mother from an early age and shows this by her tenderness for her
dolls. Even if she can forget the suffering of her parents during the war, her whole
being revolts against the mere idea of a future son of hers being killed in a War and
therefore she states the necessity for all men being united as brothers.

And this is the more true because the majority of replies exhalting war through war
films are motivated by generic sentiments such as ptriotism, there are no reference of
heroic or warlike accent. On the contrary the naive and noble wich of being of service
to soldiers and wounded is often expressed.

With the boys on the contrary, the extraordinary and the heroic is significant. The
home and the mothers tears do not hold back the boy who is taken with an heroic idea
and with glory. He forgets the fond treatment of his mother when he was a child :
he goes towards an ideal, an illusion, for in men, child or adult, it is the call of a com-
bat in life that triumphs over family feeling.

The second result also finds a simple and logical explanation. It is the peasant
and workman of the small centres who have suffered most from the war. It is not that
the war has spared them less than others but it has put them to a greater proof in that
the life of the small centres is almost entirely based upon the individual activity of the

- 278

farm labourer and. the local ffiorkman. Long absence, mutilation or loss of men, as
much as material loss, is, consequently more keenly felt by country populations, for in
time of war they have less means of making good the loss of revenue involved in the
loss of men than have the city families.

* * *

VARIOUS OPINIONS

DIVISIONS ACCORDING TO CENTRES, SEX AND AGE

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

>,

O

5

o
CQ

6

o
CQ

o

ca

o

>1

o

ca

5

o

ca

o

Boys: 165 — Girls: 89 — To-

tal : 254
They are moving

56

31

10

6

18

13

23

22

57

17

1

Boys : 181 — Girls : 540 — To-
tal: 721

They make me think of those
dead for the country

345

13

91

152

94

26

Boys : 53 — Girls : 47 — To-
tal 100

They contrast the horrors of war
with the heroism of a Nation
under arms

20

12

17

33

2

14

2

Boys : 69 — Girls . . . To-
tal 69

They remind me of my parent
at the front

69

Boys : 2 — Girls : 36 — Total :

38
They evoke at once the memory

of hours both of enthousiasm

and pain

—

14

—

—

■ —

22

2

—

—

—

—

—

Boys: 35 -Girls . .-Tot 35-

They are fine by reason of the

acts of heroism shown but

sad because they bring to

mind the blood spilt in war.

35

Boys: 11 — F. 7 - Tot. 19
They excite

7

2

3

2

—

3

1

Boys: 4 — F. 8 — Total 12
They are interestring but terrify-
ing

—

3

—

1

—

4

—

—

3

—

1

—

Follow other answers inferior to ten in number :

(a) / Think victory is necessary but that it requires bloodshed : 9 boys from 1 0 to
12 years.

- 279 -

(b) / should like to be amongst the fighters but without danger of death : 7 boys from
10 to 12 years.

(c) These films are fine but too impressive : 6 boys over 16 years.

(d) They are instructive for young people but sad recollections for mothers : 3 girls
from 10 to 12 years.

(e) The country must be served but wars should be avoided as much as possible : 3
answers : 1 boy over 16 and two girls between 13 and 15.

(f) War is barbarous but it must not be forgotten that only by that means did na-
tions gain their independance : 7 boys, 1 between 10 and 12 and 6 over 6.

The total number of various opinions — some of which might, as we have said,
be included either in the category favourable to war or in that contrary to it — amounts
to 1282 and is sub-divided as follows.

Large

se Centres :

Boys

Girls

Small Centres ,

Boys

Girl;

10 to 12 years .

. 204

398

10 to 12 years .

. 26

146

13 to 15 years .

. 38

11

13 to 15 years .

. 214

125

Over 16 years

. 47

42

Over 16 years . .

. 31

289

451

271

271

740

542

* * *

It will be that there is a fairly large group of opinions which could not easily be
classified in either of the two preceding groups. These opinions results from a con-
trast of sentiments that is either declared or easy to imagine. In any case it is impos-
sible to find a single opinion which definitely dominates in them.

Seven children express an opinion conforming to their typical psychology at their
ages : the wish to be at the War without being subject to danger. A childish idea, unit-
ing a keen interest with an impression of fright.

Others admire War films for the acts of heroism represented but the idea of blood-
shed saders and terrifies them. In saying " they are useful for young people " some
express a favourable opinion but in adding " but sad recollections for mothers " they
contradict it. Almost all the other replies oscillate between exhalted and horrified opi-
nions of war and that must necessarily affect the classification.

OPINIONS ON THE INSTRUCTIVE OR EDUCATIONAL CHARACTER

OF WAR FILMS

DIVISIONS ACCORDING TO CENTRES, SEX AND AGE

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Above
16

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Over
16

O
CQ

o

CQ

6

o
CQ

6

o
CO

6

o

o

o
CQ

O

Boys : 696 — Girls : 141 —To-
tal : 837.

They are very instructive and
full of information

532

32

106

43

15

9

14

56

29

1

- 280

ANSWERS

LARGE CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

SMALL CENTRES

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

Boys: 369 -Girls: 21 2 — To-
tal 581 .

They are useful because they tell
of national historic events.

The teach deeds of amrs better
than books can and show us
facts now par of history

Boys: 227 — Girls: 210 — To-
tal 437.

The best war films are certainly
those which are simply docu-
mentary without embellishment
nor dramatic plots. On account
of their historical character
they have great documentary

Boys : 236 — Girls : 127 — To-
tal 363.

They are useful for teaching and
the study of history.

Boys : 226 — Girls : 96 — To-
tal 363.

They are well made and very
useful from an historical point
of view.

Boys: 137 — Girls: 24 — To-
tal 161.

They show young people what
the soldiers did in the war and
permit them to acquire a per-
fect knowledge of modern war
methods.

Boys : 37 — Girls : 28 — To-
tal 75.

Their character does not recom-
mend them for children especi-
ally of the impressionable type.

Children knowing little of life
can easily misinterpret war
films.

Boys. 21 — Girls- 15 — To-
tal 36.

In showing us the sites of bat-
tles they are useful from a his-
torical and geographic point
of view

121

142

48

250

71

37

93

47

169

111

69

25

69

21

17

21

75

47

69

14

10

60

43

103

54

12

281 -

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Over
16

>>

6

o
CQ

6

o
CQ

"v3

6

o
CQ

O

o
CQ

3

o

CQ

o

Girls- 14 — Total 14

They are not suitable for wo-
men for the latter are impres-
sionable

Boys 5— Girls 8- Total 13
They are istructive and usegul

for the preparation of young

soldiers.

—

14

2

5

6

There follow two other replies supported each by less than ten votes :

(a) " they are above all useful for children " : I boy between ten and twelve years.

(b) " / prefer real historical films " : 1 boy between 10 and 12.

We have then 2881 replies on the instructional and educational value of war films.
They are sub-divided as follows :

Large Centres • B°ys G^ls

10 to 12 years 1,203 518

13 to 15 years 265 96

Over 16 years 221 47

K689^_ 661

2,350
Small Centres :

10 to 12 years 197 197

13 to 15 years 94 15

Over 16 years 16 3

307 215

^ *"" 522 "'"

(To be continued).

G. de F.

282 —

ih

■al Exhibition ol

AT

VENICE

APRIL 28th to NOVEMBER 4th

The " Biennial „ at Venice is the largest and most important permanent
exhibition of Modern Art in the World

Sixteen Nations have pavilions

I TALY

GERMANY - BELGIUM - DENMARK - SPAIN - UNITED

STATES - FRANCE - GREAT BRITAIN - GREECE

HOLLAND - HUNGARY - JAPAN - POLAND

SWITZERLAND - TCHECO-SLOVAKIA

and the U. S. S. R.

===== THE XVIIIth BIENNIAL 1932 =====

will present large personal exhibition of the works of Pablo Picasso and Ignacio
Zuloaga. And retrospective exhibitions of Giov. Boldini, F. P. Michetti, V. Gemito,

E. Menet, C. Meunier, etc.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CONTEMPORARY ART

April 30 - May 4

INTERNATIONAL COURSES IN MODERN ART

by eminent critics and authors. June and October
Hugust

First international Cinema Festival

September

Second international Festival of Music

Traditional Venetian Fetes ~ Travel facilities

283

OBJECTIVES

for cinema photographs

BIOTAR

1

:1,4

TESSAR

1

:2,7

TESSAR

1

:3,5

TESSAR

1

:4,5

TELETESSAR

1

: 6,3

the new

CINEMA TELETESSAR 1

:4

tARLZEfsl:

JENA

In standard mounts for the 16 mm. small film
apparatus CINE NIZO, FILM, VICTOR, and for
the well-known standard film apparatus for ama-
teurs and professionals.

Obtainable from Cine Camera Manufacturers
and Photographic Dealers

Further information will be given on request by

CARL ZEISS, JENA

Cable-address : Zeisswerk, Jena

LONDON W. 1, Mortimer House 37-41 Mortimer Street — NEW
YORK 485 Fifth Avenue — LOS ANGELES, Cal., 728 So. Hill
Street — BERLIN W. 9, Potsdamer Strasse 139-1 1 1 — HAMBURG
Alsterhaus, Alsterdamm, 12-13 — KOLN, Apostelnkloster, 27 —
WIEN K/3 Ferstelgasse 1 — BUENOS AYRES, Bernardo de Iri-
goyen 303 — RIO DE JANEIRO, Pra?a Marechal Floriano 55
TOKIO, Yusen Building 7-th floor, Marunouchi — MILANO (105)
« La Meccanoptica » Soc in accomandita, Corso Italia 8 — MA-
DRID, Dr. Niemeyer, Plaza de Canalejas 3 pral dra— PARIS (XIe)
: : : : : : : : Optica, 1 8/20 Faubourg du Temple : : : : : : : :

Ice ingl.

284 -

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/. /. E. C. Studies

HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

The teaching value of art was known to the Romans as it had been to the Greeks.
In the sculpture and bas-reliefs of the arches and columns erected at the end of each
victorious campaign to the glory of the conquerors, more than in the art of painting, the
Romans placed the function of recalling glorious history to the people. " Roman
bas-reliefs have more figures and planes than Greek works of a similar kind which they
surpass, if not in fineness of workmanship, at least in the movement and colour of the
figures. But in the columns there are too many figures to be seen easily and although
some of the detail is good they cannot be said to be successful as a whole " (Natali and
Vitelli).

Apart from any artistic judgement which may be passed upon them it is certain
that these sculptures were the most perfect expression of the military spirit of Rome. It
is only necessary to recall Trajan's Column with its spiral band upon which are carved
the principal scenes of the war against the Daces and the Column of Marcus Aurelius
bearing representations of the Victories of this emperor against the Marcomans, to be
convinced that the role of the Cinema news reel to-day, thanks to which we may see that
which happened at Pekin a few days ago, was accorded by the Romans to the art of
sculpture. By a succession of pictures it was hoped to give an illusion of action, as G.
Natali describes it, speaking of Trajan's column " Representations of a great historical
interest of account of the scenes of war, showing war engines, arms, customs of the
Roman and Danube peoples, battles, embassies, assaults, routs, fires, in fact a real chef-
d'oeuvre of Roman historical art ". And does not this sound like the sub-titles of a do-
cumentary film ?

EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES

In Society.

In 313 a. d. Christianity became, by the edict of Constantine, the official religion
of the Roman Empire. It gave new direction to education and to the intellectual and
moral faculties of men in their higher capacities, that is in their relations with other
men, now to be considered their brothers, and with God. To Greek liberal education
then and Roman practical education there suceeded Christian education which, at least
during its first centuries, when the fear of the end of the world in the year 1000 was
universal, was concerned with the care of the soul, voluntarily ignoring the body and its
needs.

This incomplete character of Roman education, which was reproved by the Renais-
sance humanists in their return to the Greek harmonious ideal in all its parts, in some

— 286 —

degree justified the too radical statement of Carducci " Muoiono gli altri dei. Di Grecia
i numi non sanno occaso ". However, this incomplete character was to some extent
explained by the attendant historical events.

We are in the period of excess, open and brazen corruption in the imperial court
and lives of great purity and martyrdom in the catacombs.

The barbarians were at the frontiers . . . Huns, Vandals, Ostrogoths and Lombards
invaded the peninsular and devastated it. All that was left of Rome was conquered
and humiliated.

This most sombre period in the history of Rome extends from 536 to 556 a. d. ;
it is the terrible period of the Gothic wars. All the benefits of Theodoric's reign were
lost and Rome, which, in Augusts' reign, had contained a million souls was reduced
to several thousand. Totila who had first thought to destroy it, was content simply
to transform it into a desert by obliging the population to follow him into Campania.
And the city, which at the beginning of the same century had affected Theodoric and
Cassiodorus by the splendour of its marbles and its monuments was reduced in few years
into a state of desolate abandon. On the banks of the Tiber and in the marshy plains
a little life continued in spite of the Malaria.

This desolate picture is perhaps the reserve side of the medal struck for the barba-
rian invasions. For it is as well to remember that the qualification, "barbarian " was
applied by the Greeks even to the Romans and by the Romans to all those not belong-
ing to the Greco-Roman civilization and in this case it was only half justified for it can-
not be said that the reign of Theodoric was a barbarian domination. In addition the
morals of the invaders, though of a crude nature as opposed to the refined culture of
the late Romans, were undoubtedly healthy and their young blood was of the kind to
give new vigour to the vanquished who were prematurely worm out by vice.

Gradually, in a Latin environment, the barbarians assimilated the new religion.
Strong men, accustomed to a natural life of fatigue, they had in their idolatrous rites
always practiced a natural moral. Their conversion then to a religion such as Chris-
tianity depending to such an extent on the exercise of ethical principles did not present
great difficulties.

In Art.

Although art is not precisely included in this study, the points of contact between
art and life and more exactly between painting and education are so numerous that
it seems that a short glance at mediaeval art can only serve, in adding fresh evidence to
our cause, to aiding in the demonstration of our thesis.

It is perhaps superfluous to state that the three great static arts ; architecture, paint-
ing and sculpture, appeal particularly to the sense of sight and that when they reflect
the artistic ideal that has inspired them they can only fulfill an educational function
and refine the minds of those who seek in them, with varying degrees of aestheticism,
the satisfaction of their inner selves.

Christian art, says Natali, was born from a particularly fine and pious cult. It origins
are in the catacombs, which besides real cemeteries, were the only place where the mi-
serable and persecuted christians could find refuge and peace to pray.

— 287 —

The first crude paintings in the catacombs, admired today, are essentially sym-
bolic, the fish symbolises Christ, birds : the souls of the martyrs flying up into heaven,
the phenix : faith, the dove : the holy ghost, the anchor : salvation, etc. . .

In the IVth century the representation of biblical incidents replaces purely sym-
bolic work. The Church of Ste. Sabine of the Aventine shows us in its doorway of
sculptured wood (erected by Peter of Illyria under Celestine 1st) an example of this
new tendency in art. The twenty-eight carved panels giving scenes from old and new
testaments proclaim the triumphs on the church.

Then rise up the great basilicas of marble and gold which the triumphant church,
still directly inspired by the blood of the martyrs, erected to the glory of the resurrected
Christ and the Virgin Mary. This is the period of mosaics that ornate the finest Ital-
ian churches. Ravenna, which Theodoric made the capital of the Ostrogoth kingdom
after Honorius had made it that of the Western Empire, has some fine Byzantine
mosaics which are today its greatest attraction. Rome too has fine mosaics of this
period.

Christianity considered painting as the most persuasive form of religious instruc-
tion. Gregory the Great recommended the use of decorations in churches "ut hi qui
litteras nesciunt, saltern in parietibus videndo legant quae legere in codicibus non
valent ".

Then occurred a phenomenon unimaginable to us : without being able to read the
people were able to see the realities of faith and the legends surrounding their religion
on the church walls where they were always visible.

And it has been thus throughout the centuries.

Today children are taught religion with the first rudiments of knowledge but yes-
terday those that were able to read were no longer able to understand the mute lesson
of Christian art, it remained for them a dead letter.

In three verses as gracious as they are profound Dante synthetises the nature of
the human mind and seems to champion intuition and visual education

Cost parlar conviensi al vostro ingegno
Perche solo da sensato apprende
do che ja poscia d'intelletto degno.

Per questo la Scrittura condescende
a vostra facilitate et piedi e mono
attribuisce a Dio, ed altro intende ;

e Santa Chiesa con aspetto umano
Gabriele e Michel vi rappresenta
e V altro che Tobia rifece sano (1).

(1) In these verses Dante says that it is convenient to speak to the mind through images because
one only learns through the senses that which is subsequently worthy of the spirit ; it is for that reason
that the scripture give God hands and feet and for that reason too that Gabriel and Michael are shown
in human forms and Tobias restoring sight to his father . . .

— 288 —

With Giotto churches became light and frescoes replaced mosaic. At this period
the influence of the image on the popular mind was completely understood and so it
was used constantly for religious propaganda.

In this connection Natali and Vitelli remark that :

"... painting also serves to decorate public buildings. It become a method of communicating civil
principles to the ignorant people. It is not to exaggerate to say that in scarcely half a century, Giotto and
his followers, says Symonds, represented by scenes and allegories the Italy of the middle ages and what
Dante alone had done in the domain of poetry they did all together. The work of the artist was then
the book that contained all the lessons of civic and spiritual life. Painting was not an ornament but
an essentia! factor of culture "

But it was not only a cultural instrument as Vitelli and Natali again say '* Already
in the Xllth century magistrates charged clever painters to paint the portraits of crim-
inals ; these portraits were exhibited and the arrest of the guilty party was thus facil-
itated. In fact they used painted portraits as the modern police use photos "

The Cinema has also been used both as a police aid in both Europe and America (1 ).

Poets also wished to have their poems illustrated, convinced that they would thereby
gain force. Again an example from Natali and Vitelli :

Francesco da Barberino (1264-1348), who wrote two works: " reggimento e costumi di Donna "
and " Documenti d'Amore " in order to revive the costumes and customs, of the declining age of
chivalry in Italy and Provence and at the same time to give some good advice to the bourgeois-
These two hooks then, presented the author's thought and gave it precision by delicately illuminated
drawing of an allegorical character. They were even reproduced, for the public, in fresco on the walls of
churches and palaces. It is therefore regretable, writes Albino Zanetti, that in the history of Italy Fran-
cesco da Barberino should not be remembered amongst those who used poetry and painting together as
reciprocal illustrants, in order to remind magistrates of their duty, to correct and better morals and
refine the people ".

When a movement of ideas is not limited to one class, more or less privileged, but becomes commu-
nal patrimony, when one sees poets and magistrates, sovereigns and humble subjects follow in its wake,
can not one conclude that the movement has real intrinsic value worthy of this following.

This is valid for most things in the domain of thought and in a more limited and lower domain for all
ideas on which experience places a certain real practical value . It is thus that, with the single idea of get-
ting the most from painting and of developing its use, we see " school museums " gradually form and mul-
tiply, as all visual aids to education used with so much success by those teachers who have given them a
fair trial.

In the School.

Saint Gerome (331-420) in his letter to Laeta, a true treatise on pedagoy in min-
iature, following in the path of Quintillian, advises this Roman matron to teach her daugh-

(1) We will give only two well known examples much quoted in the press at the time they occurred.
In Philadelphia the confessions of a criminal at the moment of his arrest were registered on sound film and
this film was later presented to the court as prove of the prisoners guilt. At Lausanne the projection
of a film helped in the arrest of a robber. Additionally we have published in our cahiers on the Social
Aspects of the Cinema, a study by M. Hellwig on the Cinematograph and Crime abounding in examples
of this kind. Still more recently (Nov. 1931) we have published a short study on the Cinema and
Justice by M- Eustatzin.

— 289 —

ter the first essentials of reading by means of mobile letters : " Put into Paola's hands
letters carved in wood or ivory and tell her the name of each ; she will then learn with
pleasure ".

It is fine to see this Saint of a superhuman austerity, more admirable than inst-
able, understanding so well the needs of children, their development and the means
which best serve to educate them. He says " Study should be amusing to the child ".
And later, " Take care that she (Paola) does not take an aversion to study which will
continue to an advanced age : teach her by games ".

What a profound knowledge of human nature is revealed in this phrase. The
first impressions are the most lasting. It is certainly necessary that the idea of study,
should not, by a dangerous association of ideas, be linked with an impression of dis-
gust. Education may thus be irremediably impaired.

The solitary of Bethelehem may well be considered as the forerunner of the nume-
rous educators who think that instruction should be made interesting, easy and attrac-
tive and who are opposed to the partisans of effort. These latter tend to aspire to ends
beyond the capabilities of the child, because, they say, life is full of effort and work and
besides they say the child has no respect for those it can understand (1).

Life is certainly a struggle for the man who is prepared for it, but it is likewise for
the child and it ought not to be simply a preparation for other struggles to come.
Doubtless, the perfect educator should not everlastingly think of to-morrow but should
prevent the child from doing so, should allow it to play work and surfer in the present.

The partisans of effort may rest assureed, the application which may be reasonably
be demanded from a child will not be spared it, even with the most attractive of
methods.

To help the adolescent at the time of development is for the adult as much a duty
as that of inculcating the moral principles upon which life is based.

One can then assume that to the principles of Saint Gerome may be related
the desire in some modern educators to endow the school with every invetion of mod-
ern science and therefore, conscious of the possibilities of the educational Cinema,
wish to see it employed to the profit of youth.

* * *

The initiation of adults, on account of their conversion, to the forms and dogmas
of religion, gave birth to cathecisms, which give the aspirant such indispensable notions
as may admit him to the ranks of the faithful.

St. Augustine (353-430) speaks at length of this in De Catechizandis Rudibus, in
which he shows the catechist the beauty of his mission and at the same time gives him
advice both useful and pertinent on the best method of making lessons interesting and
alive. The pleasant school of modern educators is no novelty, but simply a return

(1) Education through enjoyment, Mme de Stael wrote in this connection, disperses thought, trouble
of all kinds is one of the great resources of nature ; the spirit shoved accustom itself to study as the soul
to suffering ".

— 290 —

to the past, to the far away past of the first Christian centuries where a joyous educa-
tion was already predicted, conforming to the precepts of the holy scriptures as well
as to the child mind : hilarem doctorem diligit Dew.

In his De Magistro, the gracious Doctor espouses more minutely the principles of
pedagogy. In order to reach the only true master : Christ, whom he identifies with truth,
St. Augustine begin by depreciating the word in favour of the meaning : *' The know-
ledge of things is superior to the terms used ... It is better to know things than the
terms used to describe them. This is obvious. And yet, in how many schools is
there an honorary practice of mnemonic and oral education where it is necessary to
repeat that : " Nothing is learnt by signs (words) ; on the contrary, these have no sig-
nificance unless We know through our eyes the things represented ".

To speak is useful and necessary but how much more necessary is it to know the
limits within which the word may be used with out attributing to it powers which it
does not possess. Saint Augustine shows by this example : " The word head Was only
a sound to me and I understood that it was a symbol when I knew what it symbolised.

Thus I learnt not the thing by the sign but the sign by the thing : the symbol is
then better understood when the thing is seen, in other woords it is the thing seen that
instructs with regard to the symbols, the latter alone care unable to make us conceive
the thing

The practical application of this theory which depreciates the word to such an
extent, is self-evident : if words have no significance for children, who know nothing
of the world around them, it is of less importance to teach children words than it
is to teach them things.

Object lessons are the germ of this theory, as well as picture figures, images, etc. . .
When the word does not sufficiently explain the thing to children they complete the
description and give the new words significance.

* * *

The few schools that existed at the beginning of the middle ages found refuge in
convents. But wars, plagues, which succeeded each other ceaselessly, rendered life
sad, and rendered sad too, the school and the gaiety which should have been printed
upon the latter gave place to a spirit of austerity unsuitable for children whose every
spontaneous action was repressed and whose originality was subdued by force.

But the darkness of the middle ages, if one (63.186) can speack of darkness did
not last long. Already in 782, thanks to Charlemagne, the school began a new life.
The Palatine school directed by Alcuim and attended by the Imperial family is the most
remarkable evidence of this Renaissance. In his capitularies on schools, Charlemagne
prescribed that " each monastery and abbey should have its school, where the children
might learn psalms, musical notation and singing, arithmetic and grammar ; that the
books given to children should not be inaccurate and that these should not be destroyed
by the children in reading or writing ".

Theodolphus, bishop of Orleans, enlarging upon Charlemagne's instructions, de-
creed that in his diocese, primary instruction should be uiversal and gratuitous, and he

— 291 —

instructed the rectors of parishes to open schools without demanding other than vol-
untary offering from parents.

It is there the first Renaissance : already a light in the darkness, already " la risorta
del Mille itala gente " cultivated the germ of a univesal language which thanks to the
poets wourld soon be made manifest. And the true Renaissance in Italy of the XlVth
century was preceeded by the breaking down of the scholastic system, to which the vast
and powerful work of St. Thomas Aquinas is due.

In the mean time, and from the end of the Xlth century is apparent the movement
which ended with the localisation of studies in certain towns, thus creating the first
universities, true centres of learning.

Elementary education, free and compulsory, universities, the formation of the latin
languages : can one truly speak of the shadows of the middle ages, only because, during
a short transitory period, wars and invasions troubled the course of life which carried
already in itself the germ of certain ruin and which in fact ended in the ruin of the
Roman Empire ?

(To be continued).

M. L. Rossi Longhi.

— 292

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

— 293

ftd t&

A TWO-REEL motion picture. The Sacrifice of

the Mass, marks the entrance of Eastman Teaching Films,
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depicts, completely and accurately, the important cere-
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altar, it brings out clearly every action of priest and ser-
ver. Brief " visions " of the life of Christ show the orig-
nal events upon which the various parts of the Mass
are based. In addition, a carefully prepared teacher's
guide aids both instructor and class in deriving the fullest
spiritual value from the film.

Undertaken at the suggestion of Right Reverend
John Francis O'Hern, Bishop of Rochester, produced
in collaboration with him and several Leading Catholic
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— 294 —

PROMOTERS OF EDUCATIONAL

MEDICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TOURISTIC
CINEMA CONSTITUTING

Legislation

CINEMATOGRAPHIC CENSURE IN THE BALTIC COUNTRIES

LETTONIA

Sources and General Ruling.

In Lettonia, Cinema control is practiced
according to the law of Feb. 15th, 1926.
(Regierungsanzeiger, No. 36, 1 926). Accord-
ing to the article 7, of this law, all films
whether destined for public, semi-private or
instructional use are to be submitted to the
special control exercised by the special office
of the Ministry of Education under the di-
rection of the Ministry of the Interior. No
distinction between theatrical and instruc-
tional films exists in the application of this
control.

Control Office.

Film control is exercised by a censuring
commission at the Ministry of Education.
The Constitution of this body is governed
by the special regulations contained in the
Official Journal (Valdibas Vestnesis), 159,
1928. It consists of nine members, six ap-
pointed by the minister of Education and
three by the Minister of the Interior. When
needed the Ministry of Education can con-
sult experts.

This Commission is directly dependant
on the Ministry of Education which appoints
the president. In case of necessity the lat-
ter names his own successor.

The Commission has a staff approved
by the school administration. The staff is
appointed, whilst the members of the Com-
mission and experts when called are paid
only according to the length of time during
which they are engaged on the viewing of
films. Members of the Commission be-
longing to State administrations are only

paid for such time as they are called from
their offices on Commission work.

Working Regulations.

Ordinarily, control is exercised by two or
three members of the Commission, but in
certain cases, with the consent of the Com-
mission control by one member may be con-
sidered valid.

The Commission not only deals with films
but with their publicity matter. In certain
cases the censors can limit the examination
to the sub-titles of a film.

Article 8 of the law gives the precise forms
of expression for the censure : Simple pro-
jection permit, permit to project conditional
upon certain restrictions and modifications
not affecting the artistic or technical value
of the film, simple banning of the film. In
either of the latter decisions the interested
party has the right to appeal.

Appeal.

The Council of School Administration
examines appeals. It can reject the film
again simply, or order it to be examined by
censors not present a the first examination
or submit it to examination by the entire
Commission. In principle no second ap-
peal is allowed. However the Minister
of Education can, using his personal superior
power, order the School Council to examine
the film again.

Censors, Motives for Banning.

According to official information received
by I. I. E. C. there are no specific reasons

— 296 —

for banning but general principles upon
which the censors should act. They are
grouped as below :

a) Political : As concerning interior
politics, scenes likely to disturb the public
peace are forbidden. As concerning ex-
terior politics scenes likely to harm the pres-
tige of the State or its foreign relations and
those likely to wound the feelings of friend-
ly countries are forbidden.

b) Religion : Scenes offensive to the
cult, its manifestations and ministers are for-
bidden.

c) Morals and Crime : Scenes likely to
inspire spetectators with immoral criminal
or brutal sentiments are forbidden.

Minors and Educational Films.

All films are subject to the censur ; how-
ever according to article 16 of the law
establishes an exception only for those scienti-
fic and educational films destined to be shown

under the auspices of cultural and educatio-
nal establishments to a limited public. As
concerning minors (6 to 16 years of age
according to law) article 9 of the law states
that their presence in cinemas is only al-
lowed when the film shown is recognized
as suitable by the Ministry of Education.
The law does not prescribe definitely
in this matter of distinction but states that
the censors must always express an opinion
on the matter for each film according to
whether they think minors should be admit-
ted or not. The Police have the enforcement
of all regulations relative to the Cinema in
their hands.

Control Taxes.

The following scale of charges is applied :
Documentary, news, scientific and technical

films : 0.5 santims the metre

Theatrical films : 3 santims per metre
Publicity films : 5 santims the metre.

FINLAND

Film censure in Finland is exercised by
governmental regulations of Aug. 15th 1921,
Sept. 23rd 1922 and Jan. 1928. General
Rule: no film may be projected on the ter-
ritory of the Republic without the authori-
isation of the competent office.

Control Office.

This office is situated at Helsinki and it
consists of one first censor, apomted by the
Minister of Education and two helpers one
appointed by the same power and the other
by the chief of Police of Helsinki. In case
of absence of the first censor, his first help-
er nominated by the same power as him-
self examines the films. If both these are
absent the task falls upon the second helper
who should call in an expert to help him.
In case of appeal against the decision of any
one censor, the film in question is examined

by all three together with experts if neces-
sary.

Censure Criteria.

The office exercises its control over films,
sub-titles, sound and publicity matter.

Films presented for control may be au-
thorised, purely and simply or authorised
on the condition that certain cuts are made of
scenes not approved. In the latter case those
portions cut remain in the office through
out the time during which the film remains
in circulation in the country. Definite ca-
ses for banning are not given. The Censors
work on the general principles followed in
most countries and grouped as below :

a) Morals : Films or parts of films sug-
gestive of immorality or crime are banned.

b) Religion : Anything that may harm
religious sentiment is banned.

297 —

c) Politics : Anything likely to disturb
the public peace is banned.

films have not been approved for minors by
the censor.

Censorship Card.

When the office deems a film suitable for
public exhibition, it is registered in a special
book, stamped and numbered. A certificate
is given to the interested party bearing :
a) title of film — b) name of producing
firm — c) name of the person presenting
film for control — d) the length of the whole
film, a good resume of the subject and in
case of cuts information relative to these —
e) the registration number — /) whether or
not film is suitable for minors under 16.

Minors.

Minors under 16 cannot attend shows end-
ing after 8 in the evening ; in any case they
cannot attend at cinema shows where the

Educational and Instructional Films.

The control office is qualified to classify
films under three headings : — 1) ordinary
films, 2) artistic films, 3) educational, instruc-
tional and scientific films.

This legislation aims to improve national
production and to select the better foreign
films. A differential taxational tariff is ap-
plicable. 1st category films are taxed to the
extent of 30 % of the price of the admission
ticket, 2nd category ; 1 5 % and the 3rd cat-
egory is exempt from taxation.

In this third category enter, besides charac-
teristically scientific films, natural history
films, geographical films, ethnographical
films, hygiene and social propaganda films.

It appears that this measure has well ful-
filled the aim of raising the moral and artistic
level of programmes.

IN ESTHONIA

Sources and General Regulations.

Film control was in times past determined
by a ruling of the provisory Russian govern-
ment with regard to public entertain-
ments, dated April 27th 1917 (Rules and
Regulations Chap. 559). In addition to
this law other measures have since been voted
chiefly dealing with the Cinema censor.
They are :

a) Law of March 7th 1923, N. 43 on
public entertainments, published in the of-
ficial journal (Riigi Teataja) of March 24th
and applied as from April 1st following.

b) Regulation of April 2nd, 1925, N. 9,
established by the Ministry of the Interior
and published in the Official Journal Nos.

77-78, May 8, 1925.

c) Regulation of July 30th 1928, N. 21 .701
of the Minister of Education concerning at-
tendance of students and minors at cinemas.

The regulations of the 1923 law are of a
general character, whilst those of 1925 and
1928 are concerned specially with Cinema.

The general rule is that no spectacle in-
cluding Cinema shows can be held in un-
authorised places without special consent
from the ministry of the Interior. Authori-
sation is subject to the declaration in writ-
ing of the theatre manager, giving, the num-
ber, the characters and the titles of the plays
and films which he intends to show.

The Control Commission.

This is composed : of a representative of
the Ministry of the Interior, who is the Pre-
sident, a representative of the Ministry of
Education, one of the Army, one of the school
authorities of Talline, one of the film renters,
and one of cinema managers.

298 -

For validity, the decisions of the commis-
sion should be made in the presence of three
members of which one should always be the
representative of the Ministry of the Interior,
the Ministry of Education or the Talline
school authorities. The servies of censors
are free and there is no tax for submission
of films.

Working Regulations.

No film can be imported without its orig-
inal censure card from the country of or-
igin. The work of the Commission is then
reduced to viewing the films from a national
point of view. Reciprocally the government
only permits the exportation of films which
have obtained a home exhibition, certificate.

Sub-titles should be in Esthonian, excep-
tionally German, Russian and Swedish may
be used.

Renters or cinema managers — provided
they are in position to obtain films directly
from producers — should, before putting
the film into circulation, address a declara-
tion to the Ministry of the Interior contain-
ing : a) the name and address of the produc-
ing firm, b) the title, overall length, number
of parts, name and address of person making
declaration, and place where film is deposited
at Talline. This declaration should contain
a resume of the film's story, all required infor-
mation concerning intended projection and
details of any changes in titles etc. proposed.

After this declaration the Ministry can
either at once authorise the projection or
bring the film up for examination by the
control commission.

This control is exercised almost exclusive-
ly on imported films as home production
has been small and has so far not offended.
Imported films on the contrary have often
given cause for modifications in scenes and
sub-titles.

Auxiliary Control Organs.

Besides the Ministry of the Interior and
the Control Commission, the Police have

the right, by reason of general regulations
applying to public entertainments, to super-
vise cinema shows and suspend those that
seem to prejudice public order and morality.
Police decisions can only be appealed against
in case of their abusing their power.

Appeal.

When the Control Commission refuses
to authorise the projection of a film or when
the desired modifications are too great to
allow of their execution without prejudice
to the value of the film, the interested party
can appeal to the Ministry of the Interior.
The appeal is then transmitted to the State
Tribunal whose decision is final.

Censor's Criteria.

These are divided into three groups :

a) Interior Politics : revolutionary or
seditious scenes are forbidden

b) Morality : Films or scenes of an ev-
idently immoral character which can by a
falsification of morals lead young people into
corruption are forbidden. It is above all
in this respect that the Police intervention is
justified. The police can seize offending
films and denounce cinema proprietors to
the justice of the peace.

Crime : Films or scenes showing horrible
criminal acts or crime in a favourable light
are banned.

Films are not examined from a technical
or artistic point of view but the Control
should see that films of too antiquated a type
are not shown and that sub-titles are well
composed and written.

Educational Films.

All the above regulations also apply to
educational films, instructive or scientific
films provided they are not destined for
schools institutions, clubs or associations
of a private character. In these cases the
Police likewise have no authority beyond

299 —

that of seeing to the hygienic conditions in
the halls etc.

Minors.

Admission to cinemas is forbidden to
children less than four years of age. Ac-
cording to regulations contained in articles
11, 12 and 1 of the law mentioned above
of 1928, July, students under twenty years
of age are forbidden to enter as spectators
or as performers any public place of enter-
tainment where alcoholic drinks are sold.
In some cases the Headmaster of the school
which the student attends, can with the ap-
proval of the Ministry of Education lift this
ban but if the student is less than 16 years
of age the consent of the parent is essential.

Children and adolescents, of less than 16
years and students of less than twenty years
can only attend cinemas when the films to be

shown are approved by the Ministry of Edu-
cation as suitable for them. Cinema man-
agers are obliged to indicate if films have
been approved for minors in their publicity
matter. During shows not authorised for
minors help under 16 years of age must not
be employed in the hall.

If a cinema gives, during the course of one
day shows for adults only and shows to which
children are admitted there must be an in-
terval of at least one hour between them.

The Police supervise the application of
these laws and denounce offenders under
art. 29 of the Penal Code to the judicial au-
thorities.

Judicial Sanctions. Article 9 of the regula-
tion of April 2nd 1925 gives the penalties
to which offenders are liable under this head-
ing. Guilty parties can be imprisoned for
up to three months and fined up to 300.000
marks.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEAGUE OF RED e«©SS SOeiETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number:
Annual Subscription:

25 cents or l/»
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All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

4 lee ingh.

— 300 —

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301

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Information and Comment

TOWARDS THE CREATION OF AN INTERNATIONAL CINEMA ARCHIVES

Thanks to the help of the " Spitzenorga-
nisation " and the Institut fur Kulturfors-
chung of Berlin, The I. I. E. C. has been
able to start on a work decided upon by
the Administrative Council (October Ses-
sion 1931) with a view to the creation of
international film archives. This is a tre-
mendous work. It is a matter of listing
all the film material scattered throughout
the world which presents a certain interest
in the development, both technical and ar-
tistic of the cinema since its invention in

1895.

There is, in the present scheme, no idea
of collecting a library of dramatic or en-
tertainment films, once made with the great-
est difficulty and now produced with the
aid of immense capital, but it is desired to
preserve for the world certain cultural val-
ues, which, once lost, can never be replaced.
Too many films of the greatest interest
have been lost during the last few years.
And if haste is not made to save others from
the same fate it will no longer be possible
accurately and authentically to document
the progress of a great industry although it
is but thirty-five years old.

It is to avoid this latter misfortune that
the I. I. E. C. has decided to concern itself
with the work : surely it should be able
to count on the support of the cinematogra-
phic industries of the whole world as well
as that of, institutions, associations and indi-
viduals of the intellectual world, for whom
the past activities in the domain of the Ci-
nema may have a considerable interest.

The beginning has presented the greatest
difficulties. A member of the staff of the
I. I. E. C. has been working for two months
in the Spitzenorganisation and, thanks to
the constant personal help of Dr. Plugge,

whom the I. I. E. C. here wishes to thank,
the principal film material preserved in
Germany from the beginnings of the Ci-
nema to the advent of the sound film has
been listed.

The attention of firms and individuals
has been drawn to the work and precise
indication have been recorded on special
forms. These forms contain the follow-
ing information : title of film ; length ;
year of production ; type, country of or-
igin ; name of producer ; name of firm ;
name of cameraman ; author ; principal
actors. Additionally : camera technique ;
state of preservation ; whether negative
exists or not ; whether duplicate negative
exists or not ; whether there is an original
positive, whether other copies exist ; name
of owner. Besides these indications . there
is a summary of the film and any other
special information.

The I. I. E. C. sees the possibility of
obtaining the original material thus listed
and to preserve it in a special film library.
It would then be at the disposal of those
interested, for their studies, and might be
occasionally projected. But it would be
kept above all for the purpose of enlightening
future generations on the subject of Cinema
history.

In Germany there have been discovered :
original films of Messter, Skladanowsky
and Seeber, dating from 1895 ; copies of
films by the brothers Lumiere, the brothers
Pathe ; by Cines Ambrosio and Edison
dating from the same period. These films
are the property of the Institut fur Kul-
turforschung, of the U. F. A. of the Spit-
zenorganisation, of Messrs Jerven, Seeber,
Skladanowsky, etc.

As for the precious collection of films

— 304

and apparatus belonging to Herr Messter,
this has, owing to the generosity of the latter
become the property of the " Deutsches
Museum " in Munich.

When the I. I. E. C. has formed as com-
plete a film archives as possible, it hopes
to realise another ambition ; that of collect-
ing original apparatus, old posters, pro-
grammes, catalogues, etc. . .

In order to accomplish this part of its
programme the I. I. E. C. needs the help
of all those who can contribute. Institu-
tions sharing in our activity should help
us in this work, because it is possible that
funds will prove insufficient, in which case,
gifts, government subsidies and the good
will of film owners themselves must help
us to bring the matter to a successful con-

clusion. Likewise we would appeal to
such powerful national organisations as La
Chambre Syndicate Francaise de la Cine-
matographic The Motion Picture Producers
and Distributors Board of America, The
Sindacato Fascista delle Corporazioni dello
Spectacolo, The Commission for Educa-
tional and Cultural Films and of all those
National Committees which have been form-
ed in various countries for the purpose or
co-operating with us, to help us as the
German Organisations have done, with
advice and information, to the greatest
possible extent.

In this, there is an occasion for those
who are the friends of the I. I.E. C. to
extend not only theoretical sympathy but
practical assistance.

WILL ITALY AND FRANCE HAVE STATE CINEMAS?

We deal here with a proposal which is not
merely a rumour but a very important init-
iative at present under discussion.

It must be remembered that Italy was
the first country — this is a merit of the
National Government allowed intellectuals
and cineists in all countries — to found a
great State Institute for the development
of cultural Cinema : the LUCE Institute.
This Institute has surmounted all difficul-
ties and continues to develop constantly.
Many countries have used it as a model.
From this Institute too, there came the
first suggestions of an international cine-
matographic movement that was to crys-
tallise out in the proposition made by the
Italian Government to the L. o. N. for the
foundation of an International Institute of
Educational Cinema.

And now it seems that the LUCE may
give life to a new and important scheme.

The duties of a State organism dealing
with educational Cinema officially, extend
constantly. Above all, having regard to
the growing interest in Cine-Education in
all classes, production must increase in

volume and in complexity. They become
complex because they must include scenes
taken in studios and what is more in sound
studios. The element of sound must be
used increasingly in the interests of society,
in education intellectual culture and teach-
ing. At certain moments it is necessary
for countries to give their home produc-
tion a realistic and practical direction. It
is necessary that certain films, of historic
character (consequently of universal charac-
ter) or of national character (of the sort
to demonstrate the nature and spirit of
a people) should be made without regard
to the eventual receipts which are the guide
of the commercial producer. The cinema
must not only take its rightful place in the
entertainment world but also in the worlds
of knowledge, culture and moral and in-
tellectual elevation. With the inevitable
extension of the " dubbing " process it
must be made clear to the producers in all
countries that there exist studios perfectly
equipped and free from commercial in-
terests where films can be duplicated under
the best conditions and where foreign ver-

305 -

sions can be made with due regard to the
sentiments of the country for which they
are destined. Here the spirit of the foreign
version can be adjusted to suit the public
and to avvoid irritation of the spectators.

These and other facts cannot be ignored.
Besides, the facilities for making films
should be extended to include private
initiatives without tremendous capital.

This possibility of creating a State Ci-
nema in Italy appears the more interesting
on account of the resemblance it bears to
the French plan for the foundation of a
National Production Centre. La ClNEMA-
TOGRAPHIE FRANCAISE (Paris, 19th March)
announces that a sub-committee under the
presidence of M. Malvy and composed of
members of the Beaux-Arts, Finance, and
Instruction Committees has been formed
at the Chambre des Deputes.

The project submitted to this Committee
includes the creation of a National Produc-
tion Centre (C. N.) financed to the extent
of one-third by the State and the remaining
two-thirds by private enterprise. The C. N.
would be governed by a body formed of
members of the various ministries and del-
egates of the various Cinematographic syn-
dical organisations already in existence.

All films necessary for the Ministerial
Cinemateks would be made by this C. N.
(As they are in Italy by the LUCE) while
awaiting the creation of special studios for
this purposes to be erected on ground given
by the State.

Large films, the C. N. would finance to
the extent of 55%, the remaing45% being
furnished by essentially French producing
firms, in the form of studio accommodation,
film, casts, etc. Preference would be given
to those firms employing the greatest amount
of French labour.

The origins of this project " the Malvy
plan ", are to be found in the suggestions
of M. Quinson, a well known theatre man,
who, in statements made to La Critique
ClNEMATOGRAPHlQUE (Paris, March 20th)
suggested the desirability of new and ta-

lented scenario writers being able to pro-
duce films without too great difficulty and
within the interests of the State.

Thus it will be seen how similar are the
French and Italian schemes.

There are in every country, intelligent
and talented writers, young and competent
producers, versed in technique of production,
and in the public taste, who would like to
realise their own ideas. There are also
financiers who would be ready to back
them to a certain extent. In the days of
the silent film, things were not so diffcult,
the capital required was small compared
to that which the introduction of sound
must involve. The finance of a sound studio
is certainly beyond the compass of any
but a company specially formed to main-
tain and continuously to operate such a
studio. For its is only by a continuous
production that sound apparatus can be
made to pay for itself.

However bisides these isolated producers
there are always foreign firms who like to
make special versions of their films for use
under certain local conditions but are pre-
vented from doing this by the lack of studios
or the excessive charges made for their use by
local companies or by a difficult system
of distribution and sales.

These considerations can only encourage
the development of a good national Cinema,
rendered even more necessary to-day on ac-
count of the introduction of sound. For
this reason we think that the Italian scheme
to create a State sound studio in order to
meet with the above needs may constitute
a fine example in the field of practical rea-
lisation.

If from out of the resolutions and
decisions innumerable which constitute the
entire activity of certain countries in this
domain, there comes the realisation of these
schemes, yet another of the States, respons-
ibilities in the matter of the educa. In the
tional Cinema will have been indicated,
general interest we hope that this scheme
may be taken up and applied elsewhere.

— 306 —

WHAT KIND OF LIFE SHOULD THE CINEMA SHOW ?

An interesting discussion is going on in the
press throughout the world and this has a
very considerable importanceb ecauses the
Cinema very quickly becomes the most
popular form of entertainment by reason of
the interest which it arouses. The points of
the discussion might be resumed as follows :

What aspects of life should the Cinema re-
present in order to interest the public ?

Are films of luxurious life without care,
really what the public wants ? Do these
films tend to create a state of mind in spec-
tators which may be said to be dangerous,
above all in times of economic crisis, to the
structure of society ?

Would it not be better to show the mas-
ses films of their own kind of life ? On
the other hand should not the film tend to
elevate the mind and spirit of the masses
by bringing them in contact with a higher
form of life than their own ?

The problem is of the grestest interest
and complexity. Let us leave crime and
gangster films out of the question. They
exert a decidedly evil influence, although we
know that those of this kind which have
recently come from America have been
inspired by the desire to reveal to the Amer-
ican public a grave social problem. These
films may have a great national, American
educational value but in other countries
they are not seen in the same light and as
the public tends to generalise, they have
given a deplorable impression of America or
reduced the spectators to boredom or de-
moralisation.

But apart from these films where the case
is clear, the question is complex and for the
moment we intend only to pose it, later
we hope to give the opinion of various per-
sonalities of the intellectual and Cinema
worlds.

HOW MANY CINEMAS ARE THERE IN THE WORLD ?

The United States Department of Commerce has issued interesting figures of the total num-
ber of cinemas throughout the world. These figures, dated December 31 st 1931, do not always
correspond with those issued by the countries in question but they nevertheless constitute an official
indication of the vast domain of cinema entertainment throughout the world. In this way they
may influence producers and interestes parties generally to realise their responsability, so that
all films, although they may not be exactly educative, may at least avoid being anti-educative.

We reproduce below the suggestive figures given by the Dept. of Commerce :

In the world there are 61.594 cinemas
without counting those countries where there
are only one or two, 29. 112 of these are
equipped for sound. The figures are sub-
divided thus by States :

Europe :

Germany. .
England . .
France . .
Spain . . .

Number no sound

of cinemas equippe

5200
4850
3250
2600

2500

4100

1200

380

Europe :

Italy

Czecho-Slovakia. .
Russia (U. S. S. R.)

Sweden

Poland

Austria

Belgium

Hungary . . . . .

Portugal ,

Roumania ...-.,

Number
of cinemas

2500

2000

1800

1100

900

245

740

520

405

400

no sound
equipped

484
350

750
100
300
180
181
36
135

— 307

Europe :

Yugo-SIavia
Switzerland.
Denmark. .
Holland . .
Norway . .
Finland . .
Greece. . .
Bulgaria . .
Turkey . .
Lettonia . .
Esthonia . .
Lithuania .

Number
of cinemas

370

325

300

345

245

200

150

138

90

85

83

75

no sound
equipped

107

140

200

201

76

97

50

35

23

27

33

32

The total for Europe is then 29.316 cine-
mas of which 1 1 .21 7 are equipped for sound.
All non-commercial halls are excluded.

Asia:

Japan

British India ....

Phillipines

China

Dutch Indies . . .
Straits Settlements .

Siam 42

Indochina 34

Persia 33

Number

no sound

of cinemas

equipped

1485

102

675

87

300

65

233

40

196

96

42

18

Total for Asia
sound equipped.

Africa :

3.102, of these 426 are

Number
of cinemas

Union of South Africa . 540

North Africa 150

Egypt 65

West Africa 12

East Africa 9

Madagascar 4

no sound
equipped

156
75
36

2
2

North America :

United States . . .
Canada

Number
of cinemas

20.000
1.100

Latin America

Number
of cinemas

Argentine 1.608

Brazil 1.600

Mexico 701

Cuba 280

Colombia 220

Chili 212

Uruguay 123

Venezuelos 122

Portorico 122

Peru 100

Salvador 47

British Antilles 42

Panama 38

Guatemala 32

Rep. of S.ta Dominica . 31

Honduras 27

Ecuador 25

Nicaragua 24

Costarica 21

Bolivia 20

Paraguay 9

Haiti 9

Bermuda Islands .... 8

British Guiana 5

Dutch Antilles 4

British Honduras .... 2

no sound
equipped

13.500
705

no sound
equipped

402

185

212

207

20

85

16

78

78

36

5

36
4
2
1

Total for America : 26.535 cinemas,
these 15.584 are sound equipped.

of

Oceania

Number
of cinemas

Australia 1.500

New Zealand 383

Fijii Islands 6

Society Islands 5

no sound
equipped

825
289

Total for Africa : 690 cinemas, of these
271 are sound equipped.

Total for Oceania : 1 .894 cinemas,
these 1.114 are sound equipped.

of

— 308

AMATEUR CINEMA AND THEATRICAL CINEMA

We havre recently read an article in " La
Technique Cinematographique " by M. L.
Maurice on Cinema reporting and the docu-
mentary film. In this article the question
of news reels is treated in a brillant and com-
plete fashion. The author thinks very
briefly that these could be formed of films
taken by amateurs, suitably equipped, and
this with the idea of encouraging a wider
use of this type of film, so valuable to the
progress of cultural Cinema.

We are are in perfect agreement with M.
Maurice. We have always been sympathetic
to amateur cineists in this Review and we
have always hoped for a rapid development
in this direction.

National and international exhibitions of
photography have shown shat the amateur
photographer is quite as capable as the pro-
fessional of turning out truly artistic works.
And this is easily explained, for when the
amateur photographs a subject he is not

influenced by commercial interest or work-
ing conditions : he works because an inci-
dent or a countryside awakes his interest.
Thus we have photographs that acheive
pictorial excellence.

The same thing is possible for amateur
cineists. It would seem that a profitable
agreement might be reached between such
amateurs and news reel producers. Ama-
teurs might furnish the latter with items
of great interest constituting unique film
documents. Unique, because made at a
moment which may never return. This
collaboration would help amateur cinemato-
graphy by giving competent amateurs a
means of displaying their work. And from
these competent amateurs there might well
develop excellent technicians who are surely
to be sought for amongst persons of culture
and intelligence.

The day of the mechanical cameraman
has been long gone.

THE CINEMA, INSTRUMENT OF RELIGIOUS PROPAGANDA

The use of the Cinema in propaganda
for and against religion has lately been the
subject of a discussion in the German Cinema
and Political press which has sometimes
become somewhat polemical.

A pastoral letter from the Bishop of Aix-
la-Chapelle gave rise to this discussion.
Speaking of the activity of free thinkers and
atheists, the Bishop said that the enemies
of religion had put to use in the service of
their thought, literature, the press, photo-
graphy and now cinematography, creations
of the genius and hand of man which should
be put to the service of God.

By the publication of articles by well
known people and of information from va-
rious sources, our Review has often shown
its great interest in this question.

We think it an exaggeration to say that
the Cinema has always been used against
Catholicism or religion in general. One
need only remember the many films of a
religious character or those in which the
religious sentiment appeared in a favorable
light which have had a world wide suc-
cess.

Also we think — if we may be permitted
to say as much — that universal Catholicism
has only itself to blame for the state of
affairs deplored by the Bishop.

As far as we know there are as yet no vast
organisations acting under the influence of
catholic centres in the producing world,
except for one or two examplary initiatives,
the place taken by the cinema in the vast
movement of thought and action of the

- 309

Church of Rome, is a small one. We think
that if the universal and formidable sugges-
tive influence of the Cinema were well
understood in religious circles, it might
give rise to a new type of production of the
highest interest.

Without wishing to enter into the polemic
started by the Bishop's pastoral letter, we
hope that this may come about. Today the
Cinema is a weapon on the battlefield of
ideas : there is no reason why it should not
be used for the propagation of faith.

A COURSE IN CINEMA CULTURE IN BARCELONA

The growing interest in the official in-
tellectual circles of the Spanish Republic
as regards the Cinema, has been shown
once again by the organisation at the Fac-
culty of Letters and Philosophy at Barce-
lona, of a course of Cinema culture, which,
according to information transmitted to the
I. I. E. C. by Prof. Dias Plaja, only repre-
sents a prelude to the activity of an Insti-
tute of Cinema Culture which will be
founded shortly in Barcelona.

The Course in question began on Feb.
27th and will end of April 9th. It com-
prised the following lectures :

" The Cinema in the Theory of Art
by M. D. Angel de Apraiz, of the University ;

« Cinema and Music », by M. Jose
Palan, Cinema Critic ;

« Cinema and Education », by Jerenimo
Moragas, of the Institute of Professional
Orientation ;

« Cinema and Styles », by Luis Mon-
taya, literary critic ;

« Cinema and Paintig », by M. Rosendo
Llates, homme de lettres ;

« How a Film is Made », by Carner Ri-
balta, director and scenarist ;

« Theatre and Cinema », by Angel Val-
buena Prat, of the University ;

« Cinema Aesthetics » ( three lectures),
by Guillermo Diaz.

THE ACADEMY OF MOTION PICTURE ARTS AND SCIENCES

From information received we learn that
the above body has formulated its 1932
programme and that several changes in
organisation and membership have taken
place. The Conciliation Committee of the
Academy which functions as a " supreme
court " on economic disputes within the
industry, will be increased in membership
to fifteen. The working of the Committee
will likewise be accelerated to permit
of settling disputes in a minimum of
time.

In the internal structure of the Com-
mittee, Al Kaufman of the Paramount-
Publix studios has taken J. I. Schnitzer's
place as producer member.

The new membership regulations admit
of the inclusion of accredited publicity men
as associate members in the Producers
Branch and of film editors in the Tech-
nicians Branch.

The membership of the Academy now
stands at 720, showing an increase of 119
since Jan. 1, 1931.

— 310 -

Conforming to the new social action of the corporative State, has revised its formulas for

COLLECTIVE INSURANCES

which not only cover the risks usual to individuals and families of the employed and also to work-
ers engaged in all kinds of enterprises, but also guarantee pensions, dismissal indemnities and
death compensation which employers are obliged to pay to their staff by virtue of the Royal
Decree No. 1825, of 13-11-1924 and by working contract.

NATURE OF THE POLICIES AND THEIR SPECIAL ADVANTAGES

Appreciable reduction in premiums with abolition of taxation on payments.

Extension of risks covered (In certain case there is no medical examination required).

In cases of dismissal or resignation, the insurance is valid after one year and the pay-
ment is equal to the indemnity ordinarily payable to the employee by the employer.

When the employee is out of work, the Institute, under certain conditions, allows the
premiums to lapse without this affecting the validity of the policy.

The death compensation always equals and often exceeds the ordinary indem-
nity usually payable.

In case of disablement preventing work, the assured can receive a pension from
the Institute whilst premiums are suspended without affecting the validity of the policy.

Collective insurances present other advantages of risk prevention. They can be
adapted to suit individual conditions current in any enterprise or administration.

Employers

In contracting collective insurances, you will do a wise thing by paying of dismissal indem-
nities due or about to become due.

These indemnites represent a constantly growing debt which will deeply affect
your budget.

Ask the Institute to examine your situation.

Compare the cost of your system of risk prevention with that of the collective
insurance scheme and realise the benefits which the latter can procure for you.

With a policy, guaranteed by the State Treasury, you will increase the keeness
of your staff and assure its peace of mind.

Upon demand, the Institute will examine the situation in your business, free and without
obligation on your part, determine present and future liabilities and will make you a proposition
based upon them.

Apply to the General Agencies or to the General Direction of the Institute,
who will, if necessary, send specially trained men to consult with you.

THOSE ASSURED BY COLLECTIVE CONTRACTS
CAN ALSO PARTICIPATE IN THE BENEFITS

311 —

■■■■■■■■■■■-■■■■■■■■'■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■'■■■■'■■■■■■■mi

Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up
General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Cairetto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
52-123 - 52-124 =

c<^<^:>

Works

— Telegrams : ==
ANONIMA PITTAZ,VGA

R O M E : « Cines », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S . Giovanni).
TURIN: « Poritiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Phtafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10 — Film Renting Agencies

10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel. : 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel.:
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : si-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via MarteUi, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009 •

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Pilmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Pilmbordo.

— 312 —

COMPANY LTD.

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Paid-up Capital Lire 20.000.000

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business experience have enabled the I. S. I. A. to perfect its organization
to such an extent that, by reducing its expenses to the minimum, it acts
as a check on prices in all the towns where it has opened stores.

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Make your purchases in one of the I. S. I. A
" Industria della Seta Italo-Americana „
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The I. S. I. A. owns the following' Stores :

Alexandria - Ancona - Bari (Fabbriche Riunite Como) - Bergamo - Bologna - Bologna
(Seterie Ilaliane) - Brescia - Catania - Cremona - Ferrara - Florence - Florence (Tessi-
ture Seriche Comensi) - Fiume - Genoa - Genoa (Moda Serica) - Lecce - Leghorn - Leghorn
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Trieste - Trteste (Paradtso della Seta) - Udine - Venice - Verona.

Technical Notes

CINEMA IN COLOUR

AND THE REALISATION OF TRICHROME SYNTHESIS BY A TRANSFER
PROCESS ALLOWING MANY COPIES TO BE TAKEN

It is stated that the American " Technicolor " company has succeeded in producing
bichrome and trichrome films by a transfer process permitting an easy multiplication of the
number of copies. In consequence it will abandon the process involving the double base
film, which deteriorates easily, used today in bichrome processes by subtractive synthesis
with monochromes obtained by caustic etching.

We have seen several articles on the new process and we have examined several patents
but it is not easy to see the exact nature of the process.

Some speak of an impression obtained by blocks similar to those used in photo-mechan-
ical processes, others of blocks similar to those used in the bromoil process and yet
others state that it is a process similar to pinatype and hat it is easy to transform a film into
a block which can take pinatype colours and deposit them by contact on another film coated
with a simple base of moist gelatine.

We have examined many receipts given for the transformation of normal negatives into
pinatype blocks but we are convinced that there is nothing in that process. None of the
variations of the process described in the technical press permit of obtaining useful images
let alone duplicating from such images by transfer.

We maintain that the solution of the problem must lie along the lines laid down by
Dr. Traube of Munich in his process of colour photography on paper called ' Uvatype ".

In the Uvatype process one takes a film with a simple celluloid base, one sensitises it
with a solution of potassium bichromate or ammonia. It is then printed by being placed
the wrong way around beneath a negative. The light source is a strong arc lamp. The
gelatine surface is then subjected to contact with hot water which eats away the surface ac-
cording to the photographic chiaro-oscuro so that a gelatine relief block is obtained.

This relief block is then coloured and put into contact with a paper covered with soft
gelatine : the colour is thus transfered onto the paper. If three chosen negatives are taken
and three gelatine blocks made and suitably coloured, three successive printings on the same
paper will produce a synthetic colouring of the image.

We and others who have seen these Uvatypes on paper have been astonished at the results
and the more so as doctor Traube has demonstrated that several dozens of copies can be
taken, all perfect.

The Uvatype then solves the problem of duplication whereas Pinatype, the first system
for trichrome synthesis by transfer, enabled only a few copies to be taken and those with dif-
ficulty.

In Pinatype the image that serves as a printing block is not made of gelatine put in
relief by a deterioration process, but a gelatine base presenting an image permeable in varying

— 314 —

degrees to liquids and colouring fluids. This difference in permeability rapidly disappears
whilst the gelatine relief block keeps its colour transfering properties for a long time.

The system offered to cinematography for the multiplication of polycrhome images is the
same as that used by Dr. Traube with such startling results.

One objection however presents itself immediately : in ordinary photography the speed
with which the gelatine blocks are obtained is of comparatively small importance but in cine-
matography the large number of images required makes the process a long one. Gelatine
sensitised with bichromate requires not a fraction of a second for printing but several minutes

However although this latter fact is true it does not preclude the use of a mechanical
printing system. Besides, arc lamps with special carbons concentrated on the printing gate
can reduce the printing time to thirty seconds or even less. This simply means that with a
mechanical process the printing of a film might take a day instead of a few minutes. This
process will always be more advantageous than those permitting only a single copy to be made.
A film block made in this way would enable 25 transfers to be made with less expense and
in less time than the same numbers of photographic prints could be made, developed and
dried, one by one.

The deterioration of the gelatine block by hot water and its subsequent colouration do
not present great difficulties. Some difficulty might be met with in the transfer from the
block to the final film. But the transfer would have to take place under the best mechanical
and physical conditions so that the operation would be as exact as possible.

A detail on which the inventors are silent is that of the colours themselves. Colours
are required which are suitable for the trichrome synthesis and which at the same time
have not the tendency to spread in the transfer from the film block to the moist gelatine sur-
face of the final film. Pinatype colours have this quality but their price is too high. The
composition of the red is known to be carmine dissolved in alkali but the blue and yellow are
unknown.

It seems however that Doctor Traube has found suitable colours without having to re-
sort to those used in the Pinatype process, which as a matter of fact do not always answer
perfectly to the needs of the bichrome and trichrome synthesis.

In America other colours of coal tar which have the qualities of blue and yellow for
pinatype have been discovered.

Granted that negative film (particularly the new Kodak supersensitive panchromatic)
has a general and chromatic sensitive so great that the trichrome selection is no longer difficult,
colour cinematography has now only to overcome the obstacles presented by the practical
difficulty of the synthesis in a large number of copies.

At the moment the process involving a gelatine film block as described above presents
the only possible solution.

(Translated from the Italian). Prof. RoDOLFO NAMIAS.

Rapid Motion Cameras. answering to all kinds of needs have been

on the market. They enable the normal

Cinematographic reproduction permits of speed of taking pictures to be doubled,

the realisation by the human eye of move- tripled, quadrupled and several special ca>

ments which would ordinarily be too fast meras have been constructed to enable up

or too slow to be grasped. to a hundred thousand frames a second to

For a long time Slow Motion Cameras be registered.

- 315 -

Rapid Motion Cameras have on the con-
trary been less developed in design and
manufacture although many mechanics have
proposed the construction of cameras fulfil-
ling all needs and functioning with perfect
reliability.

A good rapid motion camera for universal
use should fulfill the following conditions :
(a) it should have perfect regularity of expo-
sure, (b) the length of the exposure and its
frequency should be variable at will.

Doubtless the hand-operated single-ima-
ge-to-a-turn camera presents the simplest
solution of the problem but apart from the
difficulty of operating such a camera on work
involving, say, one exposure every ten mi-
nutes over a period of two weeks, it is im-
possible to obtain an absolutely perfect
uniformity of exposure. This absolute uni-
formity of exposure is necessary in order to
avoid irritating changes in image density upon
the screen.

One of the first systems dealing with the
problem is that of Frankenberger (German
Patent No. 493391). It consists of a device
attached to the back of the cinema camera
which by means of a flexible transmission
controls a photographic shutter placed be-
fore the objective. This device functions
in the following manner : the photographic
shutter is set at a constant exposure, 1/10
of a second for example : when the single
image per turn handle of the camera is turn-
ed the device releases the shutter just as
the window in the camera shutter opens be-
fore the film. In this way the exposure at
1/10 second is assured no matter how quickly
the handle be turned.

The German Review " Die Kinotechnik "
(March 1st) describes several devices pro-
duced by the Askania-Werke of Berlin in
order to work the cinema camera at pre-
determined intervals chosen at will. One
of these devices is specially adapted for mi-
cro-cinematography but it can also be used
for ordinary purposes. The exposure time,
determined by the relation between the
window in the camera shutter to the shutter
itself (of which each turn corresponds to a

turn of the traction spindle operated at de-
termined intervals), may be varied from I to
485. Naturally the intensity of the light-
ing must be adjusted to the exposure used
and this can be done by means of filters and
ground glass.

The camera is of course worked by means
of an electric motor working at a constant
speed and coupled to it by a reduction gear.
The motor should be in motion all the time
but in cases where pictures are taken only
at long intervals it is more economical to
have an interruptor which cuts off the current
when the motor is not actually working the
camera. The same interruptor can work
the lights. Cinematography of phenomena
taking place over a long interval of time ne-
cessitates the use of artificial light rather than
daylight. However if the whole phenom-
ena does not take too long and the number
of images taken is high, it is better to leave
the lights on as the effect of switching them
on and off reduces their life considerably
so that the depreciation in their value is
more than equal to the cost of the extra
current used.

In order to obtain the intermittent action
of motor and lights several systems have
been studied. The most practical are those
involving a clockwork movement. Thus
the Askania Werke have completed their
camera with a mechanism which must be
wound every three days and which can be
regulated to give the following exposure
intervals : 15, 20, 30, 40 seconds ; I, 2, 5,
10, 15, 20, 30, 40 minutes; 1, 2, 5, 10
hours.

However, other solutions have been sug-
gested. In the March number of the
" Journal of Scientific Instruments " a de-
vice was announced consisting of a clock
to which is applied a system of mechanical
contacts for the minutes and electro-mechan-
ical contacts for the hours, similar to an
electrical consumption meter in fact.

Water systems are also suggested in which
the intermittance is decided either by the
filling up of certain receptacles or by the
revolution of water wheels or even by the

3 — let ingl.

- 316

upsetting of a contact balance by the weight
of water.

These few indications will suffice to show
that a rapid motion camera is always rather
complicated and awkward and it depends
upon electrical energy (often supplied at a
variety of tensions and frequencies in differ-
ent places) or running water.

The equipment recently marketed by
Askania Werke forms the most suitable kit
of its kind available for rapid motion photo-
graphy. The motive force is a small motor
worked from a twelve volt accumulator.
This motor is powerful enought to work
two cameras at once by means of a flexible
connection so that both close up and distant
views may be obtained at once.

There is then the system of clockwork
contacts, a device connected on the one side
to the motor and on the other to a system
of relays. These relays, enclosed in a box,
enable one to obtain by their regulation (a)
exposure of one or two images at a time, thus
altering the effective total projection time,
(b) bakward or forward motion of the ca-
mera, (c) fast or slow speed of the motor,
(d) elapse of time between the illumination
of the lights and the exposure, very useful
when the lamps used are slow to give their
full light as is the case with arcs, low volt-
age lamps, etc. . .

Such an excellent and precise outfit would
seem to solve definitively the problem of a
universal rapid motion camera.

The Patin Photo-electric Cell.

The German technical press speaks of the
interesting properties of the new Patin
photo-electric cell.

This cell is made of an alcaline metal ; it

has a small capacity and high resistance which
permits it to stand up against a high voltage
continuous current without being desstroyed
by incidental discharge. Besides, given
that for normal sound film the frequency
of the sound vibrations are independent of
the tension of supply, this tension can be
used for the regulation of the volume of
the sound reproduced ; previously this
control has been made through a stage of
pre-amplification .

The Patin cell has very little electrical
inertia and it is therefore suitable for use in
television. The proportions of light varia-
tion and voltage variation are highly satis-
factory. These two qualities together give
the cell a large resolving capacity for super-
imposed sound tracks and thus render it
particularly suitable for reproducing heavy
orchestral music.

But the essential characteristic of the cell
is its exceptionally high amplification coeffic-
ient. At a tension of 200 volts the voltage
oscillations produced by a normal, sound
track illuminated by a 30 watt lamp amount
to a half a volt. Such a variation has been
obtained hitherto only with electro-magnet-
ical pick-ups used on gramophones. These
variations in voltage are sufficient then to
be fed straight into a power amplifier so
that the pre-amplifier or voltage amplifier is
uneccessary.

The voltage tension for the cell can be
obtained from the mains through a filter
and choke system. A six volt battery is
however still necessary for the excitor
lamp.

The Patin cell simplifies sound installa-
tions both by illuminating the pre-amplifier
and by allowing remote volume control with-
out the employ of a secondary circuit.

RADIOMARELLI

= the best wireless and wireless-gramophone sets =
S. H. RHDIOMflRELLI * MILHN© - Via Hmedei n. 8

Review of periodicals and newspapers

Portuguese Cine Education Com-
mittee.

To promote the use of Cinema in schools and to
give the public some rudimentary knowledge of
the Sciences, Arts, Industry, History and Geog-
raphy, the Portuguese Minister of Education has
instituted the Commissao do Cinema Educativo.
Publication of original law text, details of function
and members in ClNEFlLO, Lisbon, 13-11-1932.

Social Aspects of the Cinema.

M. Thomas de Castelnau hopes that the film,
It is Spring ", may be shown in all normal French
schools as it treats that neglected subject, sexual
education (CoMOEDIA, Paris 13-11-1932).

Mme Camille Clermont proposes to make a film
on feminine activity and upon the merit of women
in work, philanthropy and sports. (CoMOEDIA,
Paris, 11-11-1932).

The American organisations interested in film
selection declared that 70 % of the worlds film
production in 1931 was moral. (INTERNATIONAL
Federation of Catholic Alumnae, New York,
4-II-1932).

Ten Memphis cinemas give family shows on
Fridays. This has been well received and is said
to aid in keeping the family circle together- (The
Film Daily, New York, 17-11-1932).

Carl E. Milliken states that 2.000 U. S. cinemas
give family programmes and several States have
passed laws against children attending evening
cinema shows. (Weekly Film Review, Atlanta,
28-1-1932).

Out of 1515 films seen by the National Board
of Review, 947 were judged worthy of being speci-
ally recommended to the public. (The Film Daily,
New York, 5-1 1-1932).

M. Campbell Dixon thinks that films satyrising
public institutions are taking the place of crime and
love films in American production. (Daily Tele-
graph, London, 15-11-1932).

The Cinema Section of the French National
Council of Women has shown several films in Paris
to demonstrate their educational value and artistic
worth. The Show was preceeded by a speech by
M. Grunebaum-Balin, General Secretary of the
Conseil Superieur du Cinema, member of the I.I.
E.C. Committee and one by Mme Germaine Du-
lac. (Hebdo Film, Paris 13-11-1932).

The attitude of children to the educational film
is summarised by Mr. H. Bruce Woolfe in an art-
icle " Films Children want to See ". (Daily FlLM
Renter, London, 4-III-1932).

In a report to the High President of the Court
of Appeal, the President of the Turin Tribunal
speaks of the activity of the juvenile Court. No-
tably this concerns the charge against four hoys of
having wished to imitate scenes of brigandage seen
on the screen. This they are said to have actually
done on the same spot as shown in the film, in the
neighbourhood of Turin- (Rivista Cinemato-
CRAFICA, Milan, Feb. 1932).

The " Ross Institute " has made a 1 6 mm film
illustrating its fight against marsh fever (The Ti-
mes, London, 16-11-1932).

In the Medical Times and Long Island Medical
Journal, Dr. J. F. Montague states that as a result
of showing a film entitled " On Scar or Many "
to 980 students, 1 .600 asked to be vaccinated.
(Movie Makers, New York, March, I932>.

The funds of the Motion Picture Relief Fund
increase each month by 10.000 to 15.000 dollars
taken from the salaries of the actors. The Fund is
thereby enabled to relieve many cases of misery
each day. (Academy OF Motion Picture Arts
and Sciences, Hollywood, 8-II-1932).

Censure.

The British Board of Film Censors has published
its annual report. The growing number of erotic
films is deplored and it is stated that strict measures
will be taken in the matter. (The Times, London,
17-11-1932).

— 318 —

After examining 500 films at the request of the
Public Morality Council, the Mothers Union of
Great Britain stated that the majority of these films
were better than the publicity matter and titles might
lead one to think. (Nationality, Dublin, 5- III-
1932).

Religion and Cinema.

The Manchester Watch Committee have ban-
ned the film, " The Miracle Woman " on religious
grounds. (The Daily Film Ren.ter, London,
24-11-1932).

In his Lent pastoral, Mgr. O'Kane, Catholic
Bishop of Deny, attacks the cinema keenly on the
grounds of its dangerous immorality and hopes that
cinemas will remain shut on Sundays (The Cinema,
London 24-11-1932).

This is an aluminium box, lined with felt 70.07 mm
thick rubber coated. This is sufficiently anti-
phonic for ordinary work but this quality can be
increased by the exhaustion of the air within it-
This pumped out by a special silent pump attach-
ed to the container by a tube and a fairly low
pressure may be obtained in 25 minutes. The
pump can work even while the camera is working
and the whole device gives the cameraman no troub-
le. (Die Kinotechnik, Berlin, No. 2, Jan. 1932).

Study by Mr. Ben. Schlanger, architect of New
York, on the use of space in cinemas having regard
dimensions and form of screen. This study deals
with projection room lay out, seat lay out to give
maximum capacity for minimum expense, the elim-
ination of bad vision, etc. . . common to theatres
and cinemas. (Motion Picture Herald, New
York, 16-11932).

Statistics and Cinema.

From figures issued by the Japanese Ministry of
the Interior, National Production amouhted to
2,948,033 m in 1929 and to 2,895,663 in 1930.
European and American film imports amounted to
only one-tenth of these figures. (KlNEMATOGRAPH,
Berlin, 1 1-III-1932).

American film export returns state that export
of raw stock is on an increase and printed film is on
a decrease. (Variety, New York, I-III-1932).

Cinema Techique, Labour.

Publication of complete regulations of Feb. 8- II-
1928 on the manufacture, cleaning and drying of
cinema film (Labour Legislation). This contains
interesting information of the various methods from
the workers point of view. (Revue Internationale
de Travail, Geneva, Vol. IX, 1928, 2nd part, p. I).

M. A. Marette, Arts et Metiers Engineer, publ-
ishes a study on non-flam refuting point by point
the objections made to the general use of this film
and slating that it is perfectly possible. He an-
nounces that in the second part of his study he will
examine the causes of premature wear in non-flam
and will give precautions to be taken for avoiding
this. (ClNEOPSE, Paris, March, 1932).

According to Mr. J. Hoke, Educational Studios
have recently developed an anti-phonic container
for cameras, more especially for the Mitchell.

Description of a system invented by M. Brami
for the projection of film without perforations. (La
Cinematographie Francaise, Paris, 27-11-1932).

M. Gunther Herk, of Berlin, describes the Zeiss
Ikon, " Magnascop " which permits of the gradual
enlargement of images cast on the screen and which
may fitted to Ernemann projectors II and III with-
out modification. (FlLM KuRIER, Berlin, 27-11-32).

M. P. Rubert, in a complicated article on cinema
acoustics, concludes that the loud speaker should
be placed in the roof of the hall and not behind
the screen (Die Kinotecnik, Berlin, 20-1-1932).

After five years of experiments, Mr. A. Pierard,
a bacteriologist of the Government Hospital of
Wellington, has perfected a new system of colour
photography, in cooperation with F. Cooze and
O. Townsend, cinema experts. Colour Film Ltd.
with a capita! of £22.500 has been started to exploit
the new process which claims to be cheaper and to
give better results than those at present used.

M. Duryea Bensel, of the Craft Film Laborato-
ries has devised a new method of preserving nega-
tives and positives- (Daily Film Renter, London,
22-11-1932).

The Cinema in Schools.

The Syndicate of French Teachers has given a
projection of teaching films. At the beginning,
M. Brerault gave a speech on fixed and animated

- 319

projections as a means of illustrating lessons and
also the condition of the teaching film in France and
abroad. (CoMOEDlA, Paris, 4-II-192).

In the experiment at present in progress in Glas-
gow, projections are held in a room light enough
for children to take notes and the projection can be
fixed on any one image for up to five minutes.
(Todays Cinema, London, 27-11-1932).

Accoding to Mr. E. J. Nally Jun. writing on sound
films in teaching, over five million dollars have been
spent on educational cinema in the last seven years.
(The Educational Screen, Chicago, February
1932).

In the U. S. A. more than 20.000 classes are
favourable to film teaching and have agreed to take
films at a predetermined price from the industry.
(Usterr. Film Zeitung, Vienna, 13-11-1932).

Speaking of experiments made by the Carnegie
Foundation on a large scale concerning use of sound
films in teaching, Mrs Bess Coodykoutz of the Fed-
eral Education Board declares that the sound film
is very efficacious in teaching especially for enabl-
ing backward children to catch up with others of
their age. (Kinematograph, Berlin, 11-1932).

American Producers have decided to hold a con-
ference at Washington in order to study questions
relative to film teaching. A few weeks ago a sim-
ilar conference was held in London and attended by
members of the Commission on Educational and
Cultural Films and representatives of the trade-
The creation of a central authority was envisaged to
which all questions of the kind could be referred.
(Courrier du Cinema, Lille, 1 -11-1932).

A group of Moscow Psychologists and educators
are preparing a didactic film showing the physical
and psychic development of the child from birth
Copies of this film will be distributed in all higher
teaching schools. (Berliner Tageblatt, Berlin,
7-II-1932).

Prof. R. J. Piper shows the life of University
students in a film entitled Syracuse University in
1930 (Movie Makers, Feb. 1932).

Technical Instruction.

A documentary instructional film on metallurgy
was shown at the Higher Commercial Institute
in Paris. Senator Brenier explained the working of

the Institute's Film Library at this show. (Le
Semaphore, Marseille, 19-1-1932}.

The Reading Iron Co. has made an educational
film on metal fusion called " Metals of the Ages •
(Movie Makers, New York, Feb. 1932).

" Behind the Scenes in the Machine Age " is
the name of an instructional film made by the Wo-
mens Bureau of the U- S. Ministry of Labour.
(Educational Screen, Chicago, Jan. 1932).

U. F. A. has made a soundfilm demonstrating
the distribution of heat throughout a room by
means of a radiator. This film shows the different
stratas of air and enables the spectator to choose
the best place for the radiator. The film is called .
" Unsichtbare Wolken ". (FlLM RuNDSCHAU, Es-
sen, 23-11-1932).

The Swiss Society for the production of acety-
lene has made a long instructional film on oxy-
acetylene welding (" Autogene Schweissung ").
(Berner Tageblatt, Berne, 6-II-1932).

Spencer E. Eaton, Professor at the Keene Normal
School, has made a film on the costruction of
different machines. The Keene Normal School
makes extensive use of the cinema. Last year,
pupils saw more than 160 reels of film. (MoviE
Makers, New York, February 1932).

Affirming that 50 % of the population in Rus-
sian towns are interested in scientific matters and
that there is a serious lack of teachers, the Soviet
wishes to remedy this by means of the film. Theret
has therefore, been produced a talking film on the
manufacture of tractors, showing in 36 parts, the
entire work of this industrial process. Knowledge
obtained at special courses attended by the pro-
jection of such films is deemed sufficient to enable
those who have attended to present themselves for
examination. Berliner Tageblatt, Berlin, 7-1 1-
1932).

Arts Sciences and Culture.

M. Jean Jose Frappa, author of the scenario of
Jeanne d'Arc, has decided to adapt various French
classics for the screen with the intention of making
literary propaganda. (Le Cinema, Paris, Fenruary
1932).

Mr. J. A. Terry of the General Electric Com-
pany, describes the way in which the movements

320

of a sysmographic needle were recorded in the
Philippines by means of a Filmo camera. (Bell
and Howell Inf.).

An article by Kranold on sound films of human
heart beats made by Dr. Jacobson, specialist in
heart diseases and presented to the Medizinische
Gesellschaft of Berlin. (WiSSEN U. FoRTSCHRlTT,
Augsburg, Mar.).

Messrs G. 0. Russell and C. Tuttle publish an
article " Some experiments in Vocal Chord Cine-
matography ". (American Cinematographer, New
York, 10-11-1932).

An experimental physiology film has been made
at the Frankfort on Main " Georg Speyer Haus ",
entitled " Ein Film von Leben " showing the life
of animal tissues and the effect produced on cells
by mechanical and electrical stimulus. (Licht
Bild Buehne, Berlin, 7-1 1-1932).

An interesting article by Mr Frank Claveloux
Parker on the cinema in the service of surgical
ophtalmology, particularly as concerning the opera-
tion for cataract. (Movie Makers, March 1932).

The premiere presentation of " The Child and
its World ", a sound film took place at the Urania,
Hamburg. The University prof. William Sterne
gave a lecture on child psychology. (KlNFMATO-
graph, Berlin, 23-11-1932).

At Rouen recently, M. Gumoin Sanson gave a
lecture on " the history of the cinema by the ci-
nema " accompanied by a film made by the speaker.
(La Cinematographs Francaise, Paris, 27-11-
1932).

La " Societe des Haut Fourneaux de Soulnes
and la " Societe Generate de Fonderie " showed a
film made by them, " Chant de la Mine et du Feu ",
to a large audience of political and industrial per-
sonalities at the Salle Pleyel, Paris. This film
shows the manufacture of kitchen utensils and
other common objects. (L'Informatic-N, Paris,
19-111932).

The Hugo Mayer Co. presents a film for courses
in physics, called " Making Photographic Lenses "•
(Movie Makers. February 1932)

Dr. C. Imhof of Bale opened the Vth series of
cinema-lectures organised by the Bale Cultural

Film Association with a lecture on " Italy, from
the Alps to the Gates of Rome ". (Basler Nach-
RICHTEN, Bale, 8-1-1932).

The Church Film Co. presents a film on the life
of Lincoln called : " The Son of Democracy ".
(Educational Screen, Chicago, January 1932).

Cinema and Agriculture.

A documetary film, " Les Temps Nouveaux au
Service de la Terre " has been shown before the
President of the French Republic. It is hoped
that the governmentwill favounse the di stribution
of this excellent agricultural propaganda film.
(Figaro, Paris, 24-1-1932).

A list of films connected with agriculture, domes-
tic economy, zootecnic, milk industry, etc. (Das
Land, Berlin, February 1932).

The new U. F. A. film " Kalk ", illustrating the
necessity for the treatment of arable land with
chalk, as hown to an audience of authorities under
the auspices of the Zentralausschuss fiir Landhch-
spiele in Berlin. (Film Kurier, Berlin 5-II-1932).

Judging the the return to the soil represents the
true solution of contemporary problems of un
employment, Pierre Henri Proust urges the French
authorities and all cineists to make use of the Ci-
nema as the Soviet has done for agricultural propa-
ganda and the return to the " usine verte ". (Co-
moedia, Paris. 7-1 1- 1932).

The Cuban Ministry of Agriculture has ask for a
loan of 1 9 propaganda films from America, in order
that they may be projected in the coming National
Agricultural Campaign. (Visual Instruction News,
Lawrence (Kansas), January 1932).

M. Schwab, director of " Agricola " has pre-
sented a film on arboriculture in Lausanne. (JOUR-
NAL DE SlERRE, 17-11-1932).

According to an article by M. Pierre Malo, the
Musee Pedagogique has a collection of 2,500 agri-
cultural films. (L'Homme Libre, Paris, 28-1-1932).

Authors Rights.

The action brought by Maurice Lehmann direc-
tor of the Porte St Martin theatre in Paris against
the heirs of Edmond Rostand and Osso Films re-

— 321

1/

suited in the declaration of a point of law extremely
important as it concerns the realations between the
Cinema and the Stage.

M. Lehmann, on the grounds that his contract
gave him the right to presentthe play, " L'Aiglon"
in the French language, charged the defendants
with having broken this contract by the production
of the film " L'Aiglon ",

Thet third Chamber of the Civil Tribunal of the
Seine gave judgement " that a theatrical presenta-
tion can in no case by the same as a talking film,
the latter being simply an improvement on the ci-
nema without sound. The Rostands had reserved
cinema rights in the contract and therefore the film
in question was no infringment of plaintiff's rights ".
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris, 1 2- III-
1932).

According to New York information, the adhesion
of America to the Berlin Author's Convention, is
backed by the American cinema industry which
sees in this agreement a solid judicial basis for the
carrying on of international cinema business. It
is hoped that Congress will saction the adhesion in
the present session. (LlCHT BlLD BuEHNE, Berlin,
8-III-1932).

Finance and Legislation*

As a result of the new English tax on cinema ad-
missions, the attendances at a Leeds cinema fell
by 24,210 persons in 12 weeks, representing a loss
of £536 to the owner. (Daily Film Renter, London
23-11-1932).

In Lettonia cinema taxation equals 35 % of re-
ceipts and the electrical tariff has been increased
by 200 % ; the cinemas of Riga, have therefore
decided to close after the 15th of February until
local authorities make reasonable reductions in
these charges. (Communication of the Lettonian
Exhibitotrs and Distributors League). (LlCHT BlLD
Buehne, Berlin, 17-11-1932).

In Germany, Dr. Goerdeler, Commissioner of
Prices, has made known to the Spitzenorganisation
the industry and to the Tobis Co. the official de-
finition of an artistic film and of a cultural film. He
has likewise communicated that the licence fee for
artistic films having a cultural value recognised
by the Voegler Committee will be one mark per
meter controlled. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 1 2- III-
1932).

Under the auspices of the Filmliga, the principal
Czecho-Slovakian cinema organisation, a meeting
has been held at the Ministry of Commerce to
discuss the question of cinema taxation. The
Minister of Education proposed dividing films into
four categories (a) instructional and educational ;
(&) large films having educational value ; (c) filmshave
a dominant educational character ; (d) purely thea-
trical films ; films in first category would be exempt
from tax, films in the 2nd and 3rd categories would
be partially exempt. No definite decision has yet
been taken. (DEUTSCHE FlLMZEITUNG, Munich,

13-11-1932).

A law has been proposed in the Mexican Parlia-
ment to oblige cinema proprietors to include at
least two Mexican films in their programmes every
week. Amongst the motives given are those of the
detrimental effect of the large importation of U. S.
films on the home industry and also the exodus of
7 millions of pesos per year in payment for these
films imports. (KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, 25-11-
1932).

In Germany it has been decided to take radical
action against pseudo-cinema schools which in their
various forms of dishonesty constitute a public
nuissance. The Ministry of the Interior is there-
fore studying the question of training for the sound
film. Schools not conforming to the regulations
which will be laid down will be abolished. (LlCHT
Bild Buehne, Berlin, 22-11-1932).

According to amendments in the Austrian reci-
procity law, foreign films made in Austria with a
foreign cameraman will lose the right to two of the
importation bonds due to the makers of the film
and films made in Vienna and of which three co-
pies are taken in Vienna will give the right to an
additional bond. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 22-11-
1932).

In England Sir Herbert Samuel, Minister of the
Interior will present a law for the permanent
legalisaton of Sunday cinema?. (Daily TELEGRAPH,
London, 19-11-1932).

Documentary Films.

The Port of London Authorities have made a
sound film called " The Story of the Port of Lon-
don ". (The Daily Film Renter, London, 4-
11-1932)

322 -

Miss Juliet Barrett Hubble is preparing a docu -
mentary film called " The Soul of Mexico ".
(The New York Times, 5-II-1932«).

A film entitled :: " The Civilisation of Africa ",
illustrating a journey of 6,000 miles from the
Cape to Cairo is announced. (TODAYS Cinema,
16-11-1932).

Convinced of the utility of the film as propaganda
the Chamber of Commerce of San Mateo County
favour the distribution of a documetary film " Ca-
lifornia's Picturesque Penninsular ". This same
film has been adapted for public exhibition under
" A Ramble Roundabout the Hoover Home ".
(Educational Screen, Chicago, February 1932).

Father Dufays, author of the film, " From Di-
kar to Gao ", declares that he will make another
film tracing the penetration of the French into
Central Africa to Timbuctoo. (L'Intransiceant,
Paris, 6-II-1932).

A tourist propaganda film is proposed for the
Department of Vaucluse. This will be composed
of three parts : (u) History and archaeology ;
(b) natural beauties, c) economic and industrial
life. (L'Echo de Paris, 31-1-1932).

Cinema Reform.

The position which the Cinema should occupy
in modern life and the problems presented by the
relationship censure — right to amusement —
technique — professional orientation — invention —

press and publicity — everything connected with
the moral, economic and aesthetic aspects of the
cinema are treated in a positive manner in a
brochure extracted from the January-March number
of " La Nouvelle Equipe " (Pub. Rene Henrique,
41, Rue de Loxum, Brussels) and signed by
Messrs. Dekeuklaire, Rombauts and Werrie.

KASTALIA

SUPERHETRO0YNE RADIOMARELLI

8 Valves — 3 Auto-regulated — Z Pentodes —
=■ % Normal — 1 Rectifiev =

PRICE 2.400 liras. (Valves and tax included)

RADIOMARELLI

Bibliography

Der Tonfilm. Grundlagen und Praxis seiner Auf-
nahme und Wiedergabe. (The sound film —
theory and practice of recording and reproduc-
tion). I vol., 495 p., 231 ill. by Heinz Umbehr,
pub. Verlag der Lichtbildbuehne, Berlin, 1930).

This book is the fourth of a series published by
the Lichtbildbuehne. In common with the other
volumes this one is characterized by its clearness
and simplicity. The author avoids scientific ex-
planations which might not be understood by the
majority of readers. It is a popular book for those
dealing practically with the sound film.

Simplicity and clarity do not prejudice the in-
terests of the most strict accuracy. The first two
chapters, one on the history, the other on the bib-
liography of the soundfilm, are of particular in-
terest. Although the second is not very complete
it contains much useful information. The follow-
ing chapters treat the soundfilm fundamentally
and the last contain a careful account of sound re-
production which constitute a valuable aid for the
technician.

Soundfilm reproduction, by G. F. Jones, I. Vol. 58
p., 10 tables, pub. Blackie and Sons Ltd., Lon-
don and Glasgow, 1931.

In a short foreword this interesting little book is
addressed to three kinds of people, to cinema man-
agers, busy with administrative questions etc. . .
so that they may have an idea of the new system
under their care ; to projectionists so that they may
add to their technical knowledge of their appa-
ratus ; finally to cinema owners who are inclined to
follow the technical side of their business.

In a few pages Mr. Jones has clearly exposed the
principal points of sound reproduction, both sound
on film and sound-on-disc systems. This book
is not the less complete for being concise and it
is easily understood by anyone having the funda-
mental knowledge of an operator.

Notes Practiquesd'Electricite a l' Usage des Projection -
nistes, by A. Rousseau, I. vol., 103 p., 47 ill.
Pub. Charles Mendel, Paris.

This volume belongs to the interesting series
published by Mendel under the title of " Biblio-

thdque Generale de Cinematographic " M. Rousseau
has condensed into this small book all that is ne-
cessary for a projectionist to know of the electrical
side of his job. It pre-supposes a certain know-
ledge of the subject and deals only with the appli-
cation of electricity to projection. It is clear and
simple enough for average understanding. How-
ever it only deals with silent films and it would be
a good thing if the present volume could be supple-
mented by one including the electrical side of
sound film projection.

Bastelbuch fuer Kinogetaete (the Construction of
Cinema Apparatus-) by V. HoOEVAR, 33 ill.
Price 2.50 marks, Photo-Kino Verlag, G. m. b. H.
Berlin, S. 14. Staalschreiberstrasse 33.

This booklet is destined to cinema amateurs who
wish to construct their own apparatus for interest
or sake of economy. Besides cameras, apparatus
for developing such as dark room lights, washing
stand drying racks, etc., are dealt with. A few in-
structions for making titles are given as well as
enlarging systems, projection tables for silen and
sound film, etc.. This work is easy to under-
and thanks to its excellent drawings and plans. It
is to be recommended to all amateur cineists.

Wie ensteht ein Amateurfilm ? (Making an Amateur
Film) by WELLMUTH Lang, second edition, en-
larged and brought to-date, 70 ill. 2.75 marks,
pub. as above.

The first edition of this book was out of print
in 9 months which shows how interesting it is.
The second edition is considerably improved, be-
sides new illustrations, there are several new chap-
ters. Owing to instructive drawings it represents
an excellent introduction to amateur cinemato-
graphy. " What should I film ? " is the heading
of one chapter. It is particularly instructive on
the following subjects : increase in amateur output,
cameras, film, scripts, photography, titles, cutting,
tricks and effects, sound film, projection and en-
largement. The simplicity of the text must re-
cammend it to all beginners whilst the excellence
of its matter must attract those who are more ad-
vanced.

324

Star Gazing, by June Head, 1 vol. 173 p., many ill.
Pub., Peter Da vies. London 1931.

Although the title of this work makes its contents
clear, the author judge it opportune to give more
precise indications, in the form of a short intro-
duction. She declares that the book is meant
for those who in their youth were ardent admirers
of Gloria Swanson or Wallace Reid. Her book
then bids only to be a friendly discourse on the
best known screen actors.

In the three parts of ber work (past, present
and future), June Head passes in review the
principal screen celebrities. It is not for us to
follow her into this domain but we must call at-
tention to some of her statements, not for the pur-
pose of refuting them but to put the reader on his
guard concerning them.

For instance, when June Head says that the
Cinema bas only one object, that of gain and that
it is bereft of any sort of social sentiment, or when
she says that it is the " star-system " that has
forced the Cinema along industrial lines and pre-
vented it from becoming a higher art, we cannot
help thinking of the efforts made by the industry
itself to render the screen a more moral influence

and furnish the public with truly artistic works,
efforts in which it is supported by the I. I.E. C.
and the L. o. N. in cteating the latter for the pre-
cise purpose of obtaining a better artistic and edu-
cational content in the cinema.

Technical Handbooks on the Cinema.

The house of " Film et Technique " (78 Avenue
des Champs-Elysees, Paris) announces the publica-
tion of several technical handbooks designed to
supply a grave need in French Cinema literature.

A book, " L'Acous]ique Architedurale " by
M. Gustave Lyon, has just appeared and another
for the projectionist, " Propos de la Cabine " by
M. P. Graugnard will be out soon.

There will then follow at intervals of a few weeks
a technical agenda of the cinema : a small French-
English technical lexicon, with explanations of the
various terms used in cinema and cinema electrics i
a small book by M. A. Lovichi on the process of
sound recording on film.

We can have full confidence in the quality of
these books, as the same house publishes two cinema
periodicals, " Le Film Sonore"a corporative weekly
and "La Technique Cinematographique", a monthly.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Roma — « L'Universale » Tipografia Polifflotta.

- 325 -

326 —

r =^

A modern system for
the modern traveller!

Provide yourself in advance with

" B. b. I.

»

Travel cheques of the

BRNCfi COMMERCIALE ITALIANR

in lire, French francs, marks, sterling

or dollars

No commission or other charges

Explanatory booklet obtainable at all branches of the
BANCA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA

v J

327 —

CULTURAL SECTION

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INDEX

Pa*.

Albert Thomas — 333

A. LoMONT . . — Film and Textbook 335

P. DE VUYST . — Family Education 340

Curt THOMALLA — A New Type of Film for the Prevention of Accidents . . 345

Eva Elie ... — The Reign of the Documentary Film 348

I.I.E.C. INQUIRIES

War Films and Young People (continued) 357

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

The History of Visual Education (continued) 371

LEGISLATION

Legislation Favouring the Educational Film in Various Countries 381

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The Condition of Cinematography in China — Educational Cinema in

France — Cinema and Publicity 389

TECHNICAL NOTES 397

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 399

BIBLIOGRAPHY 407

ALBERT THOMAS has disappeared from the stage of the world; but
one may say that his spirit will continue to animate the immense work
created and ordered by his faith in this work itself and by his power of
constructive effort.

We knew Albert Thomas personally in Paris in 1926 at the First
International Cinema Congress. By his verve and density of ideas he really
dominated this Congress. He told the Cinema what ends it should pursue
and what means it should adopt to accomplish them. Since then the men
who have had the honour to direct the I. I. E. C. and subsequently since
1928, those who have in the I. I. C. E. itself, always found in Albert Thomas
an enthousiastic help, both loyal and certain.

It is our duty to recall the fact that, a few weeks after the foundation
of the I. I. C. E., Albert Thomas wished that the institution that he had
created and that which he so liberally directed, might de the first to collaborate
with the Rome Institute.

Without hesitation, respectful as he always was of bhe qualifications
of others, he sent to the 1. 1. C. E. the great amount of material which the
B. I. T. had collected regarding the cinema, without hesitation he cut short
a great interprise of the B. I. T. — the inquiry of the B. I. T. with regard
of the leisure of workpeople — and confided it to the I. I. E. C. in order
that the latter might follow it through with the help of the fine organisation
which he had created.

The I. I. E. C. continues this inquiry in a spirit which fully recognizes
this work.

Since, every appeal on our behalf has been heard by Albert Thomas, every
demand for collaboration accepted, and every aid of a practical kind has
been accorded.

The I. I. E. C. to-day expresses a sentiment of profound recognition
of the deceased in its monthpiece, the Review.

We wish to emphasize the loyal and open character of the collaboration
of Albert Thomas with this Institute because we know no better way of
paying tribute to this great man, who desired only to collaborate, was
every ready to cooperate and was willing at all times to aid others in
their work and that with an ardent conviction and an exemplary loyalty, —
such was Albert Thomas.

FILM AND TEXTBOOK,
A PROBLEM OF ESSENTIAL COLLABORATION

A. Lomont,

Inspecteur Honoraire de l'Enseicnement,

Directeur General des Ateliers,

ecoles de la chambre de commerce de paris.

The workman cannot be conceived without his tools. The natural
instruments of work are insufficient, and from the beginning men have put
their ingenuity into the multiplication of their strength by machinery.

In the same way, on account of the extension of human knowledge, a
process of fixation, was sought for in order to aid the transmission of thought,
and after many centuries, this ended in the printed book.

As popular education has increased, the printed book has become more
and more indispensable to the teacher.

It is a pedagogic axiom that the most important factor in the develop-
ment of the faculties is personal effort. Muscles cannot be developed by
simply paying attention to the exercises demonstrated by the teacher. It is
essential that the pupil should repeat these exercises. In the same way, the
pupil's brain cannot be developed by the teacher alone, however good a
teacher he may be, and whatever method he may bring to bear on the
pupil. If the pupil does himself submit to the discipline of personal study,
all will be sterile.

In the matter of physical exercises, results may be obtained by simple
imitation of example.

Can intellectual exercises be applied in the same way ? The pupil is
not induced to work simply by seeing the master work before him. It is
indispensable that some form of mental communication should exist be-
tween them in order that subtle processes of thought can be transmitted.

The most ancient manner of making this exchange is by the
spoken word.

And still this form exercises the greatest influence on the human brain.
With words the teacher influences the pupil to immediate and productive
action, often irrestistably.

— 336 —

However this influence is often temporary and is in any case lacking in
scope. It was sufficient when the extent of human knowledge was small ;
but it cannot cope with modern science.

The teachers' word should be completed by the textbook. On the
one hand this supplements the master's teaching, limited by time, and on
the other hand it serves to emphasize points which can be learnt by oneself.
According to circumstances one conceives the teacher as commenting upon
the text and trying to open up the minds of the pupils by discussion and com-
ment upon the ideas and knowledge contained in the book ; or recommending
the book to the pupils in order that they may find details which he has not
given them for fear of confusing the larger and more general issues of which
he has spoken.

Thus the textbook is useful both to master and pupil. It is an instru-
ment which neither could be without at the moment.

To the textbook are naturally added observation and experiment, teach-
ing by vision and by action, two forms, the one passive, the other active,
which modern educators try to substitute for the more mechanical cur-
nculums.

However, these means of education are not unchanging. If the meth-
ods themselves, fixed by the great thinkers from Montaigne to Rousseau,
advocates of an inductive and intuitive method of taching — a method which
developed from, the sensible fact to the idea and which required the constant
search for truth on behalf of both pupil and master — do not seem to be al-
tered by the new constructions which have been put upon them recently,
the same cannot be said of the means which are to be employed in their
practice.

" The great enemy of education is habit ". It would be gravely dan-
gerous for education not to pay heed to the means which the discoveries of
sciences have put at its service, and which would have surely been adopted
enthousiastically by the philosophers mentioned had they existed in the past.

Thus, visual teaching, an interesting branch of the concrete method,
is taking new life from cinema and adding tenfold to the efficacy of the
didactic art.

The textbook had already added to the importance of the teacher's
action, but it was not sufficient by itself. In order to explain its contents
observation and experiments were necessary. However it was still difficult
to demonstrate certain phenomena or to give an exact idea of nature, without
too costly and too complicated experiments to stimulate the imagination.

— 337 —

The sea, mountains, deserts, virgin forest may be evoked by descriptions.
Is it possible that such descriptions can give an exact idea to children who
have never seen, and who may never see such things ?

Is there a more perfect teaching method than the cinema and is it not
clear that this means which is today at our disposal, should complete and
render vital old means without destroying the fruits of centuries of teaching
experience ?

The film is a new comer in education and it does not presume to take the
place of the textbook which is likewise essential.

But the film demands its place. It is essential as a new method of arous-
ing curiosity, of disciplining the imagination and of imparting knowledge with-
out fatigue. It has the ambition of completing the printed word with life
itself, as a collaborator not as an enemy.

And again, an understanding between textbook and film is essential.

It is easy if the truth, that education is simply an ensemble ordered
according to the formation of men, is well understood. The order established
by methods and programmes should not be upset by any of the means which
may be employed to carry them out. The book is disciplined, the film should
undergo the same process. The book has been written with a view to the
programmes, according to principles recognized as good, the film should be
subjected to the same conditions.

And it is here that the mistake has been made ; no attention has been
paid to what already exists and has proved its value with regard to developing
a new means along lines long established in teaching and the fruit of ripe
reflection. Instead the lines have been abandoned. The textbook committed
a similar error when it was introduced into teaching. It pretended to contain
and explain everything and it was reformed only through severe criticism and
very gradually.

The film has not exploited the whole field of its application. Easy sub-
jects have been dealt with, subjects particularly agreable on the screen,
attention has been stimulated and held by the screen's essential charm and
the film in teaching has not been adapted to suit existing conditions.

Such aspects of the film are all very well when the general public only
is concerned, for purposes of amusement. They are however dangerous in
education where all should be harmonious and balanced.

Why does not the film, which has become wiser, take the text book as
an example. The latter is founded on the same programmes as must inspire
teaching films. And, as programmes are always a ittle dry, why does not the

— 338 —

film illuminate and illustrate the subjects already treated basically, in the
textbook, in order to make them more comprehensible to the un-
initiated.

The film will find in the textbook a precious guide as to subject, an indi-
cation of what must be included and what must be left out because it does not
present an essential interest. Under these conditions — provided that the
textbook followed is a real textbook written according to the stipulations laid
down in the official programme — the film will be of help to the teacher and
to pupil and will therefore become indispensable and render the former's
function more efficacious.

The film, without upsetting the framework of instruction in the school,
without troubling the teachers or the programmes will find its natural place
and will meet with a widespread approval.

It matters little that in the various countries programmes differ, if the
general requirements are the same. One cannot, of course, conceive of
films interchangeable for all countries. But, in the case of the sciences, for
instance, would the differences be very marked ? Films dealing with circula-
tion of the blood studied in Europe and America would surely have a distinct
resemblance the one with the other and they would surely find their places
in the educational programmes of all countries. The sea, mountains and
climates, in different aspects would certainly provide something more than
a local interest.

Such subjects have their place in the programmes of education in all
countries and hence in the textbooks of all countries. Why is there not an
international agreement to settle subjects for which there is an universal edu-
cational demand. Such an agreement would in no wise prejudice the nat-
ional production of any country but could not but be of use to teaching and
to the production industry.

In a word, the film should be as much a pedagogic instrument as obser-
vation, experiment and the textbook. Like the textbook, it should offer to
the pupil an opportunity to acquire knowledge and exercise his faculties with
a minimum of effort, the maximum of pleasure and profit. The textbook
and the film, means of education, have'the same ends. They should support
each other, complete each other and finally should be built upon the same plan
determined by the past experience of the teaching world, throughly well
considered and tried out. The framework remains intact, pnciples are
respected and a new instrument is placed at the disposal of the educator.

The I. I. E. C. has, it would seem, a role to play in the ordering of this

- 339 —

work. It should neither encourage nor discourage particular initiatives but
it should give precision to doctrines and ends.

In the first place, is it not essential to limit the scope of educational
and teaching films respectively and to determine the ways in which the one
may help the other ? Education is carried on in a tremendous variety of ways
and in many places ; tendencies opposed to one another are often presented,
nothing controls the bias of education nor the stimulation of opposing ideas.

A prevailing order is not essential in these manifestations. Teaching
is another thing. It is educational but in a definite way, prescribing rather
than awakening interest.

It has the precise aim of brain formation by the inculcation of knowledge
and the exercise of thought. A rigourous control of both the presentation
of facts and the gradation of mental exercise is essential.

These are pre-occupations which never enter into the production of
films ; from this results the disordered production and the disappointment of
the teacher when he applies for a film dealing with a certain subject and finds
that it does not exist, in that, that which is provided is not in accordance
with the official programme.

We do not think that the I. I. E. C. should be concerned with the orga-
nisation of the production of teaching films any more than it should be with
the methods of teaching to be used in schools.

The whole matter is dependent upon a fruitful production and teachers
should be left to decide what methods suit them best. But the new techni-
que involved in the use of films must be explained and clarified by technicians
so that teachers do not have to add the labour of interpretation of new
methods to their other tasks. They wish a help, not an increase in work.

How can this be achieved ? This must be found out and the problem is
of an International order.

For the agreement between textbook and film, technicians and teachers
should take account of each other. If each continues to work solely in his
own department, neglecting subjects akin to his own, parallel efforts will
never meet in the common solution of the problem and there will be no
progress. A discussion of the various points of view is essential to avoid
useless production. Is it not the task of the I. I. E. C. to provoke this
discussion and to direct it ?

{From the French)-

FAMILY EDUCATION
THE MOST POTENT FACTOR IN THE PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION

by P. De Vuyst.

What are the characteristics of the highly civilised man ? A combina-
tion of qualities of initiative, commonsense, conscience, will-power, pleasant-
ness, sociability and self control, that is to say high moral standards.

The more citizens of this type that there are in a nation, the more social
balance and prosperity there will be.

Nor must it be forgotten that individual happiness does not depend on
wealth, education or fine manners. One may be very well informed and
still have a difficult or even criminal character.

One may have all the comforts of modern life and still be tyrannical,
one can have good manners and still be jealous and scheming, one may have
the best of health and still have moral defects.

Extraordinary progress has been made in every other field by the appli-
cation of good and suitable methods so why should these not be used in
the development of character.

If the League of Nations wishes to bring about its end, that of rend-
ering Society truly prosperous and pacific, it should begin at the beginning
by the improvement of future generations in their normal environment,
that is, in the family through the agency of parents better instructed in
their duties.

The Cinema and the Radio are potent instruments of popularisation
and they should be employed in this high level of instruction.

The following lines will serve to show the truth of this thesis.

* * *

It is superfluous to insist upon the fact that family education well
applied can be a thousand times more effective than all other kinds combined.

Children, in their period of formation are in the family circle ten times
longer than they are under the influence of all other educational influences

— 341 —

combined ; additionally parents are fifty times more numerous than the total
of other educators and they have have extended educational powers.

Heredity is doubtless a great force in the individual but by good edu-
cation in a favourable environment good characteristics which are trans-
missible may be acquired.

In the exceptional cases where this environment is lacking, special
intervention is necessary to reproduce as nearly as possible the family
atmosphere.

But one must not forget that these abnormal cases are becoming rarer.

Great efforts are being made to give the greatest efficiency to all factors
in social progress, why then should not be same attention be given to the
oldest and greatest factor, that of family education.

In order that family influence may have its greatest intensity, future
parents should be instructed in the art of education, some notions of family
pedagogy should be given to them. M. M. Jacques Herbe has published
excellent manuals on this subject. (10, Boulevard Charlemagne, Brussels).

This instruction should be accompanied by practical exercises. Miss
Butts, general secretary of the international education bureau at Geneva,
presented an excellent report on this subject to the International Congress
of Family Education at Liege.

If one wishes to become a gardener, one begins by learning the trade
or one risks failure. If the gardener neglects his young plants, and does
not apply to each the special method of culture necessary and then founds a
learned society to correct his mistakes, we should all agree in deploring his
lack of knowledge and commonsense.

Thus, in order to obtain the greatest results from education, parents
must be initiated into educational methods.

It is not enough that they should set a good example. One often sees
children, in face of the best examples, go astray because they have been
badly brought up, spoiled or too severely treated.

Psychologists and moralists have perfected methods, school and social
works must propagate them.

* * *

The development of physical consciousness in the child in connection
with physical hygiene should be one of the parents' first concerns.

Parents admit theoretically that it is their duty to inculcate habits of
obedience, willingness and sincerity, etc. in their children, but they must

— 342 —

be taught How. It is not enough to say to a child " You must ". It is
necessary to see that the injunction is carried out.
Here are a few principles of Jacques Herbe : —

(1) Give the child responsabilities, let him watch his small brother
for a few moments or take a note to a friend. Give him his place in the
household.

(2) Don't always impose your own will. In certain cases children
should be given the freedom to act as they please. Care should always be
taken to explain to them the consequences of their choice.

(2) Guide the child to do voluntarily things which it does not like
and to abstain from doing those which it likes. This is the great means of
keeping effort aline. The child who cannot deny himself something at
will, may become a young man who has not the power to deny himselff
a forbidden pleasure. From the beginning, the child should be taught self,
denial, small sacrifice such as abstaining from the purchase of a certain toy
shaving sweets and keeping silent for a few minutes.

(4) Do not try to stamp out all contrariness in a child, it is sometimes
better not to interfere if the child is capable of mastering itself.

(5) Do not soften the child by spoiling it : It should get up early,
wash in cold water, and not be too warmly clad in winter nor over fondled ;
in short its general education should be firm without being hard.

(6) The child should be taught to act for the pleasure of its parents,
to do its duty, torepa ir mistakes, to perfect itself and all for the highest
motives.

All these exercises should be applied in a manner that the child per-
forms them of its own initiative. This requires a certain dexterity. The
exercises should not be suggested too frequently nor inconsequently. The
child should not always be corrected but sometimes congratulated on its
progress.

In any child group, either in the family or in a boarding school, there is
mutual education. This can be organised to give the greatest results. The
good tempered child makes others good tempered, initiative suggests initia-
tive, bad temper is modivated. By organisation this mutual education is
surely capable of great things.

At the household science Institute at Laeken in Belgium the following
experiment was made.

After a certain length of observation the girl who showed the best temper
was named monitor of good temper, charged with the duty of finding out

- 343 -

everything about the matter and explaining it to her comrades. The same
thing was done in the case of each virtue, charity, calm and courage punc-
tuality, etc.

The various monitors were required to search for good precepts in the
teachings of religious and moral instructors and to give these to their friends
to hasten their perfection. Good results one said to have been obtained but
the method of notation is not precise enough for as to form a very clear
opinion.

Diagramatic notation seems very suitable to me because it is easily read
and has already proved successful in experimental psychology.

Objections are made to the system of notation by marks and diagrams.
Were there a better system available it would be used but comparative
results have shown that it is the best at present available.

M. Jacques Herbe's brochure " Let us Bring up our Children Better "
(Action commerciale, 79 Chaussee de Haecht, Brussels) gives practical
methods of teaching most good habits to children. These brochures should
be distributed everywhere, in churches, schools and associations.

The review " Family Education " (67 Rue de l'Orme, Brussels, 7 Bel-
gas) gives monthly advice on this subject. All families should take this
review.

When the school pretends that it should conduct the principal moral
education of children, it is in error, for it thus tends to assume a duty that
it cannot well fulfill and so commits a grave mistake in allowing parents to
think that their moral duties can be discharged for them.

Doctors well know that it is not possible to find a substitute for the
mother in physical education. How then can she be discharged of the moral
education which is contemporaneous with physical development ?

* * *

All this is truly in the interest of the various nations. Families must
be taught how to fulfill their educational function. And with efforts, this
can be done. States would in this way have far less cause to worry over
their schools. If the State attempts to substitute itself for the private in-
dividual to too great an extent, the results will be fatal. For if the individual
is too much looked after he will become incapable of looking after himself.
States should rather encourage responsability and self-reliance so that citi-
zens may get themselves out of difficulties so that there will be fewer,
unhappy, weak, insane and criminal persons on the public bands.

- 344 -

The cinema can therefore be of the greatest use to the nations in sug-
gesting to children of all ages moral principles and propagating ideas of
family education.

It is above all necessary to suggest the daily practice of good habits
until they become a second nature.

For progress the best methods must be used.

The work of the international congress of family education at Liege,
1930 (secretary, 22, Avenue de l'Yser, Brussels) constitutes a real mine of
information in this respect.

No administration, institution or family should neglect to obtain the
reports and review of this important manifestation. It is a unique opport-
unity to obtain information of the greatest importance.

* * *

Social zeal is too often wasted on details. Social activities of all kinds
and excentnc in nature are common, and thus the essential are forgotten and
tangible results are not obtained.

More effort should be directed towards the centre, the social cell,
that is to say the family, as a departure point for civilization.

The cinema should then devote itself to this major end, for what other
can there be of first importance ? There already exist several films
introducing the mother to the hygiene of children, which give excellent
results. They should be complemented by films of moral hygiene, and
formation. Films showing the growth, marriage and parenthood of human
beings in the highest sense would be of the greatest suggestive value. There
should be sufficient of these to put the world in the true path of peace.

(From the French).

A NEW TYPE OF FILM FOR THE PREVENTION
OF ACCIDENTS

by Curt Thomalla.

The growing interest in accident prevention films (compare the Inter-
national Exhibition of 1929 with that of 1931) prompts me to draw attention
to a new type of these films lately introduced in Germany.

For the manufacture of accident prevention films, as for that of all other
popular explanatory and instructive films allowance must always be made
for the public for which they are destined.

First of all there are accident prevention films destined solely for a pub-
lic of technicians, they show new mechanical installations and indicate how
to prevent accidents in their use. These films are entirely specialised and
are intellegible only to competent persons.

Thus, in Germany, many specialised films have been made for use
in particular industries. As is well, accident prevention in Germany is
the concern of the professional organisations, grouped according to industries,
such as, sugar and textile trades, etc.

Each of these associations has a number of technical inspectors charged
with factory control. They check the safe working of machines and supervize
the installation of safety devices, etc. Besides the technical prevention of
accidents by these inspectors, the associations also deal with the psychological
prevention of accidents. They see to the placing of warning notices, to
the distribution of explanatory brochures. They also intervene between
employer and employee to bring about lectures illustrated with slides and
films. Specialised accident prevention films should therefore be in the
hands of the association inspectors. The inspector goes from one factory
to another giving his lecture only before those workers to whom the film
may be of use in the carrying out of their daily work. For instance, the
Professional Ass. of Iron and Steel trades in South Germany at Mainz
(Beware Accidents), the Bavarian Prof. Ass. of Building Trades at Munich
(Prevention of Accidents in Stone Masonry), the Prof. Ass. of Printers at
Leipzig (War on accidents), etc. etc., have made films for the benefit of
their insured.

- 346 -

Finally there is a third type of accident prevention film destined for
the general public. These treat accidents of more or less general occurrence ;
The Union of German Prof. Ass. at Berlin, for instance has made a film of
this type (Man in Danger, prevention of home, street and labour accidents).
The question of first-aid is very closely bound up with that of accident
prevention, for it depends upon the nature of the work which may
have caused the accident. In this category must also be included films
on fire danger, and traffic perils : on this last subject there are many
good films.

The professional Association of Berlin retail traders, has made a film of
a new type dealing with the prevention of accidents in such a general and
interesting way that besides its natural specialised public it would be also
possible for it to reach the general public as a secondary programme item
in ordinary Cinemas. The above association comprises many small trades
involving in the daily routine, a large number of small tasks such as packing
and unpacking, the use of steps and ladders, the transport of goods, etc. The
upkeep of an ordinary dwelling involves analogous work.

In order that such a film may be shown in public cinemas, it must
abandon the school master attitude and overcome the initial dislike of the
public for such instruction by being really interesting. It also seems es-
sential to introduce a certain element of humour in such films although the
subject matter may be in itself far from humourous.

Excentnc-Film (Zorn and Tiller) of Berlin charged with the making
of these films, have completed them with much ingenuity. In each scene a
comic personnage intervenes at each accident, and demonstrates the preven-
tive measures. This character is an animated drawing superimposed on
the natural photography. Obviously this is a delicate technical process. Ex-
centric-Film have patented their process (Kombinations-Trick-Aufnahme-
verfahren). It is not only a question of the introduction of the animated draw-
ing but also of its synchronisation with the rest of the action ; finally the two
are combined on one negative by the above process and prints are taken.
We will give elsewhere other details on the system patented by Excentric-
Film. The Government commission of popular Hygiene has used this
process for the first time in popular educational films. Two comic characters
are introduced named " Leberecht Klug " and " Sanitatsrat Weise ".
These films deal with tubercular infection, infant feeding, influenza, vacci-
nation against the small pox, the nutritive value of fruit, utilisation of spare
time, morning and night hygiene, etc. . . They interest the public as much

— 347 -

as the celebrated Mickey Mouse cartoons and the hygiene instruction is
assimilated unconsciously by the spectators.

In the films made for the Prof. Ass. of Small Traders, the cartoon char-
acter inscalled " Hans Passauf ". Let us take for example a film in which
unpacking goods is shown ; suddenly the small figure appears, seizes the work-
man by the ear and tells him that one must not throw the lid of a case stud-
ded with nails on the ground, that in a factory the alley ways should not be
obstructed, that waste matter should be put away. He also explains what
tools should be used, upbraids the charwoman who neglects her work of clear-
ing, warns pedestrians and cyclists of the danger of traffic, etc. This small
comic figure teaches and amuses and at the same time it remains fixed more
firmly in the memory than any purely objective instruction.

These films have yet another advantage. They may be divided into a
number of separate episodes, each self-sufficient and demonstrative of the
right and wrong method of preventing an accident. These episodes may
be joined together or added on to another film with very little trouble. They
offer, therefore great possibilities of adaptation.

When a professional Association wishes to represent in a film the
accident risks proper to its domain suitable episodes from these small films
can be chosen and added to already existing films. Up till now, experiments
made with these films have shown that not only the general public but also
assemblies of workmen follow them with amusement and interest. And
this must be considered as a good result, for every conquest over indifference
in this domain is an important gain.

The Professional Association of small traders deserves to be merited
for the introduction and trial of this new method of accident prevention.

(From the German).

Ice ingl.

THE REIGN OF THE DOCUMENTARY FILM

Eva Elie.

In times past, cinema managers maintained with a certain bitterness that the pub-
lic was very little interested in documentary films, especially those dealing with travel.
I remember an excellent film, The Conquest of Mt Everest, a unique document full of
skill and courage and excellent photography, which, at Geneva at least, brought in very
little money. Another film, chosen for the inauguration of a Geneva cinema, a delight-
ful voyage across Switzerland — what could be better material — met with the most
complete financial failure whereas the film which followed, a trivial thing, with a love
interest, filled the house. . .

Since then years have past and public taste has returned to the cinema — at least
to the documentary cinema — above all in those people who previously denied its value
and its art. They have taken back the words of Anatole France, " For the most part,
every intelligent person coming out of those obscure halls feels ashamed to be a man ".
The same writer, so subtle in other ways, thought that the cinema appealed only to " the
lowest regions, the most turgid sources of the human soul ". This way of speaking is
evidently partial but it nevertheless expressed the attitude of those who saw in the film
the origin of sin and misery. Certainly commercial production is sheltered from all
reproach and — to generalise — it was up to the documentary film to break down many
piejudices.

Certainly, " La Croisiere Noire ", as cinema reporting, — benefiting as it did from a
truly formidable publicity — was sufficient to show intelligent people what intelligent,
educative and documentary cinema was. There had nevertheless been " Nanook " and
" The Shachleton expedition " — to name only two, but before they were released a second

We owe Mme Eva Elie public apology. If we had published this article when we received
it she would have been able to claim a certain promptness in dealing with a most interesting subject •
the question of trick, photography in film documents. We should like to remark upon our collab-
orators promptness and to declare that her article, stimulating as all her writings are, has lost
none of its topical quality, for the subject will certainly attract much more attention.

We agree perfectly with Mme Elie when she approves of the purely documentary film. But
should we be so critical with regard to trick photography ? Should the travelogue exclude adven-
ture ? If one answers in the affirmative is it not to be feared that the public may renounce what
it can learn from a " document romance " that is, including a certain number of tricks. As
children, did we not learn much from adventure stories which we should not have learnt from the
strict logs of great explorers. The essential thing is — and here we are again in complete agree-

— 349 —

time fashion had not yet decreed the " dignus est intrare ". After the lifting of the ban
" Moana ", " Chang ", and " Simba ", were frequented by a public as specialised as
that of the Grand Guignol and soon there were scarcely any films but those made in
distant countries. With Africa there has really been some exaggeration, after various
expeditions came " Africa Speaks ", " The Truth about Africa ", " Trader Horn ", etc.

The documentary film presents difficult problems. Stimulated by competition the
various producers in their desire to present sensational scenes depart far from truth.
On the other hand indiscreet journalists are pleased to discover and reveal to the public
all the tricks used so that the latter becomes contemptuous and smells out tricks on all
occasions even when none are employed.

Once upon a time the public believed in the acrobatic tricks of cinema artists. One
day some initiates destroyed their illusions which was perhaps wrong. Candour and faith
lost, the public laughed at heroic deeds sometimes perfectly genuine : this type of film
soon died amidst the jeers of the crowd.

Do we likewise wish to kill the documentary film. There has never been any ques-
tion of a human life being sacrificed when a dummy can and should act the substitute,
why then, represent such episodes as truth. Why not call such films " documentaires
romances " since we are already acquainted with " vie romancee ". The public is very
willing to admit the non historic parts of " Moana " but it protests when it learns that
certain films which were supposed to have been made of savages in unexplored lands
were actually concocted on a farm with farm hands. Finally, humiliated in its first
naivete the public cries out like the village people in the fable " A d'autres, je vous prie,
Ion ne nous y prend plus ".

Is it not definitely necessary to make an exact distinction between real documents
of actual events, without tricks, and films which willingly deceive the spectators in order
to add excitement to the story ?

To make myself clear, let me borrow from Andre Demaison, author of " Les Betes
qu'on appelle sauvages ", the explanation of a strategem, very innocent from certain

merit with Mme Elie — that the trices should be kept within the bounds of reality and that the
knowledge of those who have seen and " knou) " should be employed.

If therefore seems to us perfectly legitimate in the making of a film which does not pretend to
be a strict document to introduce events which are imaginary but possible. In other words it seems
admissible to us to use tricks in order to reproduce imaginary events when these events are prob-
able ones.

We do not then condemn films which, without being strict documents, have value through the
care which has been taken to render jungle scenes or other scenes unknown to the general public
in an accurate manner. It matters little if these scenes have been obtained by means of some
artifice, what does matter is that an expert spectator should be able to say " If it is not true it is
at least possible ".

— 350 —

points of view but none the less likely to mislead. In the film in question — I will not
name it — tons of cinema material, porters, provisions, all that is necessary for an expe-
dition into the bush was taken with the producer. There was no large scale trick
employed only a little " arrangement ". The proverb says : " God helps him who helps
himself ". The arrangement : a parkland where the wild animals were confined. The
author of the book finds the proof of his hypothesis in the fact that the pursued is chased by
by the pursuer not in a straight line but around and around the same paths instead of
seeking some new and more sheltering country. This is the first perversion of truth.
More serious : the animals driven by hunger commit actions which they would not per-
form in normal free conditions. In the film in question — which is however one of the
best — a panther, driven by hunger, attacks some hyenas, an agressive act absolutely
foreign to the nature of this animal. Thus the arrangement arouses excitement and at
the same time leads the public into error. Are these "arrangements " as innocent as they
are pretended to be ?

* # *

Some documentary films, occasionally called " proud " because they do not conde-
scend to trickery, do exist. In this connection I must mention " Indiens, nos freres ",
a film due to that indefatigable traveller Titayna. After crossing Mexico in search of
Aztec remains and the snake ridden Yucatan, she embarks with a handful of resolute
men for the He des Requins (He Tiburon), inhabited by the Seris Indians. In 1875
one explorer passed three days on the inhospitable coasts of this Island, since then no
European has ever returned from it.

Titayna was not only the first European woman to attempt to visit this dangerous land
but she has brought back photographs and film documents which will enrich ethno-
graphical science and will allow sedentary people to experience in her wake, the most
exciting of voyages without the least danger.

" Indiens, nos Freres " — with camera work by a young Swiss Robert Lugnon who
photographed " Mangeurs d'Hommes " — not only deserves the honours of learned
societies but success, a testimony of admiration of those who have made it.

There lies the whole question. Or not quite : for certain people think that these tricks
involve the animals in great pain. A strong reaction against this possibility being allowed, has
made itself felt especially in England. This is a difficult question for no sensitive person can be
insensible to the sufferengs of animals but on the other hand it does not do to put the sufferings of
even ferocious beasts above those of humans as some people seem to do.

Most scenes which are condemned enter into jungle life even if they are obtained artificially.
Without admitting nor excusing real abuse it is permissible to think that the activity of film pro-
ducers does not add greatly to the ordinary sufferings of men and beasts in the ceaseless battle for
existence. And that without speaking of the dangers of the pursuit; cineists should be accorded
the same benefits of extenuating circumstances as are given to hunters, trappers and trainers of
wild animals, etc. . .

351

"INDIENS NOS FRERES"

This film, mentioned by Mme Eva Elie in her article on The Reign of the Documentary
Film, is certainly an integral example of the film document, in the best sense of the term as
it is completely truthful.

Tiburon Island.where it was made, stdl retains a wild and strange aspect. It is covered
with thorny hushes, in which serpents, the principale inhabitants, sleep. The natives —
Seris Indians — have each day different ritual painting on their cheeks. The women
preserve their sculptural beauty even through maternity.

These people ignore modern civilization. Their lives are spent in the highly respect-
ful performance of extremely ancient rites.

In this suggestive decor are shown scenes from native life undisturbed by the passions of
further evolved peoples. The children bask in the sun and gather sea fruit when the tide is
down. The serious warriors are painted by the younger members of the tribe ; the girls sleep

- 352 -

-353 -

in the sun and all play about with little regard for the serpents which are almost an essential
part of their daily life.

Perhaps civilization will one day intrude and another oasis will be lost amidst the sound
of machines.

r

W

' ■"** ■ ,

n

8s . -J

','fc ..-'■■'', .I.„'i

: « . -

— 354

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MEDICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TOURISTIC
CINEMA CONSTITUTING

— 355 —

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F AMERICA SUBSIDIARY

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

WAR FILMS AND YOUNG PEOPLE

{continued)

From a purely didactic point of view, the opinions of the children and adolescents
on the educational and instructional value of war films, certainly represent one of the
most striking aspects of the whole inquiry.

A preliminary consideration is necessary. When one says that a war film is educa-
tive, one does not mean to say that the sight of massacres, fields covered with dead and
the most modern of destructive war engines, is in itself educative in the best meaning
of the word. It would be the same as admitting the educative value and utility of those
crime films which for so long dishonoured the screen by showing crime in a favourable
light, and which ware finally recognized as dangerously anti-social.

The young correspondant of the I. I.E. C. express themselves in no uncertain
terms. War films are educative in as much as :

(a) by the more or less perfect representation of war methods they document
aspects of history which We hope the children Will never have to experience ;

(b) they form a visual -mental subsidiary idea of historical phenomena.

The first point is self explanatory. It may well be asked whether it is a good thing
to show to young minds in the middle of their formation such harrowing sights to which
they are so sensitive ; will the impressions gleaned enable them to face the vicissitudes
of life more serenly ; these are points upon which opinion is extremely divided and which
we cannot deal with in their inquiry ?

The second point however can well be discussed. The question of teaching history
by the film has already been treated in this Review and in communications received by
the Institute from all parts of the world. In a general way, if theory is against it,
practice is favourable to this method.

The theorists contest the possibility of using the Cinema for teaching history. Pup-
ils, when asked, express a contrary opinion. In this inquiry nearly all the pupils confirm
this, already expressed by others. These may be divided into three categories :

(1) those who state simply that war films are useful as a means of knowing and
interpreting historical events ;

(2) those who desire simple documents without dramatic interest and accord
value only to such films ;

(3) those who ask with a certain melancholy whether war films should not show
only the deeds of certain peoples who participated in the great war in a small degree only.

When war films please a child it wishes to see the soldier. It is the simple soldier who
is the childs hero. Emphasis and eloquence are as far from his nature as death is near.

The child can only conceive war through the common soldier, in its most heroically
simple form.

-358-

Adults may reason differently but what does it matter ? What is essential is the
child's thought, clear in its simplicity.

The question of whether the film should be used as an integral or as a complement-
ary form of education is one which has often been debated in this Review. The first
hypothesis has always been discarded it is only filmed lessons in the Ford manner
that can dispense with the master) and yet it has always been found that animated
projection has more influence on the child's assimilation than fixed projection.

Besides, however well the teacher may be conscious of his duty, he can only offer
a cold commentary. He cannot have the qualities of an orator which would not in any
case suit the children. Teaching by the film has the advantage of showing facts in
action, and of giving meaning and detail more precisely than a master can, through lack
of time or special knwoledge.

However, as concerning the historical film, we must say as we have already said in
an editorial note — that insufficient and excessive use must be alike avoided. The
production of historical films requires special talents. The precision of the historic
fact, the exactness of details, the soberness of the whole are to be observed from the
first or the film will become simply an ordinary theatrical sentimental production having
no function in teaching.

In conclusion, replies according to war films an instructive historical value number
1 .779 including those which deem the film only a subsidiary form of instruction and those
which indicate what historical value these films might have. The latter represents a
very large proportion which is the more to be considered as the the other group headings
are so few.

These 1,779 replies come from 1,1 19 boys and 60 girls all very young.

In any case the fact remains that nearly 3,000 young people thin that war films
should be considered not simply as exciting shows but also as a means of acquiring know-
ledge.

CRITICISMS

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Above
16

Age
10-12

Age

13-15

Over
16

o
ca

3

>>
o
OQ

6

o
00

o

1

03

o

to
o
OQ

5

>>

o

ca

(A

Boys : 88 — Girls : 64 — total :

152.
These films are fine but often too

theatrical
War is simple and tragic, it is

useless to embellish it

Boys : 80 — Girls : 37 — total 1 1 7
One sees at once that they are

faked
These are falsifications of true

history.

23
58

42
35

7
2

—

46
16

2

3

0

22

9

2

—

—

—

359 —

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

Age

Age

Above

Age

Age

Over

ANSWERS

10-12

13-15

16

10-12

13-15

16

«

O

CQ

'o
CQ

o

to
o

o

0

ca

o

O
CQ

o

o
CQ

G

Boys : 8 — Girls : 30 — total : 38

Their realism pleases me al-
though I know it is faked

8

33

—

5

—

3

—

-

—

—

—

—

Girls : 36

Despite all their fakes they do

not give a true idea of the her-
oism of the combattants

—

36

Boys : 30

They are too superficial to con-

vey true heroism

1

— ■

—

30

—

—

—

—

—

Boys : 26 — Girls : 2 — Total : 28

They often show unbelievable

scenes

13

—

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

13

—

Boys : 26 — Girls : 2 — Total : 28

They should be more carefully
and seriously made to avoid
throwing ridicule on the most

sacred things

20

—

6

—

— ■

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

Boys : 16 — Girls : 3 — Total : 19

They must be well made to be
true

_

3

16

_

_

Boys: 17

They do not represent the facts

of war exactly

- —

—

■ —

—

17

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Boys : 12 — Girls :4 — Total : 16

The subject is often exploited

—

—

—

—

11

4

—

—

1

—

—

—

Girls: 15

Dull, boring and monotonous

—

14

—

1

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Girls : 14

They are no good representations
because the actors are paid in
their parts.

—

14

— -

* * *

There follow other replies each supported by less than ten votes.

a) Women in these films act badly and are mere figurantes : 8 answers, 5 boys ten
to twelve years and 3 girls 13 to 15 years.

b) Through lack of scenic efficacy they produce effects no different from those of the
theatrical film : 7 answers 5 boys over 16 and two girls from 13 to 15.

— 360 —

c) They are sometimes too realistic and badly acted : 6 boys over 1 6.

d) Art is fine when by tricks it imitates reality successfully : 4 boys from 10 to 12.

e) They should be made with more good sense for as they are, they infuse hate and
fear of war into simple minds : 4 boys over 1 6.

f) They often profane the most tragic and heroic deeds in the cheapest way : 2 boys
over 16.

g) They are badly understood because they are badly made : 2 boys over 1 6.

h) What I like in these films is their extraordinary mise-en-scene : 2 boys between
ten and twelve.

i) A type of production too much exploited in America ; there are scarcely any good
European ones made and most have an anti-militarist and pacifist tendancy : 2 boys, one
between 13 and 15 and the other over 16.

j) They do not affect me as they are generally badly made : Boy between 10.

k) Sound films of this kind are better because more realistic : Boy between 13 and 15.

1) Too often they exhalt individual heroism rather than that of a people : One boy
over 16.

m) Sentimental and passionate scenes are too frequently mixed : 1 boy over 1 6.

Total replies criticising war films are 551 and are divided as follows :
Larce Centres • B°y' Girls

10 to 12 years 132 163

13 to 15 15 12

over 16 158 11

305 192

tot. 497
Small Centres :

10 to 12 years 7 22

13 to 15 18

over 16 3

32 22

tot. 54

* * *

From a strictly technical point of view criticisms attack the production methods.
Above all sacred and heroic sacrifices are to the young mind little suited to theatrical treat-
ment. Observations on fakes employed are found in most replies relative to educational
value.

The idea that war films are artificial reconstitutions deprives the public of the sen-
sation of reality and the film of historical accuracy. We have already said that children
prefer documentary war films which adds force to this observation. We find in this
an old cause often upheld in this Review namely that documentaries should not have a
purely secondary place in programmes but should be featured.

What it most important for children and adolescents is to see and know what is true
in life, whether this is historical or actual does not matter.

— 361

OBSERVATIONS OF A POLITICAL CHARACTER

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

Age

Age

Above

Age

Age

Over

ANSWERS

10-12

13-15

16

10-12

13-15

16

o

m

u

o

03

o

>.

o
CQ

6

o
03

6

03

o

0

CQ

o

Boys : 133 — Girls : 36 — Total
169

War films are fine but they exhalt

too greatly the acts of nations
that fought little or not at all
in the war. This might pro-
voke dangerous feeling

28

21

3

8

98

5

4

2

Girls : 38

They are an excellent method of

influencing young people. In

this they are superior to any
lecture or book

—

—

—

—

—

38

—

—

—

—

—

—

Boys : 14— Girls : 3 — Total : 17

They are useful national propa-

ganda

~~

~

1

1!

3

1

~

Other answers supported by less than ten votes follow :

a) All peoples, even the most savage, have a keen sense for defending their countries and
homes : 9 boys from 13 to 15.

b) Often fate does not reward bravery : 8 boys between 13 and 15.

c) These films express the pain of the conquered, the joy of the conquerors and the
alternate pain and joy of the people : 7 replies, 4 boys, over 16, 2 from 10 to 12 and one girl
between 10 and 12.

d) They are useful because they spread the idea of a greater humanity : 7 replies, 4
boys from 13 to 15, 2 boys and one girl from 10 to 12.

e) They scarcely seem to support tohe ideal of peace : 4 boys over 1 6

f) They are reminiscent of the painful situation of conquered peoples: 4 boys between
10 and 12.

g) / think that War films are shown with the definite purpose of preparing young
people for war : 3 boys over 1 6.

h) Victory is capricious and the lot of nations is prepcarious : 2 boys from 1 0 to
12 years.

i) These films are useful national propaganda abroad : one boy between 10 and 12
years.

j) History teaches that there have always been wars for certain peoples much bet-
ter than films : one girl between 10 and 12 years.

— 362 —

The total of replies containing what might be called political ideas is 269 divided
as follows :

Large centres :

Boys

10 to 12 years 32

1 3 to 15 years 15

Over 16 years 120

Small Centres .

. 10 to 12 years 10

13 to 15 years 12

Over 1 6 years —

tot. 243

Girls

25

8

43

tot. 26

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

LARGE CENTRES

SMALL CENTRES

ANSWERS

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Above
16

Age
10-12

Age
13-15

Over
16

O

n

o

1*
o
00

o

O

CQ

6

o

m

3

o

CQ

6

o
«

o

Boys : 34

Itjmight be dangerous for actors

in the production of certain

war scenes

Boys : 33 — Girls : 1 — Total :34
1 think of the technical difficul-
ties in making such films

24
21

—

3
5

1

2

—

2

—

5
4

—

1

—

Other answers supported by less than ten voices follow :

a) / think of the quality of the actors in these films : 2 boys 13 to 15, 3 boys and one
girl 10 to 12, total 6.

b) These films must be very expnsive to make : 3 Boys 1 3 to 15, one boy over 1 6,
2 girls ten to 12.

c) The war scenes must be very amusing for the actors : 4 boys from 13 to 15 and 2
girls from 10 to 12.

d) It is a very special technique which I should like to study : 4 boys from 13 to 15.

e) They inspire me with the desire to become a great actor : I boy and I girl 1 3 to 15
and 1 boy 10 to 12.

f) / wonder whether the actors would behave as well at the war as they do on the
screen : 2 girls over 1 6.

g) These films are useful for disuading young men from evil pursuits : one girl over 1 6.

— 363 —
The total number of replies in this category amount to 96 and are divided as follows

Large Centres : B^JS ^ls

10 to 12 years 47 —

13to 15 14 1

Over 16 2 1

total 64

Small Centres

10 to 12 years 4 5

13to 15 17 1

Over 16 2 3

total 32
* * *

The considerations which we have classified in the last two categories represent an
interesting association of ideas.

Those under the heading of political considerations are worthy of brief comment.
It is stated, without taking into account the intrinsic value or utility of these films,
that they scarcely conform to the idea of international brotherhood. It is the more pos-
sible as several think that these films represent national propaganda. But how can this
be possible when the films often represent the deeds of nations which where very little
involved in trench warfare (1 67 replied) ?

Others give opinions which are worth considering especially as they come from the
mouths of children and adolescents, the ups and downs in national histories, the unhappy
vanquished, the sense of love for humanity, valour is not always rewarded, etc.

Others, without saying that films actually provoke war, state that they prepare the
mind for it. They do not express a judgement in the matter. Nine replies deal with the
social and biological aspect of war : All peoples, even the most savage, have a keen sense
for defending their homes and countries, say some. One little girl says that war is a
painful necessity for some peoples that have nothing. This is simply the demographic
necessity of life.

Those replies concerning actors have evidently less importance. They seem to rest
chiefly on curiosity.

Professions of Parents

One of the most interesting parts of this inquiry is that dealing witn the professions
of the parents of children replying. As we have explained, owing to the fact that in
some answers the profession of the father was left out and that in others the child expres-
sed two different opinions which were included in two different groups, the numbers of
professions given does not quite correspond to the number of answers.

It seems logical to apply the parents professions to each group of answers. Thus

5 Ice ingl.

— 364 —

23.653 indications of professions are applicable to the various groups. They are divided
as follows :

Professions Large centres Small centres Total

Liberal Professions 2,184 464 2,648

Employees 4,553 1,319 5,672

Workmen 4,477 2,412 6,889

Tradesmen 2,113 1,270 3,383

Landowners, etc 790 205 995

Farmers 2,819 1,247 4,066

The proportions are as follows : Liberal professions 11,19 %, employees 23.98 %,
workmen 29.13 % tradesmen 14.30 % landowners etc. 4.21 %, farmers 17.19 %. Alto-
gether 35.17 % brain workers, 43.32 manual labs, and 14.30 % tradesmen. This con-
firms what we have already stated, that the inquiry extends throughout all classes of the
population.

The following tables show how the professions of parents correspond to the various
groups of replies.

PARENTS* PROFESSIONS — GENERAL SUMMARY FOR ITALY

(effective figures)

Liberal
Professions

Employees

Workmen

Tradesmen

Landowners

Farmers

1897

378

96

48

188

41

3969

788
283
129
400
103

4883
816
358

57
685

90

2326
476
167

50
299

65

874
113
33
13
50
12

3003

359

179

Political

42

453

30

2648

5672

6839

3383

1095

4066

(for each 100 replies in each professional group)

Exhalting war • .
Against war ■ . .

Various

Against war films
Educational value
Political ....

Liberal
Professions

71.64
14.28
3-62
1.81
7.10
1.55

Employees

Workn

69.98

13.80
4.99
2.28
7.05
1.81

70.89
11.84
5.19
0.83
9.94
1.33

Tradesmen

Landowners

68.75

77.78

14.07

11-34

4.94

3-32

1.48

1.31

8.33

5.02

1.93

1.21

Farmers

73.85
8.83
4.41
1.03

11.14
0.74

- 365 -

LARGE CENTRES

(effective figures)

Exhalting war

Against war

Various .

Against war films

Educational value

Political

Liberal
Professions

Employees

1561

322

70

40

151

40

2184

3033

614

173

120

316

97

4353

Workn

Trade

Landowners

3147

506

!64

54

530

76

4477

1463

275

74

42

208

51

2113

Farmers

635

81

13

12

39

10

770

2088

203

106

40

357

25

2819

(FOR EACH 100 REPLIES IN EACH PROFESSIONAL GROUP)

Exhalting war

Against war

Various .

Against war films

Educational value

Political

Liberal
Professions

71.47

14.74

3.21

1.83

6.92

1.83

Employees

Workn

69.92

14.12

3.99

2.77

7.26

2.24

70.30

1.28

3.67

1.21

.84

1.70

Trade

Landowners

69.24

13-01

3-50

9.84

2.41

80.38

10.26

1.64

1.53

4.93

1.20

Farmers

74.06

7.20

3.77

.42

12.66

0.89

366

SMALL CENTRES

(EFFECTIVE FIGURES)

Liberal
Professions

Employees

Workmen

Tradesmen

Landowners

Farmers

336

936

1736

863

139

915

56

174

310

201

32

156

26

110

194

93

20

73

8

9

3

8

1

2

37

84

155

91

11

96

Political

1

6

14

14

2

5

464

1319

2412

1270

205

1247

(FOR EACH 100 REPLIES IN EACH PROFESSIONAL GROUP)

Exhalting war

Against war .

Against war films

Educational value

Political

Liberal
Professions

72.41

12.06

3.60

1.73

7.99

0.21

Employees

Workmen

70.97

13.19

8.34

0-68

6.37

0.45

71-97

12.85

8.04

0.13

6.43

0.58

Trade

67.95

15.83

7.32

0.63

7.17

1.10

Landowners

67.80

15.61

9.75

0.49

5.37

0.98

Farmers

73.45

12.51

5.85

0.12

7.67

0-40

— 367 —

The above tables give a fairly clear idea of the correspondance of parents, professions
and feeling for and against war.

Leaving aside the section dealing with landowners etc. which has only a small re-
lative importance ; it is interesting to note that the majority of replies favourable to war
films come from the cnildren of farmers and the smallest number from the children of
tradesmen and employees. Between the farmers and the tradesmen's cnildren there is
a difference of 5.10 % .

The greatest part ot the " various opinions " is furnished by the children of workmen,
who together with the children of farmers also give the majority of the replies upon the
educative value of war films. i

This latter observation seems worthy of note. The children of workmen and far-
mers have not so much chance to form generally cultured opinions or one based upon
different aspects of social life. The occupations of their parents are opposed to a family
life, to the formation of a circle with intellectual possibilities. The children of profes-
sional people on the other hand are very differently situated. The parents live more in
contact witn social political and economic life. The child gets from family conversation
the elements of comparison, study and work. He knows the elements of life before even
the teacher explains them through word or by means of the film.

The child of the farmer or workman, then, is at a disadvantage and has need of acquir-
ing knowledge outside his own family circle. He is therefore inclined to go to the film for
this knowledge and thence is lead to form an opinion on its educational value. For him
the war film constitutes a means of knowing another aspects of life, and however fantastic
the film may be it contains some representation of fact which will always interest the child
who has not other means of acquiring general knowledge.

This statement, which is strictly outside the inquiry will be kept in mind when the
answers to other questions in the I. I. E. C. general questionnaire are reviewed likewise
when the answers to questions put to masters are examined.

For the moment, let us say that the value of the statement is in some degree con-
firmed by the fact that the children concerned therein give the fewest observations of a
political character : they felt to need to express theoretical opinions but only to acquire
knowledge.

This I. I. E. C. Inquiry on war films is not complete. It must be enlarged by the
other replies which have already been received or are expected by the Institute in order
to have its real value.

Thus, taking into account the cultural, ethnic and economic differences between the
various countries, by the examination of replies from ten thousands of children throughout
the world, it may be possible to form a more or less exact idea of how the world considers
war itself as well as the cinematographic representation of it.

The end. G. de Feo.

— 368 —

" PANKINE „
" SPECIAL „
" EXTRA-RAPID „
" KINECHROM „
" AEROCHROM „
" TROPICAL „
" SUPERPAN „
" R-FILM „

Sound Recording StoK Ti. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Siok Ti. 4

for Variable Area Process

— 369 —

— 370 —

Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up

General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
= 52-123 - 52-124 =

<@^^>;>

=^= Telegrams : =====
ANONIMA PITTAL,VGA

Works

R O M E : • Cines », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S . Giovanni).
TURIN: « Pontiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pitlafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la ChaussSe d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10 — Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel. : 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, I. — Tel. :
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via MartelU, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40-

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009 •

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 — I TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
Telegrams : Filmbordo. I 72-80 — Telegrams : Pilmbordo.

/. /. E. C. Studies

THE HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

{Continued).
EDUCATION IN MODERN TIMES

a) The Renaissance.

By Renaissance is meant the intellectual movement which started in the XlVth
century with Petrarch and continued in the following century to spread through Italy
and Europe generally, substituting for Mediaeval culture, new forms and new ideas, or
rather those borrowed from Greek and Latin literature which were studied with honour.

The excessive cult of forms and joyful life current in the Courts barely hid the cor-
ruption : " The XVth century is a real revival of paganism and for the " cupio dis-
solvi " of the middle ages, only " carpe diem " is substituted ; the desire to enjoy life is
paramount, even hope is renounced " (1 ).

In sympathy with the general movement, education became liberal to an unheard
of degree. The study of the classics, favoured by the exodus of the Greek doctors due to
the fall of Byzantium, gave rise to a liberal Greek education tempered, by practical
Roman spirit. Juvenal's precept : " Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano "
became the ideal of Renaissance education, the antithesis of mediaeval practice of sever-
ity and repression which Compayre said subjected the body to too strict a rule and the
spirit to one of iron.

Paolo Vergerio, as a humanistic pedagogue, defines the objects of education thus :
" We call those studies liberal which are worthy of a free man and thanks to which we
attain and practice liberal virtue and wisdom ; we call that education liberal which
frees, exercises and develops the best gists of body and soul which ennoble men and which
are justly considered to be comparable only to virtue itself ".

Liberal education, ten, which became largely visual after the invention of printing
by Gutemberg permitted the rapid multiplication of books, which were often illustrated
and whose circulation was aided by the fact that national languages wre already formed.

The Church, directed by such competent men as Jules II, Leon X, Clement VII,
Pius V, etc. was not slow to adopt the powerful aim of printing : bibles, catechisms,
often illustrated, spread through town and country carrying the light of truth more in-
tense in images tan in speeches, to the common people.

The customs of writing illustrated tales spread to such an extent that a lettered hu-
manist, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, whe became Pope under the title of Pius II, did not
hesitate to write illustrated historical legends for children, knowing that it was the most
direct way of persuading them to accept ideas most easily.

(1) G. Natali and E. Vitelli, Storia dell Arte.

— 372 —

b) Renaissance Art.

With the Renaissance, writes Morelli, Art, having gained its freedom, left the walls
of the houses of God and went to live amongst men ".

But, if the profane painting of the XVth century stand on its own merits, if the
palace of Princes are luminous with illustrations of contemporary events, church walls
are certainly not deserted, on the contrary during that century and the following one, the
greatest Italian shrines were decorated. It is only necessary, to recall the fine Signorelli
frescoes in the Basilica of Loreto, the famous frescoes of the Sistine Chapel, Mount Oli-
veto, Orvieto in which this forerunner of Michel Angelo illustrated scenes from the
old and new testaments : the life of Moses, the conversion of Paul, the day of judge-
ment, the resurrection of the dead, etc., magnificent works testifying to the educative
mission of painting. Sculpture likewise has this mission. It tried to represent, as
did Roman sculpture by a service of tableaux. In the XVth century Ghiberti made the
famous doors of the babtistery at Florence on which were depicted the most remarkable
events of old and new testaments, a work admired by Michel Angelo and declared by
Vasari to be the " most beautiful work in the world ".

The XVIth century showed the pure glory of Italian art. Artists of genius created
some of the finest works by which humanity is valued : Leonardo da Vinci, a universal
mind gifted with prodigious activity, quite as remarkable as that which activated the
Dantesque genius of Michel Angelo ; Raphael, soft, graceful and vivid, who frescoed the
famous Loges in the Vatican which now bear his name. These are the three colossal
figures of XVIth century art, who depicted in marble and paint the great religious
epoch which impressed the people of the world with their origin and end :

Fatti non foste a viver come bruti,

Ma per sequir virtute et conoscenza (1).

Besides Luca Signorelli and Michel Angelo, other artists, notably Pinturicchio
and Perugino helped to decorate the Sistine Chapel. Perugino brought to Rome the deli-
cacy of the Umbrian School which charmed Carducci and inspired some of his verses.

In theXVIIIth century, the search for novelty introduced " picturesque sculpture
and " sculptural painting ". This period belongs to Baroque, and there followed,
chiefly thanks to Napoleon, a return to Greek and Roman art in the form of a neo-clas-
sicism that was almost a return to nature.

Painters continued both to decorate the houses of the great and to work in the chur-
ches where they continued their work of civilisation and education. Guido Reni, the
Dominican, Salvator Rosa, Tiepolo, Caravaggio were amongst these who carried on
the Work of silent but efficacious teaching.

c) Modern Pedagogues and Visual Education.

In Italy amongst modern educators, Vittorino Rambaldoni da Feltre (1378-1446)
come foremost both in point of view of date and of importance : be devoted his whole
life to the education of youth.

(1) We were not created to live like beasts but to tread in the paths of virtue and knowledge.

— 373 —

In 1 423 he was called to Mantua as tutor of the children of the Marquis Gianfranco
Gonzaga. The Marquis who thought highly of him, placed a villa called " La Gioiosa
(the Joyous) at his disposal : da Feltre re-christened it "La Giocosa " (from Gioco :
game), thinking of the children that were to fill it (1) and of this teaching method which
recognised the necessity of giving an educational direction to games and thus anticip-
ated by three centuries the educational innovations of Pestalozzi and Froebel. In this
connection, Rosmini (2) wrote : " If we examine more closely the educational system of
da Feltre we shall see that many of the methods proposed by modern writers with a pre-
tence of their being novel and mysterious were not iunknown to the able Italians of a
period which is deemed uncivilized only by those ho are unacquainted with it .

Da Feltre had the Walls of " La Giocosa " covered with frescoes of children playing,
thus creating a propitious atmosphere for his educational system and showing what
character he intended to give to it. Following the example set by Quintillian and St.
Jerome he wished make learning to read easy, by using, not letters carved in ivory, but
letters painted on cardboard.

Although da Feltre 's educational ideal was strictly christian, he did not hesitate to
use those precepts of Greco-Roman thought which benefited the children and are evident
in the aspect and arrangement of the school and its large gardens. In this he was the
forerunner of those modern educationalists who give as much care, in open air and
physical cultural schools to the health of the body as to that of the spirit and the mind.

Francesco Filelfo (1398-1481) also notes the importance of the visual elements
in education. He advises the use of coloured pictures to attract the children's attention.

' ' As for the literary studies towards which the childs mind should be directed, these
should be presented in an amiable light in order to prevent the child from taking a dis-
like to such matters. With Horace, he writes : " Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile
dulci" (3).

The educational value of painting was likewise apparent to the greatest and most
universal mind of the XlVth century, Leon Battista Alberti who declared it to be the
mistress of all arts or at least their principal ornament. Erasmus, too, forecast attrac-
tive education and condemned the rigourous discipline of schools during his epoch.

In Francois Rabelais (1483-1553) we find another partisan of attractive education.
That most violent and bitter satire " La Vie tres Horrifique du Grand Gargantua, Pere
de Paritagruel ", in which he attacks the educational methods of his time is very well
known.

In the first half of the XVIth century, the ideal of chivalry, although abandoned in
life was continued in schools. Rabelais protested against this superficiality and against
verbiage generally.

Rabelais contrasts Gargantua, the pupil of a system based upon repetition and me-
mory with Eudomone, the product of a new system according to which his tutor instructs
him by taking him to visit laboratories and factories.

(1) The children of the MARQUIS Gonzaga were soon joined first by those of distinguished Mantuan
families and then by those from distinguished families, throughout Italy.

(2) Carlo Rosmini. Idea dell'ottimo precettore nella vita e disciplina di Vittorino da Feltre.
<3) G. B. Gerini. Gli Scrittori Pedagocici Italiani del Secolo XV.

— 374 —

Rabelais sees the only hope of re-educating Gargantua in the absolute elimination
of the effects of a pseudo-education.

He wishes to substitute visible and tangible things which are more easily printed
on men's minds, for abstractions. Consequently it is rather by means of objects than
books that Gargantua is instructed : " At table he spoke with his tutor Ponocrates of the
nature, the properties and the virtues of what was served up to them : bread, water, wine,
salt, fish, meat, vegetables, fruits, etc.. . . Passing through fields and other places he
observed the trees, plants, etc. with reference to ancient works in which he had read of
them. On wet days he went to see how metals are extracted and cannons cast, or to watch
jewellers, weavers and watchmakers at work. . . "

The method described by Rabelais is the intuitive method, developed in real object
lessons.

But, when object lessons are impossible ? When insurmountable difficulties prevent
pupils from being taken to watch these processes. Then the picture must be used (fixed
projections, etc. . . ) or the animated image (cinema) the latter constituting the most
powerful auxiliary known for helping the master to render his lesson more interesting
and more profitable.

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), a great humanist, fine and subtle of spirit does
not neglect education in his essays. Three of these deal expressly with the subject
(Du Pedantisme — De l'lnstruction des enfant — De 1'Affection des Peres aux Enfants),
in which Montaigne rebels against pedantry, which then dominated, and makes a vital
and profound criticism of the educational methods of his time.

The reform which he preaches will rescue children from a fastidious and painful
form of teaching which gives them only fragmentary knowledge and breeds in them an
aversion for study. He recommends a new didactic method which should make the work
attractive and for this reason agreeable to the pupils : " Our lesson, he explains, will hap-
pen by chance without having a fixed time and place, in this way it will blend with our
ordinary actions and will not be felt as an imposition. Renounce violence and force
for there is nothing that can do more harm to a good spirit ".

This is the type of lesson practiced later by Rousseau with his imaginary pupil,
' Emile '.

But Montaigne is not content to make the lesson attractive ; it must also be useful
and profitable. The enemy of mnemonic taaching, he counts less upon books than upon
objects which must be observed directly. " Our pupil should be well provided with
objects : of words he will have all too many ".

Finally in the believe that a healthy body is the most certain guarantee of a good
spirit, Montaigne recommends the education of the senses for the perfection of judgement
and feeling, which formation he justly considers as the aim of all education : " Toute
autre science est dommageable a celui qui n'a la science de la bonte .

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) gives new life to the movement started by Copernicus
and Leonardo and followed up by Galileo, Descartes, Kepler and others in order
to give culture a new direction, to force it out of the abstract into reality. It is obvius
that any movement tending to reform culture must address itself to education, faithful
ally of knowledge : Bacon seeks then to give a new orientation to education, liberating
it from old bonds in order that in may serve the new movement desired.

- 375 -

In his Novum Organum, which is really the new inductive method which he opposes
to the Organon of Aristotle, Bacon exposes the new logic in which the concrete study of
reality and the vigilant and constant study of nature replaces abstract research, in the
same way that the interpretation of phenomena replaces the reasoning mechanism by
deduction.

A truly universal principle, as applicable to the studies of the learned, as to the first
instruction of the child from which abstract ideas should be kept and intuitive experience
should take their place. Bacon does not exclude analysis but he wishes to apply it to
the study of facts and not to that of ideas and words. His scientific method, essentially
inductive and experimental, Was translated into educational principles for the first time
by A, Comenius the great Moravian educator of whom we will speak further.

There is then a great figure in Renaissance culture : Tommaso Campanella (1568-
1639). A disciple of Telesio, he embarked upon the profound and serious studies which
led him to observe the world and nature. He was persuaded that the end of the world
would be preceeded by a golden age and h; hoped that this may soon come to pass. He
tries to prepare the way, as reformer and legislator.

In his City of the Sun he outlines the plan of an ideal city governed by a Metaphys-
ician assisted by Power, Knowledge and Love. In this city temples and frescoes play
a great role. The importance of painting was clear to Campanella who finds no better
means of accomplishing the educational work upon which the foundation of his City
of the Sun depends. Campanella covers with frescoes, not only the temple wall but also
the walls which divide up the city and give to it the aspect of an immense screen on which
pictures follow one another without discontinuity treating the most varied and interest-
ing subjects.

" Knowledge ", writes Campanella, " is concerned with all sciences ; there is only one book which con-
tains all sciences and must be read by all people according to the custom of the pythagorians. Sciences are
painted upon all walls, exterior and interior, large and small. On the walls of the temple and on the velarium,
which lowers when the priest (the metaphysician) speaks, in order that his voice may carry further, the
stars with their respective virtues, sizes and movements are painted and the whole is explained by three
verses.

On the interior facade of the first court are painted all mathematical figures, many more than were
found by Archimedes and Euclid. Their dimensions are proportional to those of the facade and the explana-
tion of each is given in a verse. On the exterior face of the same wall is, in the first place, a great descrip-
tion of the whole earth, then separate pictures of different parts, whose ceremonies, costumes, laws, origins
of history and inhabitants are concisely told. Alphabetcs of different nations are found together with that
of the City of the Sun.

Inside the second court, are seen all kinds of precious stones, minerals and metals which are represented
not only in painting but by actual examples and each one with an explanation in two verses.

On the outside wall are given all seas, rivers, lakes and springs together with wines, oils and liqueurs
with their original provenance, and respective qualities.

Additionally, particular figures and verses describe hail, snow and thunder and all atmospheric
phenomena.

Inside the third court are painted all kinds of herbs and plants, of which certain are also present in vases
placed on the arcades of the exterior facade. On the outside are fishes of all kinds, from fresh and salt
water, their habits, qualities, means of generation and life and the way in which they are used. . . finally
a text teachng what is worthy of attention beneath the waters of the sea.

Inside the fourth, all kinds of birds are painted together with all information concerning their sizes,
habits, colours, etc.

-376 -

On the outside are all kinds of reptiles, serpents, dragons, insects, etc. with all their characteristics in a
scarcely credible abundance of detail.

Inside the fifth court are shown all kinds of terrestrial animals in the most abundant and perfect manner.
Many of these being very large are painted on the outside wall of this court.

Inside the sixth court all arts and crafts with their respective tools are illustrated as well as the way in
which they are practiced by each nation. Each is placed and explained according to its importance and
bears the name of its inventor. On the outside are painted the portraits of all those great men who have
attained fame in science, war and legislation. I saw Moses, Osiris, Solon, Charondas, Feronea and others.
And who else ? Mahomet himself was there who is nevertheless held to be a bad legislator without scruples.
But in the place of honour I saw Jesus Christ with the twelve apostles who are worshipped and considered
superior to men. I saw painting; representing Caesar, Alexander, Pyrrhus, Hannibal and other celebrated
men, chiefly Romans famous in both peace and war.

There are masters who explain the paintings and accustom the children to learning without trouble,
almost with amusement although always with method, all the sciences before they are ten years old.

After their seventh year when they have acquired mathematical notions from the paintings they are set
to the study of natural science- Agriculture and animal breeding are taught them by direct observation.
The knowledge of the mechanical arts its facilitated by exercise and by the paintings.

The children commence in lay to learn alphabets, to explain the paintings and then to study the history
to which they refer. .

We have given this passage in full because it has great importance with regard to
visual education and the applications of the cinema to education which it suggests are
readily seen.

The City of the Sun, born in the mind of Campanella, has some thing Utopian about
it, with its walls covered in paintings. It recalls the sculpture which many poets have
introduced in their work in order to provide subject for a detailed description. Thus in
the Iliad, Homer gives us the ornamentation of Achilles buckler, a description which
far exceeds the possibility of sculpture but which, retracing the successive stages of event
forecasts the perfect image which gives not only a moment of action but the entire action
as it may be observed in reality; in the Aeneid Virgil describess the work on the gates
of the Temple of Juno at Carthage and of the Temple of Apollo at Cumes, as well as that
on Aeneas' buckler, etc. Dante in the Divine Comedy lines the first ascent to purgatory
with images sculptured in marble giving examples of humidity. Titian in " Stanzas "
describes scenes sculpted on the doors of Venus' palace, and Tasso in " Jerusalem
Delivered " describes love scenes on the doors of the palace of Armides ; in the Lusiades
when Vasco da Gama gives the history of Portugal, Camoens makes him describe the pic-
tures which decorate the banners. In the Bassvilliana, Vincenzo Monti describes four
goblets on which are graven four of the most harrowing scenes of the French Revolu-
tion, etc.

If the City of the Sun brings to mind many poetic fancies with which it has many
points of contact it does not affect the fact that Campanella did understand to a surpris-
ing degree the extent to which visual education must be employed in the future.

In Campanella the linking of painting and poetry is worthy of note : for him one
art completes another and both help to realise his educational ideal. The role of the
words is to explain the pictures just as it is that of the commentary, if we may be allow
such a comparison, to explain the film.

Campanella wishes that all the exact sciences, such as natural sciences, history and
Poetry may be represented on the walls of the City of the Sun : from this one can con-

— 377 —

elude that all teaching can be enlivened by the animated image with spoken commentary.

Why then is there so much reticence and doubt about introducing it into schools ?
We know very Well that only knowledge approved by time penetrates into schools and that
they close their doors very justly against all untried experiments. Children are taught
certainties and the study of possibilities is left to the learned. But who can deny that the
cinema has acquired a sufficient degree of perfection — and safety with uninflammable
film — to give it the right of entry into schools where it can accomplish an interesting
and profitable task ?

Rene Descartes (1 596-1 650) and Realism. " We call realist that system of education
in which the study of languages and litterature gives away to the study of natural
phenomena and social istitutions.

Natural consequence of the Renaissance, that movement which we have seen guided
by Bacon and which was forecast by Rabelais and Montaigne tended above all to enter
into education and reform it as a basis for all other reform. In its empirical form Realism
concentrates its energy on the education of the senses preferring the idea to the form and
the object to the word which expresses it and thus forecasts the inductive method based
on observation. Observation is not only the sccurce of knowledge on which it confers
precision and value, it is also the first manifestation of all sensible activity, it is the ex-
citant which, acting on the spirit, forces it to study. In this conviction Realism tried
to develop this faculty by a large variety of well co-ordinated means and to cultivate it
in children while very young, with the hope that the example would prove fruitful of
results when they arrived at maturity.

The author of the " Discours de la Methode " is of interest in the history of visual
education in as much he was particularly concerned with the effects of didactic method
on the development of human thought and the intellectual manifestations of the in-
dividual .

As is well known, the original point in Cartesian speculation — which, in order to
answer, to the critical exigencies of modern thought does not in the least fear to demolish
in order to rebuild more solidly — is the famous " Cogito ergo sum ", a first and certain
truth arising naturally from systematic doubt : if I doubt, I think and if I think I have the
certainty of being.

Education, appreciated justly is another of Descartes' " reconquests ". He does
not hesitate to state that education influences more than nature herself in the formation
of the spirit and that the intellectual faculties depend less upon natural gifts than upon
the method according to which they are developed. Whilst, a little while afterwards
La Bruyere, seeming to ignore the prodigious works of education in all places and at all
times, states that " education only touches the soul superficially ", Helvetius, a century
later, following on Descartes and carrying to the point of paradox a principal the justice
of which must be admitted, upheld the omnipotence of education. According to him
education is the only difference between men, who are born with the same gifts ; the
spirit of the child is empty and it is the duty of education to fill it.

Although we do not share the paradoxical opinion of Helvetius who denies ultimate-
ly the tendancies and predispositions which vary according to the individual and also the
capacity for assimilation and creation in the human intelligence which, as is proved by
the livei of great men, can, although neglected and untaught, rise to the very greatest

— 378 —

heights, it did not appear to us inopportune to recall it in a modified from, for it is the
expression of a great truth which should not be forgotten, for to this truth are linked
the destinies and the prosperity of nations and future progress.

The importance of education and the role that the method plays in it are realised by
all, theoretically at least. But theory is not enough. Faith without works is dead, said
Saint Paul. Theory without action is vain, it is the dead faith referred to. Ideals are
fine and to be believed in but if they are capable of realisation they should be realised.
Faith and works, eternally connected, alone can achieved results. In education the meth-
od should be vital, spontaneous and adaptable to circumstances. There should be as
many methods as masters, for each master should adapt the chosen method to his partic-
ular pupils. It might then be better to say : as many methods as pupils. The first duty
of the master is to understand his pupils. And for this he need be no learned, psychol-
ogist. It is sufficient that the master should be well informed and like the school and
his function. The child, even when timid and reserved, opens itself easily, when it feels
itself loved. The master should enter delicately, discern light and shade, feed the one
and dissipate the other. He should proceed thus with each pupil and he should not see
in each, as Plutarch says, a vase to be filled with notions more or less useful and more or
less exact, more or less remembered, but a flame to be fed with the purest patriotic and
religious ideas according to Christ who said " I am come to bring light into the world,
what can I desire other than it should flame up ".

The human soul is a flame to be fed. A very little can feed it, a very little can hide
it to the gaze of the superficial observer. Hence the importance of the method. Since
the first faculties of the child to develop are those of the senses it is evident that the master
should first devote his attention to these. The child as yet known nothing [of [the world ;
everything is a cause for curiosity and surprise. To exploit this desire for knowledge is
the task of the educator. But there is a grave obtacle in the path of the educator who is
inexperienced, an obstacle which amounts almost to a danger for it may stifle the child's
desire to learn : it is the danger of the word.

The word is in itself incomprehensible to the child and is only when the former is
accompanied by the object which it represents that is has sense and interest for the child.
' To see ", is what all healthy and intelligent children wish. To answer to this de-
mand is to show things to children and when is not possible they must be shown pictures
preferably animated because they are more real. This is the task of a didactic method
answering to the requirements of the hyper-critical modern spirit.

(To be continued).

M. L. Rossi Longhi

379

Ice in;/,.

— 380 —

Paramount picture

town

Mary Pickford - Norma Talmadge - Gloria Swanson - Charlie Chaplin
Douglas Fairbanks - D. W. GrifRth-Joseph M. Shenck - Samuel Goldwyn

UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION

Joseph M. Schenck President and Chairman of the Board of Directors

729 Seventh Avenue, New York • United Artists Studios, Hollywood, Calif.

UNITED ARTISTS CORPORATION, LTD. Film House, Wardour Street, London, W. I. England.

LES ARTISTES ASSOCIES, S. A., 20 Rue d'Aguesseau, Paris, France.

LOS ARTISTAS ASOCIADOS, Rambla de Cataluna 62, Barcelona, Spain.

ARTISTI ASSOCIATI, 22 Via del Quirinale, Rome, Italy.

TERRA - UNITED ARTISTS, Kochstrasse 73, Berlin, S, W. 68, Germany.

LES ARTISTES ASSOCIES, S. A. B., 33 Boulevard du Jardin Botanique, Brussels, Belgium.

UNITED ARTISTS, 14 Hammerichgade, Copenhagen, Denmark.

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vakia.

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A. B. UNITED ARTISTS, O. Y., 39 Esplanadgatan, Helsingfors, Finland.

UNITED ARTISTS A/S, Kirkegaten 20, Oslo, Norway.

UNITED ARTISTS A/B, Birger Jarlsgatan 15, Stockholm, Sweden.

UNARTISCO, S. A., 3, Rue de la Confederation, Geneva, Switzerland.

UNITED ARTISTS (AUSTRALASIA) LIMITED, 55, Courtenay Place, Wellington, New-Zealand.

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KRISEL & KRISEL, Agents, 21 Museum Road, Shanghai, China.

Legislation

LEGISLATION FAVOURING
THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

During the session of the Permanent Committee of Arts and Letters held from July 6th
to 9th 1931 at Geneva, the President M. Jules Destree spoke of work done and to be done.
With reference to the Cinema he expressed himself thus :

It was inevitable that such modern inventions as the cinema should be used in the cause of
international intellectual relations. Questions of the Cinema are naturally to be dealt with by the
International Institute in Rome. Nevertheless in view of what has been done in Roumania and
Italy to supplement theatrical cinema with educational Cinema, the Committee saw fit to take the
following resolution :

" The Permanent Committee of Arts and Letters, persuaded of the value of the Cinema
as a means of making known the highest and noblest artistic manifestations to the people,

asks the Commissionfor Intellectual Cooperation to call the attention of the I. I. E. C.
to the desirability of including educational films in ordinary theatrical film programmes ".

M. Destree's report was approved by the Commission for Intellectual Co-operation at
its XII Ith session.

In its turn the Administrative Council of the I. I. E. C. at its fourth session held in Rome
from the 13th to the 16th of October 1931 considered the resolution of the Permanent Com-
mittee of Arts and Letters and adopted the following resolution :

" The Administrative Council welcomes the suggestion of the Permanent Committee of
Arts and Letters to include in each programme an educational film ;

declares that the Institute has already taken steps in the matter and approached the various
governments ;

engages the Director to continue with these negociations and to furnish a report the Perma-
nent Committee of Arts and Letters at its next meeting in May 1932 ".

As a result of this resolution the I. I.E.C. addressed a letter describing the attempt to
the various governments, asking them to state what measures existed in their particular coun-
tries, favourising the projection of educational films.

The replies were numerous and furnished an abundance of material which has enabled
the Institute to prepare a concise report showing the condition of the educational film in all
countries. We think it useful to reproduce this report here :

It was first necessary to eliminate those duties, Rep. of Sta Dominica ; Uruguay,

countries where the educational film is not where the National Educational Council does

favourised in any way. They are : Albania, distribute educational films which it pur-

where a new Cinema law is under conside- chases abroad ; Venezuela,

ration, Colombia, where a law based on the Countries favourising the educational film

measures suggested by the Institute will are :
shortly be introduced ; Guatemala, Haiti,

Luxembourg, Monaco, Persia where the Germany. — Here a system which will

government intends to introduce a law ex- be discussed later is in use. According

empting educational films from all customs to a ruling on entertainments tax of July

— 382 —

7th, 1923 and supplementary clauses of June
12th 1926, all shows composed of at least
9/10ths of educational films are exempt from
entertainment tax. The introduction of
educational films at least 1 00 metres in length
brings a reduction in the tax proportionate
to the number of these films shown. Ac-
cording to law the educational value of these
films must be recognized by the Zentralin-
stitut fur Erziehung und Unterricht of
Berlin or by the Lichtbildstelle of Munich.

ENGLAND. — Section VIII of the Finance
Act 1927 contains dispositions in virtue of
which cultural and scientific films furnished
with a certificate by the Royal Society are
exempt from customs duties and internal
taxation.

ARGENTINE. — The Censure Committee
notes films of an educational value and re-
commends them for child audiences. A re-
duction of 50 % in Municipal rights is
accorded to such films.

AUSTRALIA. — In a general way education-
al films entering Australia are subject
only to an ad valorem duty of 1 0 % taken on
all imports (primage duty). However, educa-
tional films with dramatic plots or scenes
dealing with Australia are charged as or-
dinary films.

AUSTRIA. — Regulations differ according
to provinces.

a) Tyrol. A decree of Feb. 28 1928 establi-
shes a tax de luxe benefitting local authorities,
but art. 3. exempts educational shows orga-
nised by schools. Acting under the influence
of the Federal Education Dept., the Tyrol
Government sent a circular to mayors on the
encouragement of educational films recom-
mending to them moderation in the appli-
cation of the tax de luxe to educational shows.

This circular which was published in the
Tiroler Merkblatter for Feb. 26th 1930 had
the following contents :

' These taxes should tend to encourage
cinemas to take more interest in educational

films and in films generally which tend to
raise the intellectual level ".

The difficulties of the present age im-
pede many people from attaining culture
and it is therefore a duty of the authorities
to facilitate in every possible way the showing
of educational and instructional films, the
more so as these are considered one of the
most efficient means of instruction ".

The fear that receipts with regard to these
taxes may show a decrease should not hinder
the young from being educated in this way
above all as the moral elevation resultant is
certainly ample compensation for a decrease
in receipts ".

This circular also explains the possibility
of noting in a special manner those films
which merit this preferential application
of the tax.

b) Carinthia. In virtue of paragraph 2-4 of
decree 51 of July 31 1923 the following may
be relieved partially or totally from tax de
luxe :

shows of a scientific character, educa-
tional or artistic value given in the public
interest ;

shows organised by schools in an educa-
tional end.

c) Lower Austria. Shows organised in a
strictly instructive, educational or scien-
tific spirit are exempt from the taxe-de-luxe.
(Decree 181, July 7th, 1926 section 3b).

d) Burgenland, as above (Decree 22 Dec.
16th 1927, section 4b).

e) Upper Austria. As above (Decree
No. 102 May 24th 1921, section 4, 1 and 2)

f) Salzbourg. Shows of educational nature
with the purpose of : popular science ; pop-
ular education ; professional instruction ;
raising general cultural level of public ;
instructing students, when none of these have
commercial intentions. (Decree 74, May 16th
1919 section 3-a and b).

g) Styria. As above (Decree 21, Dec. 24th
1929 section 2).

h) Vorarlberg. The authorities can exempt
shows of a special character from the taxe-
de-luxe (Decree 4, of the Town Senate,
Jan. 29, 1926, section 1).

- 383

i) Vienna. As in Upper Austria (Decree 5
of the Town Senate, Jan. 24, 1928).

Finally, as concerning the Austrian Fed-
eral Authorities, although in theory it is not
legal for the financial authorities to exempt
films from customs duties, a decree of the
Federal Minister of Education, Dec. 10
1924, reserves to the said minister the right
to accord a preferential fiscal treatment to
certain films upon the demand of certain
associations for popular education.

Belgium. — According to Art. 9 of the
Royal Decree of Jan. 4th 1922, enforcing
art. 2 of the entertainment tax law, film shows
having an educational end and a non-com-
mercial character are exempt from tax.

Bulgaria. — A law of April 15th 1930
published in the official Journal of April
29th 1930, No. 21 : Films made in Bulgaria,
made abroad with Bulgarian artists, with
subjects from Bulgaria or Bulgarian life, on
scientific subjects, historical subjects and
literary subjects are exempt from tax upon
the order of the Cinematograph Commission
of the Ministry of Education and are also
exempt from all customs duties on export
and import.

Art. 10. The control tax on films of the
above kinds is 0.20 leva the metre instead of
the usual tax of 0.50 for ordinary films.

According to additional information sup-
plied by the Foreign Office cinema managers
are obliged to include an educational film
in each programme. These films are not
exempt from customs but benefit from a
minimum taxation rate.

Canada. — There is no general regulation
concerning educational films in Canada.
Special regulations are, however, in force
in two provinces.

a) British Columbia. There exists *' The
British Columbia patriotic and educational
Film Service " , composed of a director and
several members appointed according to
the Civil Service Act. This organisation
has the following objects :

1) The production, purchase, rental
and projection of films and slides making
known the natural, agricultural, industrial
and commercial resources of Canada in
general and the Province in particular.

2) The free loan of such films and slides.

3) The development of Patriotic sen-
timent, general culture and popular education
by means of the Cinema.

The Director of the Service sends films
and slides of his choice to the various cine-
mas and all managers are obliged to include
this material in their programmes under
stated conditions and at stated times. How-
ever, they are not obliged to include mate-
rial exceeding 15 minutes in projection
length.

Films circulated by this Service should
bear the mark of the Service and they are
submitted, as are all filing to the Censors
Commission.

b) Ontario. Institutions or associations
concerned, without commercial interest, in
the organisation of shows for children and, in
a general way of an instructional or education-
al nature, can obtain from the provincial
treasurer a partial or total exemption from
taxes.

Chili. — Upon the initiative of the Edu-
cational Cinema Institute, correspondant
of the I. I. E. C, set up by the University
of Santiago, the Government of Chili has
made a series of regulations in favour of the
projection of educational films in public
cinemas.

On July 15th 1931, El Imparcial published
regulations made that day controlling the
application of Decree 357 of March 20th
which obliged cinema managers to show
cultural films supplementary to the ordinary
programme.

Art. 4 states that the length of such cul-
tural films should not be more than 350
metres nor less than 200 metres. This
should be shown before the main programme
and with the same attention. It should
figure on all publicity matter in connection
with the ordinary programme.

— 384 —

Art. 6 states that no one cinema may pro-
ject the same educational film for more than
three days in one week.

Art. 7 states that it is the duty of the Min-
istry of Education to determine periodically,
upon the basis of the report of the Censure
Commission, the grant to be made in favour
of the national industry with regard to the
projection of cultural films in public cinemas.

These regulations are at present in vigour
only in the provinces of Santiago and Acon-
gagua, but they can be extended upon the
demand of the minister of Education to the
other provinces.

China. — Precise information on this sub-
ject is lacking. It is to be remembered, how-
ever, that the executive committee of the
Kuo-min-tang decided in March 1931 to
create a Central Commission of Cinema In-
struction and Education, which should,
together with its various technical accessories,
finally constitute the Central Cinema Insti-
tute. This Institute would produce educa-
tional films and study the question of a large
National Cinema and a production establish-
ment.

The resolution of the Executive Committee
of the Kuo-min-tang stated that if funds
were lacking for the actual production,
scenarios chosen by the Commission might
be given to various firms for production un-
der supervision.

DENMARK. — According to Art 7 of the
law of May 17th 1922 on the cinema, all
cinema managers in taking out a cinema li-
cense must agree to let the cinema in question
out of normal projection hours for school
shows, etc. at a agreed rate or one fixed by
the Minister of Justice,

A Commission has been formed by the
Minister of Justice which will examine the
I. I. E. C. Proposal together with other
legislative matters in connection with the
cinema.

Danzig. — Except in special cases, news
films and travel films are exempt from cen-

sure ; the local police permit is sufficient
(§ 6 of the law on cinematography, No. 93 of
Dec. 1st. 1925, published in the Gesetzblatt
fur die Freie Stadt Danzig, No. 41, Dec.
1925).

The control of films of an educational
character is free (§ 3 Decree of District Com-
mittee, Feb. 13th 1926 pub. Staatsanzeiger
fur die Freie Stadt Danzig, Feb. 24th 1926).

EsTHONIA. — Educational films destined
for schools and furnished with the permit of
the Ministry of Education and Socia IMatters
are free from tax. A special Institution,
Eesti Kulturfilm, whose aims are not yet
precise but which will in any case deal with
the projection and distribution of educational
films, is in formation.

United States. — According to informa-
tion from the State Dept., there exists no
federal nor State law obliging cinemas to
include educational films in their pogrammes.
There is no law tending either to encourage
or discourage this system.

As for preferential taxation, it is dealt
with in § 1631 of the 1930 U. S. tariff as
below :

' Every institution or society having
strictly religious, philosophic, educational,
scientific, litterary or artistic aims ; every
college, school or educational institution,
every state or public library may import
free of duty a certain number of books,
maps, music, engravings, photographs, lito-
graphs and navigation charts, provided
that these are for its own exclusive and non-
commercial use and provided that they are
imported according to the regulations laid
down by the Treasury ".

Films, within the meaning of the act, being
conceived as similar to photos, are admitted
under the above franchise and under the
above conditions.

Besides this, several States have formed
government offices for the encouragement
of educational cinema and many towns de-
vote public monies to the production and
purchase of educational films.

385

FINLAND. — Legislation obliging cinemas
to show educational films has never been
considered. There are however fiscal bene-
fits for educational films to be found
in the regulations for stamp duties, Dec.
28th 1929:

1) Chap. 5, art. 21 . The State film cen-
sure has the duty of stating whether a film
is, according to its estimate, to be considered
as an artistic, scientific or teaching films or
as a film of Finnish production.

When the owner of a film wishes it to be
placed in either of these categories, he should
make a statement to this effect when the
film is submitted to control. If the Commis-
sion consider the request to be just they de-
liver a special certificate.

Considered as scientific films are : natural
history, geographic, ethnographic, hygiene
films, etc.

If the cinema owner wishes to pay re-
duced entertainment tax on a programme
consisting only of artistic films or to be
exempt from tax for a programme of scien-
tific films or Finnish films, he must make a
declaration to the local authorities before
the show.

A programme of artistic films may also
include one which cannot be classified in
the category but which nevertheless har-
monises with the programme as a whole.

2) Section IV, art. 14-15 entertain-
ment tax is 35 % on admissions for ordinary
programmes and 1 5 % for artistic pro-
grammes.

Programmes composed exclusively of
scientific films or Finnish films are exempt
from tax.

To enjoy the reduction indicated above,
the programmes must contain only films as
classified, except in the case of the one sup-
plementary film as explained. But if these
classified films are introduced additional to
the ordinary programme they cannot con-
stitute a claim for the above reductions.

France. — Ministerial decree of March
31, 1928 exempts news reels from censure
provided that they are vouched for by French

producing houses and do not contain more
than one-third of foreign news (by length).
It should be remembered that on Dec. 15th
last M. Petsche, under- secretary at the Beaux-
Arts, stated at the inauguration of the Con-
seil Sup. du Cinema that negociations had
been started for the introduction of a detaxa-
tion system similar to that proposed by the
I. I. E. C.

Holland. — There are no general regu-
lations exempting educational films from
customs duties. Flowever, films destined
for schools are often exempt by special or-
der as are those destined for scientific use.
Sometimes exemption is conditional upon
re-exportation but in the case of films used
in schools the exemption is permanent.

Those desiring to show educational films
can obtain a reduction in the censure control
charges. In a certain number of districts
educational films shows are exempt from
local taxation. When the value of an edu-
cational film is beyond dispute the censure
officially notes the fact and exemption from
internal taxation is forthcoming.

Dutch Indies. — With the exception of
a few films made by the local authorities
there is no film production. Ethnographic
and agricultural films have been made by
the Dept. of Agriculture and Hygiene.

Irish Free State. — According to a fiscal
regulation of 1925 (Section 25-2) the orders
of the Ministry of Justice Nov. 30th 1926,
films recognised to have educational value
by the Commissioners of Finance are exempt
from all taxation. Films of an educational
character officially are : films made to in-
struct on a given point, films treating matter
dealt with in the teachig programmes of the
public schools, colleges and universities, films
dealing with agriculture including horticul-
ture and cattle breeding, films relating to
industry ortreating problems of public health.

Italy. — In Italy one of the two systems
discussed more fully hereafter is in force.

— 386 —

The German system is based upon exemption
of educational films from taxation, the Ital-
ian system by Royal Decree 1000 of April
3rd 1926 obliges films of an educational na-
ture to be shown in every programme. This
topic will be resumed later.

Japan. — According to information from
the National Commission of Intellectual
Co-operation, films destined to public or
private schools or to museums, also those
which have obtained special authorisation
from the Ministry of Finance enjoy franchise.
The control tax on films is fixed generally
at 1 sen the metre or fraction of a metre but
the authorities can always modify this tariff
in the public interest.

LETTONIA. — The law on Cinematography
published in the Veldines Vestnensis and
the regulations relative to it oblige the show-
ing of a film of topical educational character
not less than 150 metres in length at each
showing.

Educational films from abroad are exempt
from customs duties and benefit from a con-
siderable reduction in local taxation. This
is from 30 % to 25 % for ordinary films and
is 20% for educational films., and 10%
for scientific films.

French Morocco. — No special regula-
tions favouring educational films. News
films can however be imported by any fron-
tier into Marocco (French zone) whilst or-
dinary films can enter only by Casablanca or
Oudja.

Norway. — The film control tax on top-
ical and non-story films is one-third of
that charged on spectacular films (§ 8 film
control, royal decrees Sept. 12th 1913, Nov.
16 1917 enforcing law of July 25th 1913
on public projections).

New Zealand. — Customs authorities
make no distinction between theatrical
and educational films when the importer is
in the cinema business. Educational films
are exempt from customs when they are

{To be continued).

destined to instruct in a particular manner,
serve the cause of general culture and this
only if the shows are free and the films do
not leave the hands of the importer.

PALESTINE. — Exemption from control
tax may be obtained if the demand for
control accompanied by a certificate from
the district Commissioner, declaring that the
film in question will be used only for edu-
cational or philanthropic purposes. (Order
of the High Commissioner, Oct. 16, 1927,
No. 27, 810, section 2).

Poland. — Circular 131/SF-4944/3, June
25th, 1929, of the Minister of Education
on the entertainment tax, reduced maximum
tax on educational films to 10% and that on
Polish subject films to 5 % of an educational
character. For artistic films the correspond-
ing figures are 20 to 25 % and 1 0 to 1 5 %
and for theatrical films 30 to 60 % and
(Polish subjects) 20%.

Educational films benefit from an average
reduction of 50 % .

Portugal. — A recent law deals integrally
with the educational and cultural film. Art. 1
states that the aim of the law is to encourage
the use of films in schools and in popular edu-
cation in science, art, history, geography
and industry. With this end in view a
Commission for the educational film has
been founded with an interesting programme
including the task of proposing definite films
to be made to the Ministry of Education.

Art. 3 of the decree obliges all cinemas to
show the cultural films from the Ministry
of Education according to a plan which will
be evolved at once from an examination of
similar systems in other countries.

Roumania. — Art. 40 of the regulations re.
cinemas obliges cinemas to show educationl
topicals each day, not less than 300 metres
in length and rented at a strictly fair rate.
This clause has for a long time been dis-
regarded but in 1930-31 enforcement was
commenced.

387

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Information and Comment

THE CONDITION OF CINEMATOGRAPHY IN CHINA

(From information supplied by C. Bos, Delegate for China, I. I. E. C.)

The Chinese cinema industry is said to
owe its inception to a foreign tourist, who in
1913, happened to be interested in modern
Chinese drama. His idea was to have such
plays reproduced on the screen and to in-
troduce them to the public in Western coun-
tries. He enlisted the support of some
Chinese actors and promoted a syndicate
which soon produced several hundred feet
of film. The scheme, however, failed to
find favour with the Chinese public, the acting
being stiff and mechanical and the production
withal of a crude and mediocre type.
Further, the film, though highly amusing to
a foreign audience, was found objectionable,
owing to certain features touching the suscep-
tibilities of the Chinese. The financial col-
lapse of the enterprise was inevitable, but the
attempt gave birth to the infant cinemato-
graphy in China.

Meanwhile, however, films of many de-
scriptions were pouring into China from
abroad and the cinema was gradually becom-
ing one of the most popular forms of amuse-
ment. Picture houses increased in number by
leaps and bounds, the cheaper class catering
for the poorer strata of the population, the
better equipped establishments being pa-
tronized by the foreigners. The foreign films
were, however, occasionally a cause for just
complaint and resentment, inasmuch as they
wittinghly or unwittingly represented things
Chinese in an unfavourable or ridiculous
light and thus kept the educated classes of
China from the movie screen.

The financial success of cinema enter-
prises soon attracted Chinese capital, and
many Chinese actors were lured from the
stage to the screen, with the result that in
1 917 the Motion Picture Study Association

was formed and this concern screened, as
one of its first productions, the dramatic love
story of a popular sing-song girl who had
been murdered by her lover. The brothels
and night clubs of Shanghai formed the sce-
nic back-ground of this picture which, from
the view point of art and technique, had noth-
ing to recommend itself but attracted full
houses night after night, owing to its sensa-
tional character.

Despite its initial success the Motion Pic-
ture Study group soon disappeared from
the scene, to be succeeeded by the Asia
Motion Picture Corporation, an Anglo-Am-
erican concern which proposed to meet the
popular demand for disclosures of Shanghai's
night life and for short comedies. But
this company also registered little success.
The New Asia Motion Picture Company
then made its bow to the public. Its
first production bore the suggestive title
of " A Vampire Under The Veil of Rouge ".
The story which was well received by the
public showed how easily the jeunesse
doree " of Shanghai came under the spell of
seductive women, but it laid itself open to
severe criticism owing to its crude portrayal
of sexual relations between men and women.

A new enterprise then came into being
under the name of the " Shanghai Motion
Corporation ", whose first picture was The
Oath Taken at Sea ", which was received
with great favour owing mainly to the fact
that in its cast figures one of Shanghai s
fashionable set.

The first attempt was made at this time
by the Commercial Press, the leading pub-
lishing Company of China, to turn out
educational films, but they found little fa-
vour with the public. Altogether 20 films

390 —

were produced and as the subjects may be
of some historic interest, 9 synopsises of
film stories with English translations are
attached herewith.

The Star Motion Picture Company then
appeared on the scene with short comedies
like " A Theatre in Uproar ", " A Comedian's
Trip to Shanghai ", " A Labourer's Love ",
etc. The actors were of mediocre talent
and the plots were not such as to be easily
understood by the audience. The Company
saved itself from bankrupcy by staging a so-
cial tragedy that at the time had aroused great
interest all over the country. A young spend-
thrift had murdered his father in order
to obtain control of his wealth. This
production in 16 reels entitled "A Parri-
cide " was regarded as a masterpiece of its
kind.

Such were the struggles of the early cinema
industry in China. There are at present
16 Chinese and 18 foreign motion picture
corporations operating in China. Shanghai
has 44 picture houses with a seating capacity
of about 27,000. Out of these 20 are
" talkies ". New ones are appearing every
now and then

Practically all films imported from abroad
have their first run in Shanghai before
they are distributed over the country. Hence
it should be possible to give the exact me-
trage of the films imported in a given year.
It is known, however, that every theathre
program in Shanghai comprises about 1 0 reels
of film, each 1000 feet long, or 10,000 feet
per program. It is likewise known by the
industry that approximately 400 programs
were imported in 1931, 350 of which came
from America and 50 from Europe. These
would make a total of 4 million feet of
film, or 4,000 reels per year.

The total number of movie theatres all
over China is 220, with an aggregate seating
capacity of about 100,000.

China offers an almost unlimited market
for her own productions while abroad she
has her emigrants in the South Seas and
Straits Settlements for an export market.
Though the home industry is as yet unable

to compete with the foreign films, it has ne-
vertheless won for itself an important po-
sition. The time is approaching when it will
become a formidable rival of the imported
article, for the Chinese, at home and abroad,
consider the patronage of fims made in China
and by Chinese producers as a matter of
patriotism as well as a question of dollars
and cents.

It is worthy of note that, despite the fact
that the cinema industry has come to stay,
no standard Chinese equivalent for " cine-
matograph ", " motion picture " and " ci-
nema " has as yet been determined so as to
be uniformly used in China. In Chihli and
Manchuria the adopted term is " Tien
Ying " which means " electric picture ",
rather too terse a term for so vast and varied
an industry. In Shanghai and the surround-
ing provinces they use " Yin Hsi " which
may be rendered as " drama on the screen .
In the south and as I noticed recently —
in far Chungking the term emp.loyed is
" Huo Tung Tien Ying " which seems the
most appropriate word, for it means literal-
ly " motion picture ", or " moving picture ".

The Chinese people have on the whole
reacted favourably to sound pictures though
the great mass has no knowledge of En-
glish. To assist this majority, theatres
usually throw a synopsis of the subject in
Chinese on the screen, while the picture is
being shown.

The Chinese film directors are commercial
experts rather than artists and concentrate
too much on the financial side of the business.
They do not seem to have had any education
in art : they have worked with foreigners,
picked up the purely mechanical side of
the business and make no effort towards
originality and Chinese inspiration in the
selection of subjects and the arrangement
of the scenes. This deplorable tendency
is encouraged by the financial success of
their ventures and by the support of a public
which has as yet no pronounced artistic
taste and favours anything provided it is
produced by Chinese enterprises and Chinese
artists. The regrettable tendency towards

- 391 -

slavish imitation of foreign productions is
evident everywhere and untd an earnest ef-
fort is made to turn out work based on real
Chinese art, no better future for the Chinese
cinematography can be expected. At pre-
sent the need for a proper orientation to-
wards a national art on the screen is not felt,
the industry being entirely in the hands of
men who lack both the culture and the ar-
tistic finesse required. Two companies em-
ploy American operators for the purely
technical and mechanical part of the work,
but they are not allowed to exercise any in-
fluence in matters of good taste and the ar-
tistic arrangement of the scenes ".

The Chinese intelligentia, while fully
realizing the possibilities of the cinema as a
potential factor of civilisation and social
elevation, trace the modern social evils of
Shanghai and other cities where the imported
films have penetrated, to the debasing in-
fluence of the screen. The vernacular press
has often dealt with this subject and deplored
the demoralizing effect of certain films and
the evil habits they suggest to the younger
generation. In this connection I cannot do
better than quote part of a letter from my
old Chinese teacher Wang Ting Chang of
Tientsing, an enlightened scholar of the old
school, whose opinion 6 I sought on this en-
grossing subject :

" Remember the words of our celebrated states-
man Wen Hsiang addressed in 1 860 to your foreign
ministers in Peking : " You foreigners are too an-
xious to awaken us and urge us on to the path of
progress and you will succeed ; but you will regret
it ; for once started we will proceed rapidly and go
far, farther than you believe at present and farther
than you would wish us to go ". In fact while
your idealists are preaching the unity of mankind,
world-mindedness and international peace, owing
to your murderous machine guns, tanks, guns and
flying machines, which you are importing into our
country, our civil wars have developed from mere
guerillas to national calamities involving tens of
millions of the Chinese people. Where do the tens
of thousands of brigands, who constantly infest our
country obtain their modern armaments from?
Your leaders boast of your material wealth and
achievements, but they neglect to educate the minds

of your peoples to higher ideal of humanity, other-
wise how could your last great war have happened ?
How have your vaunted christian principles, which
you insist upon propagating among us, helped you
in averting such calamities ?

" As to the influence of the cinema on the minds
of the Chinese people, this latest of all your inven-
tions is undermining the best traditions and customs
of our ancient social structure. The prominence
given in your films to adultery, divorce and lax-
ity in morals is destroying our admirable family
life which has stood the test of millenia ; your kissing
scenes, your exibition of nudity and obscene danc-
ing on the screen is demoralizing our lower classes
and excite the passions of our boys and girls be-
yond r esistance ; your crime stories have taught our
kidnappers, robbers, thieves and bandits how to use
revolvers, how to circumvent the police, and how
to utilise the motor car in their nefarious trade : the
dancing halls and night clubs whih have come in
the wake of the cinema and are invading the coun-
try from Shanghai to Chengtu and from Mengtze
to Kirin, are undermining the morality of our boys
and girls. Indeed the list of evil habits and cus-
toms that can be traced to your film screen is a long
one. As to yourselves, can you not see that this
shameless exhibition of the bad side of your cinema
and 'azz civilisation does not stimulate respect
among our masses for the foreigners in our midst ? "

" Yet, this invention, like so many others of which
your western civilisation is boasting, might be the
factor of much good. I hear that influence are at
work in Europe and America to enlist the cinema
in the ser-'ice ot science and moral teaching. Why,
then, do you persist in directing into China all this
flood ot corruption ? "

The above tirade on the evils resulting
from modern cinematography represents the
opinion of the saner part of the Chinese peo-
ple. The government has only recently
made an effort to prevent the exhibition of
films of questionable morality. A board of
censors composed of eleven members select-
ed by the Bureau of Education, Social Af-
fairs and Public Safety of Shanghai was in-
stituted at the end of 1929, and since April
1930 all films shown are subject to the ap-
proval of the censors before they are exhib-
ited.

The latest addition to these Regulations
is that certificates issued by film cen-

— 392 —

sures must be submitted to the Bureau of
Education 3 days before the exhibition of
pictures already passed by the censors.
Inspectors appointed by the Bureau will
be delegated to see the that regulations are
duly observed.

The Shanghai American Women's Club
has recently undertaken a campaign for
better films for Shanghai and its bulletin is
reprinting the lists of films worth seeing
compiled periodically by the General Fede-
ration of Women's Clubs in Washington
D. C, U. S. A. with a view to fostering a
more discriminating and selective demand in
Motion Picture Entertainment on the part
of local communities. It is stated in one
of its " Bulletins " that " everyyone is tired
of racketeer plays and we are finding little
interest in the sentimental drivel presented,
some of which are an insult to the average
intelligence. We believe that beauty in
music and scenery, in lighting and colour,
in features and character makes its appeal to
all. We do not enjoy the same books nor
do we interpret them alike. This is true of
pictures. Opinions vary, but good tast goes
on. Situations that offend good taste, or
vulgarisms are not enjoyable entertainments
for any age

Educational cinematography in China has
a vast horizon of possibilities. The prover-
bial conservatism of the Chinese people of the
past is gone for ever and no regret has fol-
lowed it and the Kuo Min Tang or Nat-
ionalist Party which rules the country is de-
finitely committed by the " Three Princi-
ples " of Dr. Sun Yatsen, the late party lea-
der, to an educational policy of a magnitude
not realised abroad. The Second Education-
al Conference of April 1 930, attended by the
highest government representatives and the
principal educators of the country adopted
the following resolutions which constitutes
a 20 years plan for the Ministry of Education.
1 . Compulsory Education : the training
of 1 4 million elementary school teachers with-
in the next 20 years at an expenditure of
280 million dollars, as a foundation for the
education of 40 million children of school age.

2. Mass Education : the training of
1 35,000 teachers, the establishment of 1 1 2,470
mass education schools and the raising of
284 million dollars within 6 years, so that
the illiterates between 16 and 60 years may
receive 4 months schooling in reading and
writing.

3. Training of teachers for all grades
of schools within 5 years.

4. Improvement of Primary education
both in equipment and efficiency.

5. Improvement of secondary education ;
the establishment of fifty junior middle
schools every year for the next twenty years.

6. Improveent of higher education.

7. Social Education : establishment of
libraries, museums, art institutions, athletic
fields and all grades of continuation schools.

8. Development of overseas Chinese
the education with a grant of $ 500,000 from
national treasury and a campaign to raise
a sinking fund of $ 1 0 million for the purpose.

9. Mongolian and Tibetan education.

10. Educational Fund : the national edu-
cational appropriation for the first year to
be $ 60 million, but within the 20th year this
amount will be increased to over $ 500 mil-
lion. (China Year Book 1931).

There is a special Department of Social
Education in the Ministry of Education, the
aim of which is the development of mass,
adult and civic education, including the
teaching of the San Min Chu I or " Three
Principles of the People " and the principles
of the Kuo Min Tang ; vocational training
in continuation schools ; libraries, museums
and the art of teaching ; public recreation ;
improvement of social customs ; supervision
of centres of social education ; publication
of popular literature for the masses ; edu-
cation of physically deficient or mentally
sub-normal children.

The Academia Sinica or Chung Yang
Yien Chiu Yuan, is the highest national
institution for scientific research under the
direct control of the Central Government.
Its principal functions are twofold : to carry
on scientific research ; and to guide, coor-
dinate and promote the same. Its heads

— 393

are an Administrative President, a Sec-
retary General and 3 to 5 Secretaries. It
comprises 14 National Research Institutes
for Physics, Chemistry, Engineering, Geol-
ogy, Astronomy, Meteorology, History and
Philosophy, Chinese Literature, Archeology,
Psychology, Education, Social Sciences,
Zoology and Botany. Each Institute is in
charge of a Director and has a technical and
administrative staff.

The various organs of the Academia Sinica
are distributed in the three major cultural
centres of Nanking, Shanghai and Peiping.

The following are National Universities :

1 . National Central University, Nanking.

2. Chekiang University, Shanghai.

3. Chungshan University, Canton.

4. Wuhan University, Wuchang.

5. Chiaotung University, Nanking.

6. Tsinghua University, Nanking.

7. Chinan University, Shanghai.

8. National Labour University, Shanghai.

9. Tungchi University, Woosung (Shan-
ghai).

10. Peking University, Peiping (Chihli).

11. National Peking University, Pei-
ping (Chihli).

12. National Peking Normal University,
Peiping (Chihli).

13. Peiyang Engineering College, Tient-
sin (Chihli).

1 4. National Tsingtao University, Tsing-
tao (Shantung).

The following are Provincial Universities:

1. Northeastern University, Shenyang,
(Manchiuria).

2. Hopei College of Law and Commerce,
Tientsin.

3. Chengtu University, Chengtu (Szech-
wan).

4. Szechwan University, Chengtu (Szech-
wan).

5. Chengtu Normal University, Chengtu
(Szechwan).

6. Hunan University, Changsha (Hu-
nan).

7. Shansi University, Taiyuan (Shansi).

8. Sian University, Sian (Shansi).

9. Honan University, Kaifeng (Honan).

10. Kweichow University, Kweiyang
(Kweichow).

1 1 . Kioangsi University, Kuwi Lin
(Kwangsi).

12. Anhwei University, Anking (Anhwei).

13. Kirin University Kirin (Manchuria).

14. Lanchow University, Lanchow
(Kansu).

15. Hopei University, Paoting (Chihli).

The following are Private Universities,
recognized by the M mstry of Education :

1 . Nankai University, Nankai, Tientsin.

2. Amoy University, Amoy (Fukien).

3. Futan University, Shanghai.

4. Kwang Hua University, Shanghai.

5. Ta Tung University, Shanghai.

6. Ta Hsia University, Shanghai.

7. Nanking University, Nanking.

8. Shanghai College, Shanghai.

9. Yen Ching University, Peiping.

10. Soochow University, Soochow
(Kiangsu).

1 1 . Chung Hua University Wuchang
(Hupen).

12. Union Medical College, Peiping.

13. China College, Woosung (Shanghai).

14. Shanghai College of Law Shanghai.

15. Lingnan University, Canton.

16. Nantung College Nantung (Kiangsu).
The address, as given against each school

is quite sufficient.

EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN FRANCE

It is no longer rare to find, in the period-
icals and newspapers of various countries,
a tangible sign of the activity given to the
educational cinema movement by the Insti-
tute and this Review.

The Institute is legitimately satisfied and
encouraged by this fact when the influence
is most marked.

We believe we are right in saying that
this has been the case with an idea expressed

394

in the Eclair de Montpellier, by M. Pierre
Emsey, for the interest which this colleague
takes in the Institute and its work is evi-
dent in his weekly notes.

M. Emsey proposes to create, at the Uni-
versity of Montpellier, a National Institute
of Educational Cinema with the moral and,
perhaps later, the material support of the
Rome Institute. In a few words, which
show how well M. Emsey has understood
the role of the cinema in education he outli-
nes his project :

" Montpellier, a university centre where
there are collected, not only the faculties,
but also High Schools, Lycees, professional
schools, art schools, agricultural schools
etc. . . is the ideal place for such an impor-
tant experiment.

An Institute of Educational Cinema would
be one of those creations which perpetuates
and spreads abroad the fame of a University
for many decades.

Such an Institute would offer to various
faculties, such as that of the sciences, op-
portunity to specialise under the same con-
ditions that have made Lyon famous for
chemistry and Grenoble for electricity ».

Thus M. Emsy carries the cinema into
higher studies, a fact which shows what

progress the educational cinema has made in
intelligent minds in the last few years.

We find another proof of this, in France
too, in the declarations of M. Louis Nicolle,
the New Director of the Conservatoire des
Arts et Metiers in Paris, has made to the
Review Cineopse directed by Michel Coissac.

The Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers
is one of the greatest French technical estab-
lishments especially for applied arts and
sciences. Its museum, according to for-
eign scientists (Notably M. Millikan the
American physicist) is the finest in Europe.
M. Nicolle intends to use the cinema to
inform the great public of the riches of this
establishment and its activities. He then
plans the creation of a chair of cinema teach-
ing. Although this is not realisable at the
moment, M. Nicolle intends to reserve in
his programme of topical science the place
for several lectures on the technical and ar-
tistic progress of the cinema.

From the ancient university of Montpel-
lier, frequented by Rabelais, to the Pari-
sian establishment once directed by Vau-
canson. . . Who can maintain that the ci-
nema is nothing but a form of amusement?

CINEMA AND PUBLICITY

Mr. Jerome Hamilton, director of the
cinema section of the American Telegraph
and Telephone Co. of New York, recently
gave an interesting lecture on film publicity.

Mr. Hamilton made a distinction between
advertisement and publicity which are
often used synonymously. Advertisement,
he stated, deals with the specific creation of
a demand for a certain product whilst pub-
licity is more generally used to popularise
commercial knowledge and build up good-
will.

He preceeded to deal with publicity in
this sense. The cinema offers great resour-
ces in this matter, according to results ob-
tained by Mr. Hamilton's Company in the

campaign for the rational use of the telephone
" We have progressively adopted the ci-
nema in all branches of our activity : ordinary
telephony, transoceanic telephony, teletype-
writer and telephotography service, etc. In
all these branches the cinema has been a pre-
cious aid "..

Mr. Hamilton did not confine himself
to generalisation :

As a medium for public education let me
cite an example. A few years ago in one of
our large cities we noticed an alarming in-
crease in the number of cases where tele-
phone receivers were carelessly left off the
hook. This condition was accounted for
in many ways — in some cases the receiver

— 395 -

rested on a pile of books or magazines and
did not fully depress the hook. In other
cases it was not replaced at the termination
of a call — or perhaps the baby — in its
playfulness — used it as a teething toy.
Anyway, as I recall, there were well over
100,000 such cases during the course of a
year, and the average time needed to correct
each case was twenty minutes. In other
words, a hundred thousand telephones were
out of service, due to circumstances over
which we had no control, for twenty minutes
during that year. At that time we had just
completed an animated comedy cartoon,
illustrating certain misuses of the telephone.
It contained one sequence devoted to the
subject of receivers carelessly left off the
hook. We immediately entered upon an
intensive circulation campaign and shownd
the picture in all parts of the city. The re-
sults were instantaneous and so gratifying
that there wasn't any question as to what
had accomplished the improvement.

I believe the motion picture has a definite
place in every publicity program. As an
educational medium it is unequalled —
beneficial to both employee and public. I
know of many firms that are today using
motion pictures to inspire their sales forces —
to supply them with a new perspective on
the subject of customer relations. Many
pictures are devoted to the development of

more convincing sales talks and more sincere
sales effort. Then, too, pictures are used
extensively as a training medium. In our
business I once was told by a supervisor
of training that in fifteen minutes of motion
pictures he could accomplish more with
his pupils than could be done in two hours of
lectures. With the use of sound pictures,
the benefit would be even greater, and I
believe that the day is coming when the mo-
tion picture will be the instructors chief aid
in his teaching.

When constructing scenarios and conti-
nuities of industrial pictures the same care
and consideration should be exercised as is
applied to the preparation of copy and lay —
out for printed advertising matter. In other
words — the subject must be carefully cho-
sen ; the stoy must be convincing ; dialogue
must be natural and understandable, cast
and settings should be professional, and —
still more important — we must control the
natural inclination to cram too much in our
picture, for if an audience is asked to
make too many mental leaps, it soon will come
a cropper ".

Mr. Hamilton concluded by hoping
that the film would be even more extensively
used above all now after the introduction of
sound and other technical improvements
which make the film the best means of pop-
ularising knowledge.

ERRATUM. — Our new contemporary Cinedocument of Paris, kindly draws our atten-
tion to an error in our note : " What French Teachers who use the Cinema think of It
(March number p. 253). This inquiry, of which We printed the principal points, is by
M. LAURENT, Secretary of La Cinemateque de la Ville de Paris and not by M. Brerault
who merely composed the considerations with which We concluded our note.

J — he ingl.

— 396 -

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first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
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Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

Technical Notes

THE PROBLEM OF APPARATUS

The Four Western Electric School Pro-
jectors.

Amongst the favourable elements which
have permitted the cinema with sound to
enter upon a considerable development m
the Anglo-Saxon countries, it must be men-
tioned that they have at their disposal many
types of projection apparatus expressely
designed for their use.

Amongst American firms which produce
this apparatus, Western Electric is prom-
inent. Its efforts, backed by considerable mo-
ral and financial means have been amongst
the most fruitful. Several films made by
this firm as sample work with collaboration
of pedagogues have been shown in Paris and
have gained considerable attention in France.
A certain number of them are frequently
used in U. S. schools.

For school use, Western Electric make
both fixed and portable projectors.

Fixed Projector 3. A.

This is adequate for middle sized halls
and can be installed in amphitheatres of
important institutions. The complete equip-
mente consists of two sound systems mounted
on the bases of the projectors. The exci-
tant system is the same as in standard set,
the lamp and base are replaceable " en bloc ".
A 1 /6th H. P. monophase induction motor
mounted on the base of the projector fur-
nishes the motive power.

The cell compartment contains only the
cell itself which, although very insensitive
to vibrations, is mounted on a shock absorbing
support.

The projector is simply and strongly made,
easy to use and gives excellent reproduction.

All parts are easily replaced and interchan-
geable. This set will suit halls up to 1200
seats or volume of 3.500 m ,

Portable Apparatus.

a) 35mm set, in four trunks. — The
first trunk accomodates the projector and
the reproducer ; the second, the amplifier,
the third the acoustic screen on rollers and,
the fourth, the loud speaker.

This set weighs 450 kgs. and takes space
of 1 m3 022 ; two men can lift a trunk and
the setting up of the whole takes less than
an hour.

The ordinary projection distance is 18
metres but projection has been success-
fully made at 20 metres and slightly farther.
This set suits halls up to a volume of 3000
m3 or an audience of about 800.

There is no necessity for special construc-
tional work with this set. Once the projec-
tion is finished the room is immediately
free for other activities. Where electricity
is not available a small electro-generator can
be used.

b) 35mm set in one trunk o.ni one valise.
— This is a lighter type of the above set,
comprising similar projector and reprodu-
cer in the trunk and a loud speaker ampli-
fier in a valise. The whole weighs 140 ki-
los. This set is easily transported in a
private car. It has no need of a special
screen, ordinary screens or even any white
smooth surface will do.

The sound system can deal with an au-
dience up to 500 persons, ad the whole can
be erected in a few moments.

In spite of lightness and simplicity, this
set gives a quality of sound reproduction
entirely in keeping with the high standards

- 398 —

which have made Western Electric famous
throughout the world.

c) 16mm sound on disc set. — In answer
to numerous demands from teachers and
industrials, Western Electric has produced
this set. It is simplified to the greatest
possible degree without sacrificing sound
quality, safety and regular working.

Construction is solid, manipulation is
simple and within the power of anyone.
There are two types of this set, MPS 1 6 with
only one projector and the MPD 16 with
two projectors. The first can be used where
interruptions are not minded. The double
set ensures continuous projection.

The reproducer, including projector, re-

volving disc, and lamphouse with 250 watt
bulb is contained in a valise weighing 35
kilos, measuring 0.57 m 0.52 m X 0.25 m.

For both types, the amplifier and loud-
speaker are contained in a single valise weigh-
ing 25 kilos and measuring 52 X 52 X 25 m.

One of the valise sides comes off : the am-
plifier and loudspeaker are connected to
the reproducr by cables and the former is
placed behind, or beside, the screen.

Thanks to this set, it is possible to give
shows to small audiences with the same qua-
lity of sound as is obtained in big theatres.

This set completes the Western Electric
Scale of apparatus which looks after the requi-
rements of any audience, from 10 to 10.000
persons.

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on the Cinematograph, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching <*< **>

" Der Bildwart "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The " Bildwart " Supplements :

" FILMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);

" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);

" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses);

" MIKROPROJEKTION " ;

" PATENTSCHAU " (Patents' Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

===== Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =

(BILDWART VERLAGSGENOSSENSCHAFT G. m. b. H., BERLIN, N. W. 21, Bochumer Strasse 8.a)

Review of periodicals and newspapers

An article by M. L. Druhot, director of
the Cine Journal, draws the attention of
parents and educators to the danger of the
cinema to children. In France, he says,
there is only a political censor, whereas moral
questions are left to the public judgement.
It is deplorable that the press itself praises
such works. (Le Courrier de Cinema edu-
cated, Lille, 1 -11-1932).

In Switzerland, M. Gabriel Rauch has
addressed an open letter to the Minister of
Education to draw his attention to the bad
effect which amoral rather than immoral
films have on children, and asking interven-
tion on the part of the public authorities.
(La Tribune de Geneve, 2-III-1932).

Mary Lou Cochran in an article, The Ci-
nema and Life, deplores the bad influence
of criminal films on youth and gives a very
remarkable case in the words of a young
girl thus influenced. (Child Welfare,
Manchester, April 1932).

In a lecture at the National Free Church
assembly at Blackpool, Mrs. M. S. Caut,
speaking on The Christian, in Rest and Re-
creation, deplored the low moral and intellec-
tual level on the cinema today. (Today's
Cinema, London, 7- IV- 1932).

At an assembly of the Vigilance Committee
of Birkenhead, Prof. Lyon Blease stated that
films of a sexual character bored children,
and that therefore they do not have all the
pernicious effects generally attributed to
them. (Today's Cinema, London, 1 4-1 II-
1932).

In the House of Commons the fear has
been expressed that immoral films might
cause Indians to lose their respect for the

white woman. (Today's ClNEMA, London,

15- 1 1 1- 1932).

Cinema managers representing all the
States of the Confederation will discuss in
their annual congress at Washington the
best kind of programm for American fam-
ilies frequenting local cinemas. (New York
Times, 14-1 1 1-1 932).

In order to ascertain public preference
in the matter of the cinema, the Hays orga-
nization will circulate a questionnaire
amongst all classes. (The New York Times,

7-1 1 1- 1 932).

In a short article, The Cinema, Ecole
des Femmes, it is expressed that women
find useful information in artistic films as
well as in educational films which give them
ideas on style and furnishings and of course,
male psychology. (NATIONALITY, Dublin,
2-IV-1932).

Censure.

In authorising the film, Basenklein kann
nichts dafiir, the German censure has de-
clared that satire is authorised in films. (Film
Kurier, ll-IV-1932).

The Soviet censure is particularly hard on
American films which it holds represent
capitalism in too favourable a light. (VARI-
ETY, New York, 8-III-1932).

In an article entitled, " Motion Picture
Success Through Self-Regulation ", Edward
Barrows, referring to the censure, thinks
that the question can only be solved by the
cooperation of producers with those interested
in the cinemas socially. In America there
are at present 3,000 societies concerned with

— 400

the moralization of the screen. (The Review
of Reviews, New York, No. 3, 1932).

Statistics.

In an article, " Seven Years of European
Cinema Production ", A. K. Von Hublenet,
gives, by means of comparative tables, the
relative importance of German, French, and
English production from 1925 to 1931.
(Der Film, Berlin 26-111-1932).

A notable diminution in American pro-
duction (700 films in 1930, 550 in 1931, 350
in 1932) has produced a rise in film prices
throughout the world. (The Daily Tele-
graph, London, 4- IV- 1932).

Cinema Techique.

Successful experiments have been made in
America with a sound reflector consisting
of glass filaments applied to cinema walls.
It reduces exterior noises and improves
acoustics within the hall. (KlNEMATOGRAPH,
Berlin, 1 9-1 1 1- 1 932).

Scophony, ltd. have perfected a television
system on new principles for the recording
and transmission of images and sound.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 8-1 II-
1932).

A new system of colour cinema has been
invented by Mr John Davies of Bootle. (The
Daily Film Renter, London, 12- 1 1 1- 1932).

William Bron has shown to representatives
of the press at Ivens studio in Amsterdam,
three short films representing his work in the
sound colour film. The first of these films
is an essay in montage based on music.
(Film Kurier, 9-IV-1932).

The premises of the Association of Revo-
lutionary Cinema Workers (Arek), at Lenin-
grad, have been turned into a Cinema House.
It is proposed to hold periodic cinema ex-
hibits there. Owing to the necessity of

consolidating the tecnical side of the Insti-
tute of Cinema Engineers of Leningrad, the
Soyouzkino have given a credit of 50,000
roubles for the improvement of its lab-
oratories. (S. C. R. S. R., April 1932).

Publication of the answers of the fourteenth
question in the inquiry made by the B. I. T.
in all States on the subjects of child employ-
ment in non-industrial professions. The
fourteenth question treats the employment
of children in theatres, cinema industry,
arts and sciences. The States that have
answered are : South Australia, Victoria,
Colombia, Nicaragua, Czheko-Slovakia. (RE-
PORT B. I. T., Geneva, 1932).

Cinema in Schools.

A catalogue of a hundred and thirty
teaching films for which transport charges
only are asked, has been compiled in England
for the use of schools. (Cine-Education,
Paris, 15-11-1932).

The direction of Ohio State University
has made slow motion films of all university
sports. These films are shown to pupils
and competent persons point out faults and
remedies. (Paris-Midi, Paris, 24-11-132).

The provincial school authorities of Ber-
lin have dealt with the question of the par-
ticipation of schools in cinema shows and on
location, in a bulletin addressed to school
commissions. In each case there must be
no risk of the school work being compro-
mised by such activities. (FlLM KuRIER,

8- IV- 1932).

Mme. Leon Bourdel, secretary archivist
at the Institute of Professional Orientation,
has given at the Teaching Press Syndicate,
a lecture on Cinema in Teaching, which was
followed by the projection of films by Jean
Benoit-Levy, Marc Cantagrel and Jean Pain-
leve. (La Critique Cinematographique,
Paris, 20-1 1 1- 1932).

401 —

The Military Film.

The British War Ministry uses sound films
in the instruction of recruits. Several made
have given very good results. (New York
Times, 9-1 1 1-1932).

During a meeting of the British United
Service club held at Whitehall, several mil-
itary instruction films were shown, on the
assembly of machine guns, their tactical
use, on aviation, on submarine manoeuvres
and finally on night warfare in the trenches.
During this meeting, attended by the in-
spector general of the Army, the second Lord
of the Admiralty, and other superior officers,
Captain Altham, director of the club, re-
sumed briefly the value of the film in mil-
itary instruction. (AcTUALITES ClNEMATO-
GRAPHIQUES INTERNATIONALES, Paris, 939-
989).

Arts, Sciences and General Culture.

M. Lemoine, the new director of the Mu-
seum of Natural History in Paris, announces
his intention of installing in the amphithea-
tre of that museum — a huge hall constructed
in 1 394 and seating two thousand people —
a cinema where films to do with the museum's
work will be shown every day. " Trader
Horn ", was given as an example. Already M.
Gruvel, who holds the chair at this museum
for instruction in colonial animal products,
and M. Chevalier, who holds that for colo-
nial vegetable products, accompany their
courses with regular film projections. (Le
ClNEOPSE, Paris, April 1932).

The release of the scientific film, The Cell,
made at Kiev by M. Ohnkchenko and with
the help of Prof. Taviahi is announced. It
constitutes the illustration of a complete
biology manual. It shows the life, feeding
and multiplication of extremely small or-
ganisms. The central idea of the film is to
show that even in the world of vegetables
and micro-organisms, the fight for existence
and increase in numbers can only go on when

the organisms are gathered in groups. (Les
Nouvelles Sovietiques, 1932).

The Director of the Cultural section of
U. F. A. spoke recently in Berlin on the la-
test applications of the cinema to science :
physics, chemistry, geology and medicine.
His speech was accompanied by projections
dealing with the development of cristals,
balistic experiments, the movement of
projectiles in space and their percussion
force, the reconstitution of a part of antide-
luvian fauna and flora, paleontological and
geological images : there were also shown,
X-ray films and films on professional orien-
tation etc.

As the cinema is considered indispensable
in medical research and is to be applied to
psychiatry and neurology, the " Deutsche
Medizinische Wochenschau " insists upon
the creation of a Central Institute of Medical
Cinematography. The Prussian Ministry
of Education and the " Fondation Kaiserin
Friederich " have promised their help in the
compilation of a catalogue of all films exist-
ing in the various clinics and Institutes.
(Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst, Berlin,
2- IV- 1932).

A centre for surgical films (sound and co-
lours) has been opened at Hollywood and
films are loaned at 5 dollars a reel. (Variety,
New York, 8- 1 1 1- 1932).

Using a series of travel films of U. F. A.,
Prof. Felix Lampe has made a new cultural
film. " Volkerschicksale " (The Destiny of
Peoples), illustrating race fusion in Australia,
Asia, Melanasia Sumatra and Java. (FlLM
Kurier, Berlin, 7-IV-1932).

The Soyouzkino whose production of
scientific, technical and instructional films
reached 80 % of its total production in 1931
have decided to further increase this percen-
tage. (Les Nouvelles Sovietiques Moscow,
8 and 9, 1931).

The Masaryk Institute of popular educa-
tion at Prague has the intention of partic-

— 402 —

ipating actively in Czec film production.
Two trial films have already been made.
(Film Courier, 16-IV-1932).

In France, the Direction de l'Enseignement
Technique, in agreement with the Direction
des Beaux-Arts has decided to make a series
of films on the lives of French artists, These
films will be shown in schools to acquaint
children with the realities of the artists life
and to inspire in them a taste for art. (L'In-
TRANSIGEANT, Paris, 3-III-1932).

Social Hygiene, popular education,
Agriculture.

A Documentary, " Open Air Life for
Sick Children ", commented upon by M.
Boisyvon is being shown in the Paris cine-
mas. (Comoedia, Paris, 5-1 1 1- 1932).

In an article by M. P. on the Cinema, Ins-
trument of Education " a study by Prof.
Leon Bernard on the cinema un hygiene, is
considered. M. P. mentions the I. I. E. C.
and hopes that it will obtain good results in
this domain as in others. (Le CfJURRIER du
Cinema, Lille, 1-18-1932

With the help of the Luce, a film has been
made showing the activity of fascism in the
educational domain. The film starts with
the care of mothers, follows the develop-
ment of the child right through secondary
professional schools and schools of domestic
economy. (La Scuola Fascista, Roma,
28-11-1932).

At a recent meeting of the R. S. P. C. A.
Prof. Julian Huxley insisted upon the value
of the film as a means of propagada. Ten
films have been made to date and have been
shown in a hundred cinemas and others are
in preparation. Certain of these films show
bad treatment of animals due rather to igno-
rance than to cruelty, others give the rudi-
ments of veterinary medecine, and yet other
deal with birds and the services which they

can render to agriculture. (AcTUALITES CI-
NEMATOGRAPHIES Internationales, Paris,
979-989).

" Mejrabpomfilm " have made for the
Tractor Trust and the Cereal Trust, the
film Caterpillar for the technical instruction
of agricultural machine drivers. (S. C. R. S.
R., April, 1932).

According to the Society for Cultural Re-
lations with Russia in a circular of April
1932, Soviet production has prepared a new
series of artistic theatrical films with an
avowed propagandist tendency in favour
of the soviet regime. Amongst these may
be noted ' The House of the Dead
from Dostoieswky dealing with the period
of Nicolas 1st, a sound film by Mejrabpom
directed by Tedoroff. Others by the same
firm are :

Two Meetings, soundfilm directed by Ou-
rinoff dealing with the fight against sabotage.

On the Heights of Tian-Chan, directed by
Chneideroff. This film shows the geogra-
phy, habits customs and economic resources
of the mountainous regions of the Kirghiz
district ; the new forms of collective life of
the nomad Kolkhoz, the work of the moun-
tain people, the vigilance of the frontier vards
and episodes of class war in the Aouls.

All in Order, (Ukrain film) by Tomsky
illustrated the fight of the people in Bessa-
rabia and Roumania for their independance.

Traitor to his Country (Mejrabpom) by
Montacheff. This shows the formation of
class consciousness in a Polish soldier who
was a farm boy when war broke out in 1 920
between Poland and Soviet Russia.

Ocean (Ukrainfilm) directed by Egeche-
vaky is the victorious march of the avant-
garde militants of the communist proletariat.

Fire on the Banks (same firm) directed by
Soloviev is the history of the revolutionary
fight of the workmen in the West.

The Fete of Oussiri (same firm). Subject :
the transformation of the country worker of
Moldania into a militant revolutionary for the
freedom, political and national, of Moldania.

— 403

Authors Right, finance, legislation.

Discussions between the French Syndicate
of Cinema Managers and the Society of
Authors, Composers, and Music Publishers
have ended in the fixing of authors rights
at 3 % (Ecran, Paris, 26-1 1 1- 1 932).

The French Government has promised to
lower the tax on entertainments and to ex-
tend a credit of 1 2 Millions of francs to the
cinema industry. The Government has
also agreed to study, immediately with the
help of the Entertainments Federation, a
project for the general reform of the Enter-
tainments fiscal regime. As a result of this
promise the " cinema strike " has been sus-
pended until the plans are submitted to the
Chambre. (Marseille Matin, Marseilles,
28- 1 1 1- 1932).

All cinemas and theatres throughout
France and colonies were shut for 24 hours
on April the 2th as a protest against the ex-
cessive taxation. (The Press).

In England the increase in entertainment
tax has caused a sharp fall in cinema atten-
dance. In only 12 weeks there was decrease
of 150 millions of spectators. (The ClNEMA
Times, London, 12-111-1932).

The authorisation to give cinema shows
on Sunday and to hold concerts and to open
exhibition has been given by the House of
Commons. The question of principle has
therefore been solved. Local authorities
can control the situation as they wish ac-
cording to particular circumstances. (Film
Kurier, 15-IV-1932).

The long discussion in the American in-
dustry as to the legality of Blind Booking has
resulted in the fact that it is illegal. (FlLM
Kurier, 15-IV-1932).

The Vienna Chamber of Commerce has
decided to reduce the film quota, based upon

Austrian production, and to reduce the sub-
sidy to the firms working in Vienna. (FlLM
Kurier, 11 -IV- 1932).

The Home Office has received favourably
the demands of the Parlementary Film Com-
mittee relative to the creation of a National
Institute of Cinema for a larger circulation
of educational films and finally an inquiry
into the present system of censure. (The
Times, London, 18-1 1 1- 1932).

The Documentary Films.

M. Pierre Bonardi, Vice President of La
Societe des Gens de Lettres, has made,
in collaboration with M. Brut, a film en-
tiled " La Marche Pacifique ", illustrating
the occupation of the Moroccan region of Ta-
filalet. (Le NouVELLISTE, Lyon, 1 8-1 1 1- 1 932).

At the " Cameo " in New York an interest-
ing Document ", Zane Grey in South Sea
Adventures ", has been show. It gives the
exciting adventures of a fishing expedition
in the South Seas. (New York Times,
1 -IV- 1932).

There is much talk of an M. G. M. film,
" Tarzan, The Ape Man ", made by W. S.
Van Dyke, director of "' Trader Horn "
which is considered superior to the latter
from a documentary point of view. (The
Daily Film Renter, London, 5-IV-1932).

Fox Movietone is making, in the principal
countries of the world, sound films with
folklore subjects with the idea of collecting
an educational series. The Italian Tourist
Commissioner has loaned a member of his
staff to Movietone to help it in its task in
Italy. (Il Regime FASCISTA, Cremona, 8-
IV- 1932).

Amongst new Soviet films are: " Naptha ",
by Mejrabpomfilm : regisseur, Jeliabouski
shows the extraction and transport of Naptha.

404-

This film has the approbation of the superior
technical authorities.

" The Distant Orient ", sound film by
Vostokkino, showing the precautions taken
by the Soviet to ensure its supply of cotton.
The Rose of Salor " by Vostokkino,
showing carpet making and the part of wo-
men in this industry. (Les NouVELLES So-
VIETIQUES, Nos. 8 and 9, 1931).

The Expedition of the Soyouzkino di-
rected by regisseur LitvinofT, which has made
a film about the Chinese on Soviet soil (Les
emigres de la terre florissante) has returned
from the East after an absence of six months.
The film was made, in the mines and in the
Taiga at Soutschame and at the Port of
Vladivostock. (S. S. C.R. S.R., April 1932).

The Artistic Film.

In an article on the Franco-German col-
laboration in the production of several fine
films, Emile Vuillermoz maintains the util-
ity of international cooperation in the ci-
nema industry. (Le Temps, Paris, 1 2-1 II-
1932).

The new war film, " Les Croix de Bois ",
directed by Raymond Bernardt, of Pathe
Nathan, from the book by Roland Dorgeles
has obtained repeated success at Geneva
before representatives of the L. 0. N. and
the international press, at Lyon, and at
Pans, at a special show attended by the
Late President of the Republic and the Offi-
cial World. (La Cinematographie Fran-
caise, Paris, 1 9- 1 1 1- 1932).

In information on Soviet Production the
Society for Cultural Relations, notes, ' The
Return of Neitane Bekker " hlm of Jew-
ish life from a scenario by the well known
Jewish writer Peretz Karkich, Production
Belgoskino.

Le Petit Samoyede, Soyouzkino sound film
interpreted by Khodotaiev. It is the simple
story of a little Samoyed who is trapped on
board an ice flow while hunting and is

taken to Leningrad by a steamer. There he
completes his studies and returns to his na-
tive land carrying a radio set. Conscious
of his duties to his people, he delivers them
from their superstitions and from the hands
of the tribal sorcerer whose tricks he knows,
for he, at one time, had acted as his assistant.
Toys, an artistic and industrial film deal-
ing with the difference in Russian toy pro-
duction before and after the revolution.
Before, the toy makers enjoyed no protection
but now the production is improved and de-
veloped. The revolution has done away
with the middlemen and has revived the
industry. The toymakers now work (those
of the Vsehpromskoyouz) in well equipped
work rooms under the direction of good ar-
tists. The film shows toys made in the
Czarist days at Troitza and those made to-
day for the Russian children and for export.
Finally the film shows a series of round ga-
mes to prepare children to belong to a work
peoples' organisations.

New Cine-Education Reviews.
Various.

A new monthly bulletin concerned ex-
clusively with educational cinema, has just
appeared in France : it is " Cinedocument ",
the creation of which was decided at the
National Congress of Educational Cinema
held at Paris in October 1931. This pu-
blication is rather a corporative organ, des-
tined to link the activities of the regional
Educational Film Offices than an ordinary
review. It is devoted to the educational
film and to the interests of its users and its
first numbers are of the greatest interest.

The Soyouzkino has undertaken, the pub-
lication of a cinematographic review
" Science and Technique ", destined fo r
agricultural and industrial circles. It treats
the following subjects from a cinematographic
point of view : Metallurgy, Building, Con-
structional material, communal transports,
the rational arrangement of farms, cattle
breeding, fertilisers, agricultural machinery,
etc. (S. S. C. R. S. R., April 1932C

- 405 -

For the first time in the history of the Ci-
nema a film made up of sound news reels
was shown to the Prussian Cabinet at Ber-
lin. It gave speeches by German and For-
eign politicians (LlCHT-BlLD-BuEHNE 1-
IV- 1932).

Sir Samuel Hoare, secretary of State for
India, has announced to the Commons that
from now on the cinema will be largely used
in India for British Propaganda. (Daily
Film Renter, London, 26- 1 1 1- 1932).

The Egyptian production company,
" Isis-Films " has begun its first film in
Arabic. Scenes will be taken partly in
Cairort, Po Said, Luxor and Assuan and
partly in a Berlin Studio. (Film Kurier,
22- 1 1 1- 1932).

" Cinema Spectacles ", (Marseille 27-111-
1932), has undertaken an inquiry into the op-
inion of leading personalities on sound news
reels. Answers from MM. Depoux, Bernard-
Derome, Hirlemann, Rene Jeanne and
Pierre Hot have been published. The
questionnaire was composed thus : 1 ) Should
news pictures be censured ? Give reasons
for reply, 2) What do think are the possib-
ilities of the medium of information ? 3) Do
you think news reels can influence the op-
inion of the public at election time ?

M. Leon Meyer deputy and mayor of
Havre, upholds the necessity of granting the
L. 0. N. sufficient funds to enable it to make
use of all modern instruments such as Ra-
dio, Cinema, etc. for peace propaganda
throughout the world. Si vis pacem, para
pacem. (Le Journal, Paris, 19-1 1 1- 1932).

KASTALIA

SUPERHETROOYNE RADIOMARELLI

8 Valves — 3 Auto-regulated — % Pentodes —
= 18 Normal — 1 Rectifiev =

PRICE 2.400 liras. (Valves and tax included)

RADIOMARELLI

— 406 —

Conforming to the new social action of the corporative State, has revised its formulas for

COLLECTIVE INSURANCES

which not only cover the risks usual to individuals and families of the employed and also to work-
ers engaged in all kinds of enterprises, but also guarantee pensions, dismissal indemnities and
death compensation which employers are obliged to pay to their staff by virtue of the Royal
Decree No. 1825, of 13-11-1924 and by working contract.

NATURE OF THE POLICIES AND THEIR SPECIAL ADVANTAGES

Appreciable reduction in premiums with abolition of taxation on payments.

Extension or risks covered (In certain case there is no medical examination required).

In cases of dismissal or resignation, the insurance is valid after one year and the pay-
ment is equal to the indemnity ordinarily payable to the employee by the employer.

When the employee is out of work, the Institute, under certain conditions, allows the
premiums to lapse without this affecting the validity of the policy.

The death compensation always equals and often exceeds the ordinary indem-
nity usually payable.

In case of disablement preventing work, the assured can receive a pension from
the Institute whilst premiums are suspended without affecting the validity of the policy.

Collective insurances present other advantages of risk prevention. They can be
adapted to suit individual conditions current in any enterprise or administration.

Employers

In contracting collective insurances, you will do a wise thing by paying of dismissal indem-
nities due or about to become due.

These indemnites represent a constantly growing debt which will deeply affect
your budget.

Ask the Institute to examine your situation.

Compare the cost of your system of risk prevention with that of the collective
insurance scheme and realise the benefits which the latter can procure for you.

With a policy, guaranteed by the State Treasury, you will increase the keeness
of your staff and assure its peace of mind.

Upon demand, the Institute will examine the situation in your business, free and without
obligation on your part, determine present and future liabilities and will make you a proposition
based upon them.

Apply to the General Agencies or to the General Direction of the Institute,
who will, if necessary, send specially trained men to consult With you.

THOSE ASSURED BY COLLECTIVE CONTRACTS
CAN ALSO PARTICIPATE IN THE BENEFITS

Bibliography

Das Arbeiten mit Jarbenempfindlichen Flatten una
Fdmen. (Plate and Film Colour Photography) by
Kurt Jacobson. 16 ill., 16 tables. Cloth 6 Marks.
Union Verlagsgesellschaft, Berlin S. W. 19.

Development in photo technique has posed the
following question to pho'ographers. How can
all the qualities of the colour plate be used retaining
all tonal gradations. This book answers the quest-
ion. The author explains his experiments and
clarifies his work with comparisons between photos
and tonality tables. The chapter on the practical
use of coulour-photo material is particularly good
and some advice on the choice of material is given.

Projection jiir Alle (Projection for Everyone). Man-
ual by Wolfgang Jaensch. 123 ill. Boards 3.40
Marks. Pub. as above.

The author knows to introduce the subject of
projection technique. He has known how to ex-
tract the indispensable from the great amount

of information on this subject. This book is to be
highly recommended.

Erste Internationale Tonfilm-Almanath (First In-
ternational Soundfilm Almanach). Pub. Her-
mann Wendt G. m. B. H. Berlin [S. W. 68.

This almanach has just appeared in its third edi-
tion. The increase in size is indicative of the fact
that its value is becoming more widely recognised
and recommended. The 4th edition is preparing
and will be issued in the Spring 'and the 5th in
Autumn.

1 "he Island of Five Million Penguins fro v the English.
Cherry Kearton. Translation by Magda Kahn.
Map and 29 ill. Pound 3 Marks. Poards 3.50,
cloth 4.80 Marks.

A unique book on animals. Kearton stayed 6
months on a small Atlantic island amidst 5 million
penguins io order to study their lives. This book
is the result.

RADIOMAREIvIvI

= the best wireless and wireless-gramophone sets =
S. A. RHDIOMflRELLI - MILAN© = Via flmedei n. 8

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Roma — a L' Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

408 —

A modern system for
the modern traveller!

Provide yourself in advance with
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Travel cheques of the

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BANCA COMMERCIALE ITALIA1VA

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409 —

II" Hal Exhibition ol liili

AT

VENICE
loss

APRIL 28th to NOVEMBER 4th

The " Biennial „ at Venice is the largest and most important permanent
exhibition of Modern Art in the World

Sixteen Nations have pavilions
ITALY

GERMANY - BELGIUM - DENMARK - SPAIN - UNITED

STATES - FRANCE - GREAT BRITAIN - GREECE

HOLLAND - HUNGARY - JAPAN - POLAND

SWITZERLAND - TCHECO-SLOVAKIA

and the U. S. S. R.

== THE XVIIIth BIENNIAL 1932

will present large personal exhibition of the works of Pablo Picasso and Ignacio
Zuloaga. And retrospective exhibitions of Giov. Boldini, F. P. Michetti, V. Gemito,

E. Menet, C. Meunier, etc.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CONTEMPORARY ART

April 30 - May 4

INTERNATIONAL COURSES IN MODERN ART

by eminent critics and authors. June and October
Mugust

First international Cinema Festival

September

Second international Festival of Music

Traditional Venetian Fetes ~ Travel facilities

— 410 —

COMPANY LTD.

I. S. I. A.

Paid-up Capital Lire 20.000.000

Head Office: B0L66NH

is the biggest Italian Concern conducted on the most up-to-date principles

for the retail sale of Silk fabrics and Velvets. Through the fine organization

of its numerous Stores it conveys its rich products

direct from its factories to the consumers

and offers to the public the greatest variety of patterns, the biggest assort-
ment of qualities and the most complete range of colours. Long years of
business experience have enabled the I. S. I. A. to perfect its organization
to such an extent that, by reducing its expenses to the minimum, it acts
as a check on prices in all the towns where it has opened stores.

♦ ♦ ♦

Make your purchases in one of the I. S. I. A. shops !

" Industria della Seta Italo-Americana „

means getting the best value for your money.

♦ ♦ ♦

The I. S. I. A. owns the following Stores :

Alexandria - Ancona - Bari (Fabbriche Riunite Como) - Bergamo - Bologna - Bologna
(Seterie Italiarie) - Brescia - Catania - Cremona - Ferrara - Florence - Florence (Tessi-
ture Seriche Comensi) - Fiume - Genoa - Genoa (Moda Serica) - Lecce - Leghorn - Leghorn
(Casa del Blocco) - Lucca - Mantua - Milan - Milan (La Comense) - Modena (La Comense)

- Naples - Naples (Ciltd di Como) - Naples (Trionfo della Seta) - No vara - Padua - Palermo

- Parma - Perugia - Piacenza - Pisa - San Remo - Savona - Spezia - Taranto - Turin -

Trieste - Trieste (Paradiso della Seta) - Udine - Venice - Verona.

INTERNATIONAL
HEVI £ W

EDUCATIONAL CINEMTOGRAPHY

ROME

JUNE
19 3 2

LEAOIMATIONS

>2V.

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of Justice, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome, President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign A0airs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Films, Inc.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela. Doctor of Letters, ex-Director of the Girls Lycee of

Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.
Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Gimeno, Jose Maria

de FEO, Giuseppe JORDAN, H.

de LAVALLAZ, Maurice

y
APOLLONio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. JUNE 1932 N. 6.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

— LEAGUE OF NATIONS —

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1a - ROME

INDEX

Pag.

J. CoMANDON . — The Evolution of Micro-Cinematography 413

Karl LlNKE . — Still Photographs, Silent or Sound Films for the School? . 421

Adrian Brunel — The Film Director and Education 424

E. Horn ... — Philosophy and the Film 427

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Students and the Didactic Film (continued) 429

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

History of Visual Education (continued) 445

LEGISLATION

Legislation favouring the Educational Film in various countries 457

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The Cinese Committee of the I. I. E. C. — " The True Face of Africa " —
Present Day Problems of the Sub-Standard Film — " What Woman Can
offer the Cinema " — Italian Catholics and the Cinema — Inquiries . 467

TECHNICAL NOTES

Lenses with Variable Focal Length — Technical Secrets 475

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 481

BIBLIOGRAPHY 491

THE EVOLUTION OF MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY

By J. Comandon.

Nowadays no exploration of new territory is ever effected without there
being attached to the expedition a cinematographic operator charged with
reproducing the aspect of the regions traversed, the characteristic types of
the fauna and flora and the costumes and manners of the populations.

There exists, however, near to us an infinite world of which we have but
the smallest knowledge, because its inhabitants belong to a scale of visual
dimensions which is not ours : I mean the world of the infinitely small.
Through the marvellous and unsuspected visions which the microscope
offers us, man is able to satisfy his desire for novelty.

The man who explores these regions, the scientist, that is, finds there
living beings such as microbes that are prodigiously active, revealing them-
selves as the authors of the great transformations of matter and energy on
the globe's surface. They are the creatures which create our foods, such as
bread and wine, while at the same time they provoke our diseases. We find
in this world cells grouped together in billions in admirably governed repub-
lics, constituting the organs of plants, animals and our own selves.

In this microscopic world, towards which science makes its difficult
approaches, are to be found the very sources of our life. The cinemato-
graph, joined with the microscope is for the scientist not only a means of
documenting his discoveries, but a precious instrument of research and
study for micro-biological phenomena.

The great physiologist Marey, the precursor of the cinema, foresaw
the possibilities of this mechanical means in the laboratory. In his book,
" Le Mouvement ' , published in 1890, he states that " the applications of
cinematography to the analysis of the movements occurring in the field of
microscopy will probably be of the first importance ". In another out-
standing chapter, the author indicates a technique and describes the mech-
anism from which have derived the greater part of the processes and methods
used in cinematography from that time up to the present.

He also pointed out the advantages to be gained for the analysis of rapid

— 414 —

movement from the study of a succession of photographs taken at consider-
able speed. He perceived that this velocity must be in relation to the veloc-
ity of the movement registered. With his crono-photograph, he succeeded
in photographing 110 images per second (1). Together with Lipmann,
he was the first to utilize instantaneous illumination by means of the electric
spark in order to obtain on a sensitized continually moving surface a series
of images at a still more remarkable velocity (1500 per second) for the regis-
tration of the oscillations in the mercury column of the capillary electrometer.

Marey examined every single image registered in order to compare them
and to measure the modifications of position or form in space and time. He
well understood the importance of obtaining the synthesis of movement with
the aid of these photographs, and sought to realize it under difficulties with
the assistance of Plateau's phenakistoscope, and also by projecting on the
screen successive images. Emile Raynaud had, m fact, done this since 1882
with the praxinoscope, through a sequence of drawings. But this synthesis
is still imperfect.

The disciples of Marey, in the international institute which bears his
name, have utilized all the improvements of crono-photography in following
the scientific path traced by their master. The discovery by Louis Lumiere
of the cinematograph in 1895 constituted a big advance because it realized
its precursor's dream, that is the obtaining of a synthesis of movement by
projection just as easily as the analysis of movement was obtained by the
photographing of images. His work in this new field of research was facil-
itated by the improvements made in the manufacture of the sensitized emul-
sion and the supporting celluloid film. In fact, the perforated film was al-
ready on the market.

It was recognized at the time that this reproductive synthesis was, for
the study of motion, just as valuable as Marey 's laborious analysis and, that
in any case, it was its indispensable complement, since it permits the spac-
ing in time of the rapidest movements, that is it allows the observer to see
the object under study which would otherwise, owing to the velocity of dis-
placement, be invisible (the projectile from a fire-arm, for instance). Sim-
ilarly, by means of an inverse process, this synthesis can reveal movement

(1) This method, was, as is known, perfected by Bull, the pupil of Marey, who obtained 1800 images a
second. Recently, Cranz von Charlottenburg has declared that it would be possible by means of a similar
process to obtain the enormous progression of 3 million photographs per second, but only for a series of
eight images.

415

to us by synthetizing it in time in those cases, where it is impossible to see
it because it is too slow (the growth of vegetables).

The cinema acts therefore on time as optical instruments act on space.
It reproduces movements, by reducing them to a speed perceptible by the
eye, which speed is, at the same time, that best suited for understanding them.
It is therefore at the same time an apparatus which inscribes on the film,
and reproduces the movement on the projection screen. On the film, it

The micro-cinematograph apparatus of Dr. Comandon.

indicates in space all the points of the geometrical curve of displacement. On
the screen, the curve which unites these points is traced, so to speak, in a
system of coordinates with the most favourable scale possible for study.

Without seeking to force any further this comparison with the mathemat-
ical curve, it is necessry to point out that if the line cannot be considered
exact save on condition that the points determining it be sufficiently near to
each other to allow a registration of all its displacements, so on the film, the
images must be sufficiently near each other in time to allow the registration
of all the phases of the movement. Otherwise, at the moment of projection,
a distortion of the movement would result.

A similar distortion may be observed, for example, in cinema pictures

— 416 -

of vehicles or airplanes taken at normal speed. On the screen, the vehicle
or airplane displace themselves as in real life, but the wheels or the propeller
turn in an incorrect fashion, and often in a inverse direction. In this case,
the cinematograph acts like a straboscope (distorting lens). It becomes
necessary for the rhythm of the photography to be not only proportionate
to the average speed of the object photographed, but it must also be such that
on the screen the various phases of the movement are reproduced at the speed
which is most suitable for our sight and critical and appreciative sense.

* * *

Marey's students, applying his technical principles to the taking of
cinematographic pictures, obtained the first micro-cinematographic films,
which were shown in a Lumiere projector. They adopted at once the slow
motion and quickening up processes in their researches. It was in this man-
ner that Pizon and Bull studied with rapid motion projections the develop-
ments of the small tunicates, while Nogues with slow motion projections
made his researches on the vibrating fronds of the sea date-palm.

J. Ries (of Berne) produced at Banylus in 1908 an interesting film on the
development of the sea urchins eggs. This particular line of research was
later taken up by Mile Chevroton, while M. Vies brought it to a successful
conclusion in 1910, thanks to the technical improvements which the two
friends had contributed to the study of the matter.

Just as much interest in micro-cinematography has been manifested
outside France, but chiefly with the desire of seeking for the picturesque in
this form of science destined for the big public. As notable work in this
field, we may mention the productions of Dr. Duncan published by Charles
Urban in England in 1908.

At that time I was engaged in a study of the spirochete, a microbe of
extreme tenuity and mobility. To illustrate my work, I attempted to
photograph these living micro-organisms, an operation which would not have
been possible without the aid of an ultra-microscope, an instrument which,
as is known, is characterized by the lateral illumination given to the object,
so that the microbes appear luminous on a black ground, like the stars at
night in the sky (Fig. 2).

Having been able to reduce the time for exposure to one-thirtieth of
a second, 1 thought of the possibility of cinematographing these microbes,
and Charles Pathe, understanding the value of my researches, invited me in

- 417 -

1908 to pursue my studies in a laboratory which was built in his establish-
ment at Vincennes. After several months of uncertain experimenting, I
succeeded in obtaining good photographs of the smallest microbes known,
and some of these photographs were shown at the meeting of the Academy
of Science held on October 26, 1909.

The large public has seen these films in the projection halls, and has
shown its interest. I have also shown these films during conferences in
scientific circles. Some people at the time manifested a certain surprise

Spirochete in the blood of a bird. The quadrant, in the corner, indicates the time.

at seeing cast on the screen the till then somewhat mysterious objects of
their researches. In the opinion of others, I had appeared almost in the
light of a profaner, for the cinema had been considered, so far, as a not par-
ticularly intellectual form of amusement. It became therefore necessary
to fight against the repugnance of one class and the timidity of the other. I
met, however, with sympathy and encouragement on the part of my teachers,
who urged me to pursue my labours without cease. I had thus little by little
the joy of seeing the doors of hospitals, university faculties and even lyceums
and schools opened to the cinema. My efforts in pointing out the task lying
before the cinema for propaganda and scientific instruction have not been in
vain. It is only fair to recognize that in this work I was aided by the Pathe
firm, whose example was later followed by Gaumont and other great cinema
companies. In France the educative cinema had been born. The public

— 418 —

authorities of all countries, the international organs such as the League of
Nations grew more and more interested, in the subject. Publishers like
Jean Benoit-Levy consecrated a considerable part of their publications to the
subject.

* * *

Teaching ought not to absorb the entire activity of the scientist. Even
if he possesses the proud title of professor, he will spend the greater part of
his time in the laboratory, and the cinema will be of more use to him in his
research work than in his teaching. It cannot be doubted that a rich har-
vest of discoveries will the fruit of the use of cinematography. The results
already obtained guarantee this. I will refer, among others, to the discoveries
made by Madame Francois Frank, who in collaboration with scientists like
Vies and Faure-Fremiet revealed highly interesting cellular phenomena.
Jean Painleve, on the other hand, has issued a series of films in which the pic-
turesque side is supported with an abundance of new scientific facts, demon-
strated with exactness Several biologists have requested the aid of our in-
struments and technique for their researches. Thus J. Jolly has been able to
register together with me the movements of the chromosomes in the caryo-
cinesis of the haematiae of the triton. With Levaditi and Mutermilch, we
have been able to study the multiplication and division of the cells of tissues
cultivated in vitrio, with Wintrebert, the first manifestations of movement
in the embryos of fish and frogs. Victor Henri, and later, Maurice de Bro-
glie gave us the possibility of registering cinematographically a physical
phenomenon, that is the Brownwinian movement of the minute particles
suspended in liquids and gas. We welcomed into our laboratories at Vin-
cennes for the study of the Brownwinian movement Dr. Siedentopf of Jena,
the scientist who in connection with Zsigmondy created the ultra-microscope
Together we succeeded in photographing with the aid of his cardoid con-
denser the photo-chemical transformation of white phoshorus into red — an
experiment the technical details of which he had already published in Ger-
many. This scientist, convinced of the usefulness of our method, has since
sought to extend its applications, and thanks to the generous assistance
offered him by the firm of Zeiss to which he is attached as technical collab-
orator, he has constructed a machine similar to that which we used. The films
which he has made are as well known as those of his imitators who have
worked in the laboratories of the U. F. A.

- 419 -

In America, our countryman Professor Carrel, being anxious to study
with this system the evolution of cells cultivated in vitrio, requested us to
collaborate with him at the Rockfeller Institute. Since it was not possible
for us to take up residence in New York, the Institute called in a pupil of
Siedentopf, and the admirable films which were obtained are known every-
where.

This example was followed by the greater part of the biologists engaged
in the study of tissues, and regardless of cost, their laboratories have been
fitted out with apparatus for the taking of micro-cinematographic pictures.

A ROTIPHERE.

Certain followers of the movement, such as Fischer of Copenhagen came to
work with us, and Canti in England has produced a number of excellent
films in this field.

A very ingenious technique has latterly come to assist the microbiol-
ogists in their researches. The system permits the operator to carry out
precise experiments with a maximum grade of magnification. The method
is micro-revelation brought to a high degree of perfection by Chambers in
America and by Peterfi of the house of Zeiss of Jena. The two scientists
have been obliged in order to register the results of their experiments to have
recourse to micro-cinematography.

Every day improvements are added to micro-cinematography, which
are rendered necessary by its new and multifarious developments. With re-
gard to our own activity, profiting by past experience, we have had built
for us by Andre Debrie, thanks to the intervention of the Albert Kahn foun-

— 420 —

elation, an apparatus of extreme precision and easy management (Fig. 1).
It contains, in comparison with our early instruments, notable improve-
ments, especially the possibility of being able to photograph in a corner
of every photogram a quadrant indicating the time and other physical
conditions under which the experiment took place (temperature, electrical
conditions, etc.) (Fig. 2). We have also obtained a better photographic util-
ization of illumination with an increase of the duration of the exposure in
respect to the velocity of the shutter of the camera.

This instrument permits us to follow with our collaborator de Fonbrune
the biological research work already begun on the phagocytes, on the physio-
logy of eggs in their first stages of development, on cell reactions, etc.

Unfortunately, this method possesses a serious drawback, which is
its high cost, and in these times of crisis it is often an insurmountable diff-
iculty. In any case, it is a method which is slowly conquering the place
reserved for it in laboratories for the greater development of the scientific
cinema.

(Translated from the French).

STILL PHOTOGRAPHS, SILENT
OR SOUND FILMS FOR THE SCHOOL?

By Karl Linke,

Ministerial Councillor
for Popular Education in Vienna.

The International Institute for Educational Cinematography, through its inquiries
and reports of researches and experiments, and through its various initiatives, has already
made a precious contribution to the educative side of cinematography, and what is more
important, it has furnished educationalists with important elements for solving the prob-
lems inherent in this form of teaching.

Of special interest was the inquiry made in the spring of 1931 among teachers
regarding the respective value of still or moving projections. As in the majority of in-
quiries, the opinions were divided. One section of teachers manifested its preference
for still projections, while the other declared itself favourable to moving film pictures.
This did not impair the importance of the referendum, for the result of the inquiry
showed that still photographs and film projections in no way mutually excluded each
other, but were capable of being used in turn according to the age, and grade of instruc-
tion of the scholars, or according to the subject treated. One principle confirmed as a
result of the inquiry was that the moving picture is superfluous when the still photograph
adequately conveys the idea required, and that the still photograph is best adapted for
showing immovable things. It would, in fact, be an obvious absurdity to show moving
pictures of immobile landscapes, streets without traffic, or architectonic motives. Cinema
pictures of similar subjects are not justified by the passage of an automobile along the
street or the presence of a woman crossing the road with a baby carriage. Such epi-
sodes are often seen in films of this kind, and give the impression that movement has
been introduced into the picture on purpose as though to demonstrate that motion of
some kind is essential in a film. This impression soon becomes a suspicion when, dur-
ing the showing of the film, the same automobile appears at every turning of the road,
and the same nurse with her baby carriage is on view at every street corner. One quickly
understands then that these insertions have only the object of animating the picture and
justifying the making of a moving instead of a still photograph. We must therefore
lay it down as a principle : Fixed projections should be used for motionless subjects and the
cinema for moving subjects. This formula establishes a clear line of demarcation between
fixed projections and cinema films.

Silent Film or Sound Film?

The introduction of the sound or talking film into teaching has already been dis-
cussed. The experiments of Middlesex and Washington (1931) have created a new prob-
lem for the school. It becomes a question of deciding the part to be taken by the silent
film and the sound film respectively in education. , In the early days of the cinema, it
was erroneously believed that it would make all other forms of visual teaching super-
fluous. We must not allow the infatuation for the sound film to stimulate similar
fallacious hopes.

— 422 —

The Middlesex experiments, though they constitute a first important step forward,
have not solved the question. The real value of the experiments does not lie so much
in the coefficient of effectiveness of the sound film as in the fact that it has been poss-
ible to use it in schools with the aid of the authorities and that the teachers who took
part in the trials have recognized its usefulness with the following reservations : —

1) Educational sound films should be made the subject of a serious study before
they are shown, and the projection should be carried out in strict collaboration with
the teachers ; 2) before introducing the sound film into the schools as a regular method
of teaching, it will be necessary to have an abundant stock of films classified by subject,
according to the different ages of the scholars and the various types of school.

The Middlesex experiments were very conscientiously carried out, with all neces-
sary precautions, and with the adoption of carefully calculated experimental methods.
It was endeavoured to come to a decision, for example, on the point as to whether a
sound film preceeded by an oral lesson gave better results than such a projection without
any oral explanation. The results, however, in this particular case were not conclusive.

It is our opinion that the decisive experiment remains yet to be made. It would seem
to us to be necessary to find out in which cases the educational sound film shows a superior
effect to that rendered by the silent film or fixed projection. With this object in view,
simultaneous experiments should be made with the same subject treated in the three
different ways of projection, sound film, silent film and still photographs. One should
then endeavour to establish the results of the different methods by oral questioning of
the pupils, or by having them write essays on the matter.

Thus we shall be able to learn the results of teaching by the visual-static method
(stills) the visual-dynamic method (silent films) and the visual-dynamic-aural method
(sound and talking films).

We should thus as the same time have the solution of another problem, that
is which subjects are best adapted for fixed projections, silent films or sound films.
For example, if it is shown that after the giving of a sound film the essential impres-
sion made on the pupils was one deriving from the images and the movements, it
would be natural to suppose that the sound was superfluous and that either a still
photograph or a silent film projection would have sufficed.

We must not, however, lose sight of the fact in experiments of this character that
the scholars, captivated by the novelty of using a form of teaching which recalls to them
spectacular theatrical films seen in public places, may be tempted to give greater at-
tention to the sound than it really deserves.

Experiments of the kind should only be undertaken after all necessary precautions
have been taken to prevent a too one-sided interest on the part of the students.

One cannot apply the sound film to every kind of subject matter, as was done at the
Middlesex experiments. Thus, it is not easy to see in what way the teaching of the
plastic arts, history or mathematics have need of the sound film. The still photograph
is sufficient for teaching the plastic arts where there is no necessity for movement
or sound. For languages and music, on the other hand, where the teaching is predom-
inantly aural, the sound film seems most indicated. With regard to the plastic arts, his-
tory and mathematics, the employment of the sound film to give an oral explanation by
a visible or invisible teacher does not seem justified.

— 423 —

It may be argued that the sound news-reel films shown in public cinemas are ad-
vantageously accompanied by oral explanations, but what may be suitable for news and
current events reels in cinemas is not necessarily suitable for the school. In all filmed
news-reels or reviews, the speaker addresses a mixed public about whose grade of culture
he need not concern himself. In the school it is quite a different matter. Here the
explanation must respond perfectly to the type or grade of school, to the class, and to
the degree of education of the scholars. The explanation can only be given by the
teacher, who knows his pupils and how he must talk to them. It is not possible in
teaching to use the explanations of a stereotyped holder of conferences who addresses
the public in general. The oral lesson produced on the sound film is out of place, since
it eliminates the only person really qualified to give the requisite explanations, the pro-
fessor or master.

In conclusion, it may be said now without having recourse to further experiments,
that the fixed projection or still photograph is perfectly suitable for the representation
of inanimate and silent objects (sculpture, painting, architecture, landscapes). The
silent film is useful for illustrating a subject-matter where movement is an essential
part (zoology, gymnastics, house-keeping and in general all things or actions taking
place in time). The sound film is only to be used for subject-matter where sound and
movement are intimately connected, as in the teaching of languages, music, and, gen-
erally everything that is sonorous in nature and activity in general.

In the category of " silent films ", animated designs are to be included. They are
useful for showing the construction of geometrical figures, or demonstrating schematically
the formation of geological stratifications in the courses of physical geography. Speeded
up films and slow motion pictures are useful for the analysis of rapid movements, or the
acceleration of extremely slow phenomena, such as the germination and growth of
plants, etc.

Josef Blau, in the review Heimatbildung, recently drew the attention of education-
alists to the utility of animated designs in teaching. ' The screen ", he wrote, " offers
us a great white page on which an instructive image slowly develops. It shows us
the successive phases of an event, or an operation of war, or the progressive develop-
ment of a city from the time of its foundation. Would it not be possible to use these
animated drawings advantageously teaching national history, showing the formation
of human agglomerations, the development of industries and geological transforma-
tions ? "

It would in this way be possible to establish a definite line of demarcation between
the different forms of fixed and animated projections, so that each visual demonstration
answered its purpose perfectly. Today it is no longer necessary to argue whether it is
better to use fixed or animated projections for educational purposes, but rather one
should find out which is most suitable in each particular case. Generally speaking, it
may be laid down as a fundamental principle that recourse should not be had to a com-
plex method when a simpler one is perfectly sufficient. Consequently, experiments
with the sound and talking film — the most complicated method of all — should
always be made concurrently with all the other means of visual demonstration.

(T randated from the German).

THE FILM DIRECTOR AND EDUCATION

By Adrian Brunei

Just as the enthusiastic educationist believes that anything can be achieved by edu-
cation — that the world can even be cured of all its ills — so do I, as an enthusiastic
film man, believe that anything can be taught by films.

We have already had promising examples of what can be done and our imagination
tells us what could yet be done. We have had some interesting medical films — such as
the American " Caesarian " film, the German film of the trepanning operation, the Rus-
sian " Mechanism of the Brain " and the German physical culture film " Ways to Health "
— though so far I have not yet heard or seen any good " Health talks ". There is a ten-
dency for these to be too remote and aloof — they lack the showman's touch — a view
which may shock conservative educationists, but which I will attempt to justify.

Natural history and travel films are plentiful ; there have been many good sports-
instructional pictures and a few historical and semi-biographical films. My purpose in
mentioning these films or their classifications is to remind my readers of pictures they
may have seen ; but there are besides many hundreds of useful films on a variety of sub-
jects which are available as a nucleus — as they stand or with additions and eliminations.

Before I proceed to give an indication as to how professional dramatic film directors
could be properly used in the making of educational films, I want to say why I think
their co-operation is absolutely essential if we are to have really effective educational
films.

The first reason is a psychological one. While there are hundreds of fine teachers
with real understanding of young people and how to handle them, there must be hundreds
who, at the best, only make a superficial parade of understanding. It is something arti-
ficial they have acquired — like the accents and clothes of the majority of ladies and
gentlemen. They keep too much to themselves and their schools. They don't mix in the
world — though many of these shy and often repressed individuals are succumbing to
the solace of the cinema and thereby being educated in the ways of the wicked world.

Now I don't suggest that the film-director's own perversion of outlook is any better
than the school-master's, but I do suggest that his experience in appealing to the masses —
and in his own medium — is valuable. By working together, helpfully, they can achieve
so much more than if the educationist says to a cameraman, " I want that ". I submit
that he does not know the medium and that most cameramen, even if they can under-
stand what he is driving at, are not capable of " putting it on the screen ", as we say.

It is the professional dramatic film director who can put on the screen what is in
the educationist's mind ; it is his job — he thinks pictorially — he expresses himself
cinematically — at least, he can do this if he is any good at all and is not interfered with.
(I have drifted from the psychological to the technical ; you see how simple the elision
is — which should be proof of my contention that without a mastery of technique
we cannot achieve any effect).

- 425 —

But to revert to the psychological. I believe that most education is too dull. There
seems to be a tradition amongst a school of teachers that education should be difficult
— it inculcates discipline — Greek is good for the character — we must prepare the
young for tackling the problems of life by teaching them to crack inedible and indiges-
tible nuts. The attitude savours of the advocacy of the treadmill, oakum picking and
solitary confinement.

Of the thirty masters at my own school not more than half a dozen were anything
but crashing bores or sarcastic bullies. I was a respectful scholar; I worked well and
was usually somewhere at the top of my form — but I seldom enjoyed my work and of
course have forgotten nearly everything I learnt. Take Latin — I couldn't decline
mensa to-day — and yet what Arabic I know I taught myself, because 1 was interested
and amused, and I can remember it after 1 7 years.

Now, we are beginning something new in making educational films. It is a great
opportunity to break away from old methods and by association with professional pur-
veyors of entertainment, make education entertaining. There is no justification for
education to be dull and difficult, and I can see no reason whatsoever why it shouldn't
be entertaining.

I admit that it can be objected that if films are made too entertaining, pupils might
then find the other forms of education dull in comparison. But isn't that a confession
of weakness ? Why shouldn't all education be made entertaining ?

An illustration of the way we go on with the old methods, even when employing a
new medium — one of the companies making language gramophone records issues a
pictorial text book which is precisely the same as one I had when a child. The result is
that I don't use these records as much as if the text were modernised.

I am preparing a scheme for language lesson talkies. Instead of having a teacher
talking to us, I shall have several intersting, amusing and definite characters in the
drawing room, the hotel vestibule, the hairdresser's and so on. What an opportunity
I shall have with varying voices and characters — real conversation and not one man
carrying on a conversation with himself. It I succeed in getting these films made, I
shall employ every technical and dramatic artifice to make these little scenes memorable.
Being a film man, I know how this can be done.

When I was in Germany investigating the educational film movement there, I learnt
many astounding things — such as the fact that there are over 2,100 cinematograph
projectors being used in over 1 1 ,000 schools — but nothing was more astounding than
the reply of the Educational Film Associations secretary in answer to a criticism of mine.
I suggested that certain of the films I had seen were not suitable for showing in England
as they were technically so faulty, whereupon my friend replied, " Well, that doesn't
matter as our people don't understand film-technique, and certainly the children aren't
critical. Any film is interesting to them ".

The idea at the back of his mind was evidently that technique is a sort of hocus-
pocus invented by professional film-producers to make it seem more difficult. The
technique or art of film-craft is the reverse of the magician's mumbo -jumbo ; it is some-
thing that is extremely serious and practical — the practical application of the lessons
learnt from the study of audience reaction to films, if you like.

I dont' suggest that German educational films are bad — in any case I believe bad

- 426 -

films are better than no films — and besides, you couldn't expect the work of 99 produ-
cers of educational films all to be bad, for that is actually the amazing number of producers
engaged in making German educational films — we have only two or three at most.
But they have one fault that is common to the majority of German educational films
— and that is, that the educationist has had too much to do with the making of the filmj
Not one of them was made by a first-class film-director and frankly I shouldn't blame the
children if they thought some of the films rather childish — and I expect they would
be better judges than the educationists who made them.

There is only one solution, and that is a closer co-operation between the professional
dramatic film-director and the educationist — but both should be first grade men with
real intelligence and imagination. The co-operation must be on an equal footing — or
rather, the co-operation of equals. Let the educationist say, " This is what I want
taught ". The director can then digest the lesson and say " Well, and this is how I
would present it ". When the basis is agreed upon, when the scenario is approved by
both parties, then the director should be left to do his work without interference. It
is his job, and if he takes any pride in his work he will do it to the best of his ability and
with enthusiasm. The film man must not be the button to a machine for the education-
ists to press, but a fellow-enthusiast and a fellow-creator.

The observations of our collaborator are — naturally — of a personal character, and we do
not think they can damage or wound the susceptibilities of German producers of educational films.
Everyone knows, including Mr Brunei, who is a young man of acknowledged repute and experience
in the world of the cinema, the care that is taken with German editions of films destined for cul-
tural and teaching purposes. We also, all of us, know that the greater part of such films are made
according to the dictates of a very original and interesting technique. At the same time, Mr Bru-
nei's very acute observation may, we think, stir up a problem. Is it necessary for producers to
follow an extremely modern and accurate technique when making cultural or scholastic films?
Or are not rather those films of immense scientific interest which — prepared for example in uni-
versity laboratories or scientific institutes — are perfectly capable of showing and reproducing
a determined phenomenon without the operator (sometimes ignorant of film technique) being able
to give the film an aesthetic interest usually added ?

Does not Mr Brunei think such productions could also interest scientific circles in Great
Britain ?

PHILOSOPHY AND THE FILM

By E. Horn

Philosophy, as an explanation of the living world, embraces all the sciences in its
possibilities. Its task is to unite in an harmonic whole the conclusions of thought in order
to shape by means of particular experiences a conception of the world and life. Phil-
osophy is not an immutable discipline, and the only method of perceiving the things
which are subjected to the valuing faculties of our intelligence cannot vary because reason-
ing presupposes a physiological operation common to all beings endowed with reason.

A transformation is, on the other hand, necessary when we deal with the method of
conceiving the content of an object on which human experience is concentrated. We
have discovered new fields for science, we have learnt to gain a deeper knowledge of, to
define more exactly and to classify in systematic fashion the perceptible manifestations of
the world. If the form of cognition remains constant, the objects on which its attention
is turned are continually varying. Modern philosophy, in particular, has become
enriched by the creation of new concepts derived from the technical spirit of research.
Notable discoveries have transformed the physionomy of our civilization and given a
greater development to our thought. Philosophy must not therefore remain apart,
identifying itself only with the doctrine of cognition, but must, on the other hand, draw
into itself all the results of our various sciences.

During these last 20 years, in a special field of science, that namely of photography
and cinematography, there has been observable a whole system of researches which has
had continual and important progress and success.

The rapidity with which the cinematographic art has reached its high level is sur-
prising. All of us have seen in our time the continuous development of the modern film,
and have observed how the photographing of a single moment of life has become
through the succession of images a registration of a fraction of time.

A philosophic examination of the entire problem of the film and photography is
capable of opening up vast horizons, because a great quantity of points of view are shown
us which can be usefully developed either by philosophy or cinematography.

Since it is very difficult to indicate all the elements of contact between these two fields
of activity, we may limit ourselves to a rapid consideration of the more outstanding
indications offered us in the history of philosophy.

If we examine the origins of Western philosophy in that section of it which deals
with plastic reproduction of elements and phenomena of nature, we shall find a notable
number of instances of the highest interest for the modern art of the image, which today

This short article by Mr Horn preludes an ampler and more lengthy study of the same subject which, We
are pleased to announce to owrn readers, will be published in an early issue. — Ed.

*• — Ice ingl.

- 428 -

is still without a scientific basis. The historian Karl Joel has drawn attention especially
to the tendency of the Greeks to give the world a plastic representation. We may also
recall the lively philosophic controversies on the static and the dynamic, on immobility
and perpetual motion. Heraclitus and Zeno, the latter especially in his theory of velocity
are particularly interesting for the new science of the cinema. Up to today, the affir-
mation that velocity did not exist was considered a matter for laughter, as was similarly
the illustration that an arrow in its trajectory is in each single fraction of a second re-
posing in a different fraction of space. Zeno, however, proved himself the first scientist who
foresaw the slow motion film picture. Velocity is an abstraction because we see only the
one body in movement. Our eye, like the photographic plate or film seizes the in-
dividual phases of a movement in order to register the whole movement. Democritus
has also his value for having detailed the theory of the " eidolats " for the presentation
of smaller images. Plato, the great Greek philosopher constructed in his doctrine of
ideas a visual conception of the world which might serve as an explanation to our world
of perceptions.

The notion of a world composed solely of concepts is to be found in all philosophies
with this difference that the philosophers of antiquity passed from the conceptual world
to the perceptive, whereas modern philosophers reason in the opposed direction. All
the explanations regarding time and space are of the highest importance, and especially
so are those of Kant. Time and space are modalities of perception, according to the
Greek philosopher. The film is the best illustration of this system of thought. It is
interesting to note that modern philosophy, in the construction of its systems, limits
itself to examining the content of our conscious being. It will suffice to quote in this
connection Hiisserl, Heidegger and Bolzano. It may be possible later to examine in
greater detail the major portion of these problems and the various points arising there-
from, but for the moment it is only necessary to test the ground on which a new scientific
theory may be raised.

The famous French philosopher Bergson in his work " Le Rire " has dealt with the
methods of Buster Keaton as actor. Other artists and men of science will not remain
indifferent to the problems raised by cinematography since its development always leads
more and more to a study of its scientific bases. Cinematography will have to assume a
double function in the future, that of being considered, first of all, a technical science and
secondly a logical touchstone for all the philosophic disciplines which concern themselves
with the phenomena of the world of perceptions.

The cinema offers the greatest possibilities of development, and with every day that
passes the screen comes to occupy a more important position in our lives.

Jules Romains, for example, believes that the film, and the sound film especially,
is capable of reproducing in their entirety theatrical works.

In any case, apart from dealing separately with the possibilities of expansion of
cinematography and its cultural functions, there is no doubt of the influence which
science and cinematography are capable of exercising on one another.

(Translated from the German).

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

STUDENTS AND THE DIDACTIC FILM

Character of the Inquiry.

The following figures refer exclusively to Italy where the examination of the
questionnaires issued has been completed. The returns from the other nations which
have agreed to participate in our researches will appear later.

The present inquiry has a special interest because it is connected with the scolastic
referendum among teachers, the complete results of which were published in the pages
of the International Review in the numbers between April and November 1931 in-
clusive.

It has thus been possible to obtain the opinion both of scholars and teachers, that
is of all those who are chiefly interested in the didactic film. It is clearly evident that
the views of the teachers should be held in special consideration on account of the
importance and in view of the superior mental capacity of the class. But the students'
views are also important, and make up a precious contribution to the subject derived
from the use made of the cinema for teaching in several Italian schools where its prac-
ticality and usefulness are appreciated.

This contribution is even more precious when we consider the nature of the replies
to the three questions formulated in the questionnaires of the I.E. C, replies whichshow
characteristics worthy of being remembered by educationalists and teachers and by all
those who attribute great practical value to the didactic film.

The setting forth of the results of this inquiry must necessarily be followed by a
brief comparison with the figures of the teachers' referendum.

The statistics of the Inquiry.

The questionnaires distributed to the scholars of the Italian schools (and it should
be mentioned again that the inquiry covered 742 schools of all grades including middle,
high schools, classical and professional schools) numbered 24,000. In the didactic
referendum, there were 21,058 questionnaires, several of which did not comply, either
wholly or in part with the established requisites. It became necessary to make a se-
lection which notably reduced the numerical results of the inquiry, but permitted more
exact indications to be obtained.

The positive questionnaires, that is those which furnished the simposium with
definite answers, were about 15,000, a high figure, never or scarcely ever before reached
in referendums of the kind.

The questionnaires contained three different questions, and the children replied,
some of them to all three, some, to two questions and some, to one only. The questions

- 430 -

did not require a categorical reply, but allowed the scholars to give free expression to
their ideas so that in several cases, there was more than one reply to the same question,
which replies were classified in various groups , if of a different nature. It should be noted
that as has been the case with other inquiries made by the I. E. C, the simposium
extended to all social classes, in all the schools of Italy, and the replies came from the
children of workmen and agricultural labourers as well from the offspring of employees
and professional men.

The statistics can be summed up in the following figures : —

Answers in the Didactic Inquiry : 2 1 ,058 ; Negative or unclassifiable Answers :
6029; Positive Answers ; 15,029, and of these ; 14,603 for the first question ; 11,598
for the second question; 12,755 for the third question.

With regard to the parents' occupations, taking for example the data furnished by
the answers to the first question, we arrive at the following classification :

Workmen 3,779 equivalent to 25.88 %

Agricultural workers 2,523 » » 17.28 »

Persons of private means 979 » » 6.70 »

Employees 3,400 » » 23,28 »

Professional Men 1,252 » » 8.59 »

Shop-keepers 2,559 » » 17.53 »

Occupation not stated Ill » » 0.74 »

With regard to the sex and age, taking as basis for the calculation, the figures given
in the replies to the first question, which are the most numerous, we have :

10-12 13-16 17 and upwards

Males 5,704 2,418 1,690

Females 3,608 861 322

Altogether 9812 males; equivalent to 67,20% and 4791 females, equivalent to

32,80 %.

Regarding the division of answers according to large or small centres the follow-
ing results appeared, referring as before to the answers to the first question :

11,513 answers from big centres, equivalent to 78,84 % ;
3,090 answers from small centres, equivalent to 21,16 %.

In the matter of sex and age, the large and small centres gave the following nu-
merical picture :

Large Centres :

10-12 13-16 17 and upwards

Males 4,443 1,682 1,603

Females 2,811 662 312

Small Centres :

Males 1,261 736 87

Females 797 199 10

— 431 -

Answers to the first question.

The first question that was put in the didactic part of the questionnaire was the
following :

" Can the cinema be of assistance to the teacher ? And in what direction ? "

As has been stated, there were 14,603 positive answers to this first question, of which
14,233 were favourable to the possibility of the cinema proving an aid to education, while
only 370 answers or 2,53 % were contrary to the suggestion.

In considering only the numbers of answers for the large and small centres, a slight
excess of negative answers is revealed in the large centres where the students are perhaps
in much better conditions to judge of the value of didactic methods.

In fact, in the large centres, the boys gave 7,478 affirmative answers and 261 negative,
as against 3,732 and 53 respectively for the girls. In the small centres, the boys gave
2,050 affermative answers and 33 negative as against 1 ,983 and 23 for the girls.

From the professional point of view, it is interesting to note that the workmen and
agricultural labourers gave proportionally higher percentages of negative answers (small
though they were in number) than those supplied by the professional categories. For
example, out of 3,779 workmen's children, the replies contrary to the use of the film
in education were only 52, while out of 3,400 replies from children of employees the
contrary votes totalled 108.

The two following tables given numerically both the figures for the answers and
those relating to the various fields of study which were suggested as being the most
useful, cinematographically speaking, for educational purposes (1).

Since it is manifest in the face of the very high percentage of favourable replies that
the children and young people believe in the possibility of the cinema rendering aid to
teaching, we may consider in which specific fields it may most usefully be employed.
Taking all the replies together, without distinction of sex, the first place is given to
history. The next highest number of votes goes to geography, science in general, cul-
ture, religious instruction and artistic education.

Proportionally the following figures may be given :

History 8,052 equivalent to 56.55% of favourable answers

Geography 7,037 » » 49.45 » » »

Science 6,3 1 1 » » 44.35 »> » »

General Culture .... 4,941 » » 34.72 » » »

Religion 2,058 » » 14.46 ') » »

Art 1,286 )> » 9.04» » »

(1) It will suffice to point out once for all that an exact comparison between the total and the
partial figures is not possible, because several scholars did not answer certain questions or gave more
than one answer, which answers have had to be classified separately.

— 432

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- 434 -

An interesting observation may be drawn from the replies judged according to
sub-division by sex, age, major or minor centre of population and occupation of the
scholars' parents.

Sex.

Boys Girls

History 5,220 — 54.83% of total of favourable 2,832 — 60.00%

Geography .... 4,580 — 48.1 1 » » » 2,457 — 52.05 »

Science 4,090 — 41.96 » » » 2,221— 47.05 »

General Culture . . 3,177 — 33.37 » » »> 1,764 — 37.37 »

Religion 1,215— 12.76 » » )) 843 — 17.86 »

Art 873- 9.91 » » » 413- 0.87 »

Documentation . . 118— 0.13 » » » 174— 0.37 »

We have thus a clear majority in all fields of feminine answers over male, a majority
which reaches almost 300 per cent, for the film of a documentary character connected with
folk-lore traditions.

Age.

10-21 years (I) 13-16 17 and upwards

Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls

History . . . 53.20% 58.85% 57.50% 67.10% 50.84% 54.77%

Geography . . 51.24 » 49.89» 49.72 »> 63.80 » 35.18 » 45.54 »

Science . . . 48.86 » 44.58 » 43.90 » 54.59 » 48.78 » 55.09 »

General Culture 37.1 5 » 40.78" 19.40 » 23.93" 40.96" 35.66"

Religion . . . 13.70» 19.70» 13.83 » 1 1 .20 » 7.95 » 12.10 »

Art 3.51» 6.61» 20.51» 14.03 » 12.30 » 18.78 »

In the matter of the cinema's aid in teaching history, the prevalence of opinion for
all ages, and especially for those between 13 and 16, is with the girls. With slight
variations, the case is the same for the other didactic subjects. It is to be noted that
the boys are in a majority over the girls in geography and science.

An explanation of the fact could not certainly be deduced solely from the results
of the inquiry. It seems, however, ascertainable that the girls are readier than the boys
to consider the efficacy of education through the sense of sight and to appreciate its
results, perhaps for the fewer distractions offered them by life in their early years and
also from that greater sense of diligence which, according to teachers, girls manifest for
scholastic attendance and duties.

In any case, the phenomenon is one which requires more accurate study in rela-
tion to the psychology of the child and adolescent.

Centres.

Larger Centres. Smaller Centres.

Boys Girls Boys Girls

History 54.92% 59.00% 54.56% 64.09%

Geography 49.34» 52.52» 43.68 » 50.56 »

Science 42.64» 45.55» 44.18» 53.00»

(1) For every 100 favourable answers of the same age and sex.

- 435 -

Boys Girls Boys Girls

General Culture 35.36% 39.66% 26.18% 28.89%

Religion 11.53 » 16.34 » 17.26 » 23.60 »

Art 10.32 » 10.12 » 4.97 » 3.66 »

In the subject of geography as well as in general culture, the larger centres are in
the majority in indicating the cinegraphic possibilities of education through the sense of
sight. In all the other matters, and especially for science and religion the smaller cen-
tres show a prevalence of favourable opinion.

This is due to the tenour of life lived by the children in the cities and rural cen-
tres. In the former, continued contact with life, with the news that comes from all
parts to demonstrate or exalt feats of daring and nobility logically leads young folk to
appreciate and desire highly everything in the nature of a manifestation, especially if a
visual one. In the other category, the wish for more rational instruction and the in-
timate home life lead to study, historical-scientific research and religious knowledge. It
is very probable that in the smaller centres there exists a greater stimulus for practical
teachings and systems of life as opposed to the stimulus of adventure and aesthetic
knowledge which is available for city children and youths.

Professions.

The answers with reference to division by large or small centres or age or sex give
the following results : —

Workmen Agricult. Pvte. Means Emplyes Profess. Shop-keepers

History . . . 52.47% 47.54% 53.98% 63.42% 62.43% 60.94%

Geography . . 44.29» 52.05 » 41.51 » 52.61 » 52.48 »> 52.19 »

Science . . . 42.91 » 39.68 » 41.71 » 48.17 » 45.77 » 47.88 »

General Culture 40.41 »» 45.56 » 30.50 » 26.03 » 31.53 » 30.43 »

Religion . . . 24.95 » 15.95 » 10.59 » 13.61 » 12.27 » 13.34 »

Art 7.62 » 8.90 » 8.07 » 8.93 » 10.78 » 11.28 »>

The children of employees, professional men and shop-keepers prefer the visual
method of teaching for the study of specialized subjects, as do also to some extent the
children of possessors of private means and pensioners. The offspring of workmen
and farm labourers are, on the other hand, much more in favour of generic form of edu-
cation permitting a knowledge of the life of the world in those phases of it which, on
account of family or circumstantial reasons, often remain a closed book to certain
categories of citizens.

Worthy of note is the marked preference shown for cinematographic religious in-
struction by the children of agricultural labourers and workmen without distinction
between large and small centres, age or sex.

Character of replies favourable to the use of the Cinema.

The following tables show, with the customary divisions, the numerical indications
of the individual answers given by the children and adolescents to the first question
that was put to them.

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— 442 —

The series of answers given in the foregoing figures has no need of further delu-
cidation in view of the clearness with which the recipients of the questionnaires have
answered the questions put to them by the I. E. C. The fundamental concept to which
the children have attached themselves is that teaching through the sight, while it seems
more amusing and varied than oral instruction, allows a more precise and clearer know-
ledge of facts and phenomena and a more essential grasp of them. Then the quality of
truth and hfehkeness deriving from film projections must be taken into account. Such
concepts were expressed almost unanimously by those who returned replies favourable
to the cinema.

Similar opinions, varying in expression, but substantially in accord with the opinion
already expressed follow in the numerical scale of the answers. Between boys and
girls, 903 declared outright that it is impossible to suppose that the teacher, however
competent, can know all the particulars of the facts or phenomena, while the film shows
them in their reality. In 789 cases, it was affirmed that the teacher is not clear in his
explanations, while projection gives a more exact idea of things and allows a grasp of the
details. Another 288 pupils declared in their turn that the cinema shows that which
is lacking in the spoken word of the teacher, namely the life of the world m its work-
ings and the laws that govern it.

While 1 147 replies recognized generically that visual teaching permits the didactic
subject matter to be better and more clearly impressed on the mind so that the lessons
are less easily forgotten, 493 replies specify particular branches for cine-didactic activity
such as history, geography, religion and hygiene.

(To be continued).

G. d. F.

— 443 —

Ice ingl.

— 444 —

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/. /. E. C. Studies

HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION
EDUCATION IN MODERN TIMES

(continued).

John Amos Comenius (1592-1670). The greatest exponent of the new doctrines
of the XVI Ith century deserves a particularly detailed study because, he more than any-
one else, showed the importance of visual education, and compiled the first illustrated
book for children, which for many centuries served as model for the innumerable intui-
tional school books and illustrated syllabaries etc. written for infants.

The first edition of Comeniuss famous book was printed in 1 657 at Nuremburg,
with the lengthy title " Orbis sensualium pictus, hoc est omnium fundamental ium in
mundo rerum et in vita actionum pictura et nomenclatura ", that is The perceptible World
described, or the description and nomenclature of the fundamental objects in the world of
things and in the acts of life. The success of the work was great, since it was the first
practical application of the intuitive method of which it is the solid foundation. The
author points out the purpose of his book, every drawing in which is explained by de-
scriptions in Latin and German, so that the child sees a picture of the object before
learning its name.

" This little book, arranged as it is, will prove useful, I hope, and will give pleasure to souls, allowing
them to see in the school not a place of martyrdom but of sweet recreation. It is well known that children
from their earliest years are very fond of images, and willingly busy themselves with illustrated books.
The man who has learnt how to make knowledge attractive has obtained a remarkable result. This little
book is intended to awaken the attention, to interest it in things and render it keener : all of which is no
small gain. The senses (the best guide for tender age when the mind cannot yet penetrate into intel-
lectual observation of things) always seek their proper object, and if they do not find it turn in on them-
selves and then in tedium move first here, then there. But when they find before them an appropriate
object, they rejoice, become lively and take an interest in the object until they have gained complete
knowledge of it. If therefore this little book succeeds in keeping attention alive, especially the attention
of the frivolous, and teaches such to be attentive and hard-working, it will bring great advantage. Another
benefit will be this . that the children, amused by it, and with their attention attracted, will learn, almost
playing and jesting as it were, the most important things of the world and life ".

Almost playing and jesting : it is characteristic how all the supporters of intuitive
teaching make themselves paladins of interesting, attractive education, which, without
demanding from the child an excessive tension or an effort superior to his age, such
as would merely stultify him without bending him, shapes and forms him for life. This
note, always the same, and returning incessantly, is like the " leit motiv " of the sublime
melody of education, a melody which begins ,in the cradle and ends in the tomb ; is the

— 446 —

faithful companion of both child and adult, who only in so far as the educative process
begun in infancy by others continues later in life, can in his turn exercise a benificent
action on the family and society.

In addition to these advantages of a general character, Comenius enumerates others,

making reference especially to the teaching of the mother tongue. With the Orbis

Pictus, he writes : 1 ) teaching how to read will be easier ; 2) the boy will become master

through the images and accompanying descriptions of all the linguistic material ; 3) the

earning of Latin will be easier for him ".

As an active process, par excellence, not supporting delays or compromises, educa
tion through nature was validly extolled by Comenius, who from the example of the self-
taught, deduced the idea that the man who takes nature as a guide may gain a profound
knowledge of all things.

Therefore in his Didactica Magna (the work in which he fully expounds his educa-
tional doctrines) he does not hesitate to postulate as the moving energy and end of
education the principle that " the final end of man is eternal happiness in God ".

Formulated in this way, Comenius's statement offers us nothing new. In fact,
it recalls the educational ideal of the Middle Ages, which sought the Life Eternal, and
intimately and profoundly despised earthly existence. If with the passing of the cen-
turies the ideal remains unchanged, what has changed are the methods for carrying it
out. Very different are the mediaeval methods to those either of Humanism or Realism.
Since man, " as a sentient being learns, that which afterwards he grasps through worthy
intellect ", the necessity arises of a presentation to the intellect in its true light of the
ugly raw material gathered up by the senses : hie opusT hie labor, Comenius writes in
his Didactica Magna reaffirming the principle of making education interesting " teaching
should be based on correct principles and this is important for students . . . because they
will be able without difficulty, without tedium, without lamentations or punishments,
almost as an amusement and diversion to be lead towards the heights of knowledge.
The schools, moreover, once the method has been corrected will not only continue to
be prosperous, but will multiply to infinity, since they will become a diversion, and
houses of delight and entertainment. Again, he says : " The formation of the soul
should proceed without corporal punishment, with the greatest delicacy and gentleness'
almost spontaneously, and of its own accord ".

Having established this point on which the edifice of his scholastic system rests,
Comenius enumerates the defects of the contemporary school, the harsh and inhuman
ethods of which appeared to him " a scarecrow for the young people and a torment for
genius ". He recalls what Seneca wrote in a letter to Lucilius on the duration of
human life. " The life that is given us is not brief, it is We that make in brief.
We do not have less of it than is necessary, but we waste it badly ". So almost apply-
ing the philosophers thought to the scholastic system, he proceeds :

" The schools lose time 1) in so much as they fail to have always ready for use all the requisites
such as books, tables, blackboards, copy-books and models ; 2) the books used not do follow the natural
order so that the matter comes before the form. Almost all books are prepared on the opposite plan, and
the order of things preceeds the things themselves, although it is impossible to prepare an order when
the material to be put in order is not there ; 3) the schools teach the scholar to make a speech before
acquiring a knowledge of things ; 4) they teach the abstract rules first and then explain them with examples.

- 447 -

It is therefore necessary :

1) to have the scholastic books and every other thing required for teaching ready ;

2) to form the intellect before the language ;

3) not to learn any language from a grammar, but from suitable authors ;

4) to place positive learning before linguistic or logical learning and the examples before the rules.
Everything should be taught with the same continuous method, placing everything by its meaning ".

The necessity of starting education with a perception of things appreciable by the
senses is now a truth taken for granted. The educator must begin with training the
scholar's senses, accustoming him to be observant and capable of reflection, requiring
from him a continually increasing activity, at the same time dissimulating his own part
in the teaching with ability. Such was the idea of Comenius when he wrote " Teachers
should teach less and scholars learn more ". To practise and train the children's senses
is the first duty of every teacher who is anxious to carry out his task, directing the pupil
along the right path, where alone he will have a chance to fulfill the mission of good in
which, together with the spark of divine intelligence, every man is participator.

If it is true that all the senses are sources of images however obscure and confus-
ed, it is equally true that the sense of life dominates ' like an eagle " all the other senses,
because the mind draws from this sense the amplest and most important subject matter
and that best adapted for scientific elaboration.

Comenius well understood this, and insisted several times in his Didactica on the
necessity of making education attractive, and available through the sight. ' The method
of teaching should lessen the fatigue of learning, so that there is nothing to annoy the
pupils, frighten them, or distract them from continuing their studies. The teachers must
extol the studies for their importance, pleasureable character, and ease, and should show
the children figures, optical instruments, etc. likely to arouse their admiration.

' The school should be a beautiful place having both inside and out attractions for
the eye. The interior should be a closed, well-light, clean building, ornamented with
pictures or portraits of illustrious persons, or maps or historical records or bas-
reliefs ".

Comenius wished, following the happy idea of Vittorino da Feltre, the school to be
surrounded by a spacious garden where the physical education of the children should
receive equal care with the moral and intellectual, with the purpose of making the school
a place of delight, where the young folk are prepared for life in serenity and happiness.
He goes on to say : " Teaching has great attractions for youth if the lessons are im-
parted in a way adapted to the scholars' capacity and with full clearness. Jests may
occasionally be introduced, or at least something that is not quite so serious as the les-
son and at the same time pleasant ".

This leit-motiv keeps returning unconsciously : clear teaching, attractive teaching.
What other object has the educative cinema, which it is desired to see adopted by all
schools, save to be the precious complement of the intuitive and active method, on the
merits of which the world's great educationalists are agreed. There is no need to look
far afield for the attractive method if one has the sense to follow the path traced by
nature. ' There is no need to beg either the eyes or the ears to turn their attention to
a beautiful painting or a lovely melody. It suffices to show it or play it, and there is
likely to be more need of restraint than encouragement ".

— 448 —

In the interesting paragraph that follows, Comenius deals exclusively with visual
education, stressing the part played in acquiring culture through the eyes.

" Whatever things the pupils have to learn, place them before their eyes, so that they see them as well
sa they see the five fingers of their hands. And in order that things taught be more easily impressed
on their minds, let them be taught, whenever it is possible, through the senses. For example, the
hearing should be joined with the sight, the tongue with the hands. Thus it is not enough to repeat
by voice for the ears that which it is desired to teach, but it should also be drawn or painted so that it
strike the imagination through the eyes . . . With this idea in mind, it is a good plan to adorn the walls
of the school-rooms with theorems and mottoes, figures and representations of the subjects taught in the
various classes. The usefulness of this system in producing the desired impressions is incredible ".

He inveighs against the over-theoretical method of the time, which disdained even
experiments. " Scarcely anyone teaches physics and natural history with graphic
demonstrations or experiments, everyone teaches them by reading Aristotle's text or
that of some other author.

" All things placed before the eyes and well grasped by the intellect become fixed
in the memory ". It is remarkable how in Comenius's work the two great principles
(attractive education and education through the sight) placed as the base of his Didac-
tica, follow each other, appearing and reappearing without that apparent order which
renders reading easy, but with that logical order more intimate and profound, which
once it has been grasped, leads the reader's thought along the path trodden by the
author, who in order to follow the natural development of his thought has not feared
to weaken his work with repetitions which at first sight seem out of place.

A sentence of Seneca guides Comenius's pen when he writes : " Nobody should
be taught save those who wish to learn ". Comenius comments this :

" The teacher will arouse the scholars' attention if he busies himself with offering them continually
something pleasant and helpful, for so will they become trained to go to school of their own good will
and be attentive. And this matter of attention will be helped if the teacher, whenever he can, places
the thing to be learnt before the pupils' senses which not only helps understanding but holds the attention-

' Our purpose will also be validly assisted by decorating the walls of the school-rooms with a summary
of all the books of each class, with the texts briefly summarized with illustrations, portraits and reliefs, for
they will have their daily effect on the memories and talents of the students. The fact handed down to
us by the ancient writers that on the walls of the temple of Aesculapius there were inscribed all the rules
of medicine which Hippocrates, entering the temple by stealth, copied down from beginning to end, has
its explanation. God Himself has filled this great theatre of the world with paintings, statues and images,
living representations of His Wisdom, placed there for our instruction ".

When Comenius states the necessity of decorating the school-rooms with a resume
of the text books, he approaches Campanella, who wished that on the walls of the City
of the Sun a synthesis of all human knowledge should be painted.

Again : what is the purpose of those who urge the necessity of opening the doors
of all schools to the projection machine but the wish to place on the screen the resume
of as well as the lacunae in the text-books, what the book in fact can give, and what is
beyond its powers to convey ?

Comenius again warns educators of the great importance of educating the senses :

" Let teachers take this as a golden rule, that everything be presented to the senses where it is pos-
sible, visible things to the eye, etc. and for two reasons :

— 449 —

" 1) because cognition must necessarily begin from the senses (if it is true that nothing can become
an object of the intellect unless it has first been an object of the senses). Why must then teaching begin
with a verbal explanation of things rather than a real observation of the things themselves ? When this
real observation has taken place, then may the verbal illustration come for greater clarity.

" 2) Because the more closely knowledge derives from the senses, the more certain it is. As a con-
sequence, if we want our scholars to know things with truth and certainty, we must do everything to teach
them all these things by means of the direct action of the sight and the perception of the senses.

" 3) And since the senses are the faithful guardians and dispensers of memory, perception through
the senses produces the effect that what is thus learnt is learnt for life . . . Whence it is clear that sacred
history, and history in general, can be more easily impressed on the minds of young people through pictures-
In this connection, Plato said : ' One eye-witness is worth a hundred aural witnesses ' ".

Comenius's proposal that the pupil's ocular observation be substituted for the teach-
er's oral demonstrations is characteristic of the visual method. But since it is not always
possible to have at hand the infinite number of objects required to afford visual cog-
nition to the students, Comenius does not hesitate to suggest the use of images, faithful
substitutes of objects.

" If sometimes the objects themselves are missing, we may use representations of them, such as copies
or drawings made especially for teaching, as in fact the teachers of botany, zoology, etc. have recently begun
to do. It is necessary to construct " machines (that is models of such things as it is not always pos-
sible to have ready) so made as to be useful in any field of human knowledge and keep them in the schools

As before, in the case of a passage of Cicero, who expressed an idea of Comenius's
i n similar terms, do not these " machines " for demonstrating to the students things
unknown to them call to mind the cinematographic projector, which, ready to every
teacher's hand, allows him to clarify his explanations in every department of learning ?

Without dealing further with such a " machine " which it was reserved for a dis-
tant future to construct and perfect, Comenius returns to his own time, the needs of
which he fully understood. He goes on to say:

" The true method of shaping talents is to offer to the external senses first of all the things which
strike them immediately. When the external sensation has impressed on the internal senses the images
of things, the former, excited by the latter, must learn how to express and reproduce them both interiorally
by means of memory, and exteriorally through the use of the hands and the tongue ".

So, dealing with early education, and Orbis Pictus, he classifies in a fine page the
advantages which visual education offers :

" For the infants' school a book of figures to place in the children's hands will be useful. Since in
this early school the chief intent is to train the senses to receive impressions of the simplest things, and
since the sight is first among the senses, we shall obtain our object if we place before the eyes of the chil-
dren all their first notions of natural history, optics, astronomy, geometry, etc. This book may well con-
tain illustrations of mountains, valleys, plants, birds, fish, horses, cattle, sheep, men of different age and
stature, and especially light and darkness, the sky with the sun and the stars, the clouds, the primary col-
ours, as well as recipients and utensils, such as pots and pans, hammers scissors, etc. In a similar way,
illustrations of persons with their distinguishing characteristics may be included, such as a king with
sceptre and crown, a soldier with his arms, a coachman with his carriage, a courier on duty. Above the
different figures should be written : ox, dog, plant, etc. or whatever each illustration represents ".

" The utility of this book is threefold :

1) It helps to impress the objects on the children's mind;

— 450 —

2) it encourages tender minds to look for something interesting in other books ;

3) it teaches reading more easily, because since the figure has beside it the name of the object re-
presented, it is possible to begin reading lessons from the letters of these words.

Cannot the silent or talking film be an excellent substitute for such a book ?

To conclude these numerous and lengthy citations to which every supporter of
visual education and the active school can refer, I think it opportune to point out how
the great innovator did not fail to note the deleterious influence which immoral images
are capable of exercising on youth, which he wants defended " from vain books and im-
ages, for examples of vice which enter the soul by the ears or the eyes are just so much
poison ".

Nevertheless, Comenius does not cease to urge the diffusion of instructive images
which he desires to introduce at once into the regular curriculum of studies.

The attitude assumed by the great pedagogue should be a warning and guide to
those who stigmatise the cinema as immoral, forgetting the educative cinema, and launch-
ing their rage and thunderbolts against all forms of cinema projection without distinction.
It is certainly a duty to discourage the corrupt and destructive cinema, but it is equally
a duty to protect, support and advance educative productions, to which we hope in the
near future every school will open its doors and count it among its most precious and
esteemed pedagogic aids.

Port Royal and Jansenism.

Jansenism, a heretical movement of the XVII th century, initiated by the Dutchman
Jansenius, which rapidly spread in France, and was condemed by Innocent X in the
Papal bull " Cum occasione ", interests us inasmuch as its tenacious French supporter
the Abbe de Saint Cyran founded at Paris the " Little Schools of Port Royal ".

Whereas on the one hand, these " little schools ", sprung up from an extremely
rigid and depressing religious ideal that deprecated all human effort and passively await-
ed everything from the Divine Grace, recall the gloomy, mediaeval schools where every
natural instinct and sentiment was suffocated, on the other hand, a breath of reform
comes therefrom like a presage of the new epoch, showing that the work of the education-
alists of the past was not all in vain.

A characteristic mark of these " little schools " where Racine was a pupil, was the
individual care given to the scholar who was not considered a number in the mass, but a
personality to be formed, who was to be taught only that which he was capable of learn-
ing without in any way forcing his intelligence.

' The idea of the Portroyalists was to look for the basis of education in a complete
mastery of the first elements, but it also aimed at rendering it as attractive as possible for
the student, insisting on the content rather than the form, building its system rather on
understanding than memory, and making a greater use of the senses than had been
done in the past (!). In education, wrote Jacqueline Pascal " sit rigor, sed non exaspe-
rans, sit amor, sed non emolliens ".

Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) master at the Little Schools was the principal exponent
of the Jansenist pedagogic doctrine. In his " Prince's Education ", where as a rule

(1)P. Monroe, Op. Cit.

— 451 —

he postulates the necessity for the formation of judgment, Nicole breaks a lance for the
usefulness of the senses, especially the sense of sight in his educational Work. " The
mind of Children ".

" This mind of the children is almost entirely filled with shadows, and sees only fitful rays of light.
Everything lies in distributing these lights well, in increasing them, in turning them on that which it is
desired should be understood. Since the intellect of children is always greatly dependent on their senses,
it is necessary to connect these senses with the teaching, and make them understand not only through
lheir hearing, but also through sight, for no other sense creates such lively impressions or such clear and
distinct ideas.

" According to this principle, geography is a subject particularly well adapted for children, since its
study depends much on the senses, so that they see with their eyes the position of the cities and provin-
ces. Besides which, it is very interesting, a necessary thing to prevent the children becoming discouraged
in the beginning. Moreover, its study does not require much reasoning, which quality is especially weak
in children of tender age. But it is not sufficient in order to render such study useful and pleasant merely
o show on the map the names of the cities. Books may be shown to the pupils wherein the large cities
are pictured. Children are very fond of this kind of entertainment. If you talk to children of any event,
do not fail to point out on a map the place where it occurred. Children should be taught to localize on
the map all the place names they hear and this will help as an artificial memory for retaining history.

" Apart from geography, there are still other subjects of a useful nature which may be taught to chil-
dren through the sight. The machine of the Romans, their tortures, their costumes, their arms and many
other things of the same kind show in vignettes in the school books of Lipsius (1) may usefully be shown.
For example the child may be shown what an " arietes " or a shield was, what it meant to " do the tor-
toise ", how the Roman armies were disposed, the number of cohorts, legions and the officers of their
armies.

" Of almost equal utility is such a book as " Roma Subterranea " and others which have engravings
of the remnants of antiquity of this first city of the world. To such books may be added the illustrations
found in certain volumes of travel in India and China, wherein the sacrifices and pagodas of those mis-
erable peoples are described, demonstrating to what excesses of folly men are capable of arriving when they
follow their imaginations and the gloomy reasonings of their minds. The book of Aldroandus may be
usefully employed to amuse children (2) provided care is taken to teach something concerning the nature
of animals. It is, moreover, necessary to use this book in order to impart instruction about the shapes
of those animals whose names children hear mentioned.

"... It is also useful to show children the portraits of the Kings of France, the Roman emperors, the
Sultans, the great generals and illustrious men of different nations. It is a good thing for them to look
at pictures in illustrated books, and to go back to these books again every time that personages contained
therein are mentioned, for this helps to impress the ideas on their memory.

"... History may be numbered among the forms of knowledge that enter the intelligence through
he eyes, for books of illustrations and drawings may be used to fix it in the mind .

Geography, history, zoology, botany : these are the four special subjects which
Nicole urges should be taught through the sense of sight for children, for exclusively
oral teaching is less satisfactory here. The care with which he seeks for and quotes the
illustrated books of the periods is the clear proof of the importance he attaches to this
detail of the method, on which he does not hesitate to deal at length as we see from the
passage cited. The paragraphs where he states that children should be instructed in tne
Roman customs and manners as well as in the Roman tongue are worthy of notice,
because they recall the recent scholastic reform introduced by Gentile in 1923, in which

(1) Lipsius, Belgian philosopher of the xvith century.

(2) ALDROANDO, citizen of Bologna, who lived in the XVith century. He compiled in 13 folio volumes
a celebrated Natural History.

- 452 -

the Italian legislator demands from the young students not only the mere grammatical
forms, but the spirit of Latinity.

Why not then, in order to obtain a full understanding of a by-gone epoch, have re-
course to the cinematographic image, which is capable of showing the young people the
uses and manners of Roman civilization as well as the military art of the conquerors of
the world much more realistically than drawings and illustrations? Nicole also be-
lieves in paintings (and nowadays we may add photographs) of illustrious personages for
awakening noble emulation and lively enthusiasms in the minds of the young. And not
without reason, if we are to believe the tradition which attributes the military vocation of
the conqueror of Gaul, Julius Caesar to the sight of a portrait of Alexander.

John Locke (1632-1704) in a compact criticism of the theory of innate ideas, dear
to the Rationalists, reconfirms the ancient aphorism " Nihil est in intellectu, quod non
fuerit in sensu ", comparing the human soul to a " tabula rasa " or blank sheet of paper,
on which the activity of the senses traces the earliest impressions later to be elaborated
by the intellect. Locke's pedagogic doctrine derives from these philosophical prem-
ises, and is incorporated in " Thoughts on Education ". Locke's educational ideal is
the same as that formulated by Juvenal in the clear-cut expression, " Mens sana in cor-
pore sano ", an ideal which requires an energetic and upright character for its realization
and places discipline as the basis of the educative process. " If they should give heed
to me, I would advise that, contrary to the usual custom, children should be taught to
check their desires and to do without the objects of their fancy from the time they are
in their cradles. They should learn above all not to expect things because such things
please them, but only because they are judged good for them ".

This expression should not be misunderstood, nor judged to be of an excessive
severity, because the same author though maintaining the necessity of modifying and
repressing the natural tendencies (from which theory as we shall see later, Rousseau s
naturalism clearly differed) abhors the rigorous pedantry which disperses the child s
efforts in sterile studies and, far from attracting him, depresses and wearies him. He
may be said to have invoked the coming of a rational system of education through which
children ought to consider study as a pleasant change from their games, and their games
a pleasant change from study.

Like Quintillian, St. Jerome, Vittorino da Feltre, Rollin and others, Locke too ad-
vises the use of dice marked with the letters of the alphabet for teaching reading. The
fact that he highly appreciated visual education is borne out by the stress he laid on the
teaching of geography, which he puts in the first rank, as most important for ' exercis-
ing the memory and the eyes ".

The great faith he reposed in the efficacy of educational work is seen in the following
expression of his : " Out of 100 men, more than 90 are good or bad, useful or dangerous
to society, in direct relation to the education they have received ".

The same idea was taken up by Leibnitz, who though strictly confuting Locke s
empiricism, displays full agreement with the English philosopher in the following
declaration :

I have always thought that the human race would be reformed if the education
of the young were reformed ". He is also in agreement with Rousseau, who states
that " Just as plants are improved by cultivation, so is man refined by education ". Kant,

- 453 -

as we shall see later, and numerous other philosophers and pedagogues follow this line
of thought.

Gabriel Compayre in his " Histoire critique des doctrines de V education ", dealing
with Abbe Fleury (1640-1723) and his " Traite du choix et de la methode des etudes "
sums up concisely the idea under discussion here, revealing more than one point of con-
tact with our thesis.

The first cause of distraction in children which sometimes seems unconquerable,
and has caused more than one teacher to forego his efforts, is believed by Fleury to lie
in the method followed in imparting knowledge. To place abstract truths and general
formulae before children at an age when, at the most, they are only capable of grasping
concrete and particular things, is to open the way to disattention ; to assist the with-
drawal of the scholars' interest from the lesson, and to favour fleeting curiosities and
interests, which, being undisciplined, are therefore fruitless. The remedy is easy, Fleury
goes on to state. It is necessary to show the child as far as is possible, perceptible
objects, pictures or images, avoiding in this manner in the student a dangerous associa-
tion of ideas between study and tedium.

Here we see a follower of Quintilhan, St. Jerome and the pedagogues of the
Renaissance, another partisan and exponent of the theory of interest as the rational way
to educate youth.

Pictures and images were recommended in the XVIIth century, and pictures and
images are recommended today, with too frequent a forgetfulness of the dynamic image,
which better than any other, can carry out the task allotted it.

Charles Rollin (1661-1741) leans on Quintillian's authority in urging education
from earliest infancy and the use of images to strike the childish fancy and fix the im-
pressions : " tantum scimus quantum memoria tenemus '.

In his " Traite des Etudes ", Rollin praises the " Typographic Table ", thought
out by Louis Dumas for the teaching of reading, since it allows the child to learn to read
while playing. He insists that study should be made attractive : " A handsome edition
which strikes the imagination conquers the child's spirit and invites him to work through
this innocent attraction ".

Similarly to P. Nicole, who sought to turn the children's attention towards a frank
curiosity for the new and the marvellous, Rollin proposes that infancy should be di-
rected towards the observation and study of nature.

I call Physics for Children that study of nature which requires practically only the use of the eyes,
and is therefore within the reach of every class of persons, very small children included. It consists in
observing attentively the obiects shown us by nature, in examining them with care, in admiring their various
beauties, without, however, delving into the secret causes, which study belongs to the physics of the
scientists.

I maintain that children are quite capable of this study, for they have eyes, and are not lacking in
curiosity. They are anxious to know, and ask questions. We must therefore awake and maintain in them
the desire to learn and to know which is natural to all human beings. In any case, this study, if so we may
call it, far from being painful, is pleasant and amusing and can substitut/ recreation, for it may generally
be undertaken during playtime. The number of things which children would learn if adults knew how to
take advantage ot the occasions which the children themselves crier, is inconceivable.

(To be continied).

M. L. Rossi Longhi

- 454-

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Legislation

LEGISLATION FAVOURING
THE EDUCATIONAL FILM IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

(Continued)

SWEDEN. — Art. 5 of the Royal Decree
of June 22 191 1 prescribes a tax for the ob-
ligatory control of films but also exempts
films of an actual and national interest if
recognised by the Cinema Bureau.

Switzerland :

a) Neuchatel. On demand, local author-
ities, can remit half the payable tax to cin-
emas that are not profit-making and those
which are devoted to the service of charity
or instructional institutions of all kinds.
Complete exemption from entertainments
tax can be accorded by the police in the
case of purely instructional and teaching
films. (Art. 15, Feb. 12th 1929 on Cinema
Shows).

b) Uri. Shows having educational or
cultural ends or those given by social organi-
zations are exempt from tax. (Art. 18, law
March 18 1924).

c) Berne. Art. 10 of the law of Sept.
10th 1926 prescribes a reduction up to one
third of total tax and not exceeding a total
of fifty francs for all shows of an educational
and non-commercial nature.

d) Zurich. § 37 law of October 16th
1916 on cinemas authorizes local Police to
reduce taxes when they think fit.

e) Nidwalden. § 45 of the regulation of
Sept. 13. 1913 exempts shows of educational
and scientific nature from the regulation.

f) St. Gall, entire or partial reduction
of taxes for educational shows by Art 7
of the law of April 3rd 1928.

g) Bale-Campagne, as above by § 4
of regulation of Sept. 9th 1923.

TCHECHOSLOVAKIA. — By law of Jan.
21st, 1928, No. 15 of the collection of
laws and decrees, shows of foreign or nat-
ional educational films are exempt from
taxation.

According to Official information from
Prague, there is a special committee of experts
at the Ministry of the Interior to judge the
educational value of films and hence the val-
idity of taxation exemption claims.

Cultural films have a wide circulation
through the direct or indirect action of var-
ious organisations. Popular Universities use
many professional orientation films. The
Masaryk Institute of Cultural Education
has its own cinema where many educational
films are shown. Use of films is not obli-
gatory in professional schools, but where
projectors exist films are largely used for
teaching certain subjects and for illustrating
lecures.

Local educational film producers often
collaborate with experts for the production
of accurate educational films in science,
etc.

Hungary. — Official communication from
the Hungarian Foreign Office shows that
there are no special laws in Hungary for the
obligatory projection of educational films,
but that it is obligatory, in public cinemas
to show the news and events reel films
issued by the " Magyar Film Iroda ".

Union of South Africa. Films destined
for scientific and educational use in approved
societies and films whose value as being in-

458

structive in the public health is recognised
by the Ministry of Health are exempt from
customs duties.

Yugo-Slavia. — According to a declara-
tion of the Permanent Delegation at the
L. 0. N. the law on taxes (N. 99/b of taxa-
tion tariffs) prescribes an import duty of
1 .50 dinars on educational films and 3 dinars
on other films thus favouring the former to
the extent of 50 % .

For films imported temporarily, import
duties and supplementary taxes are deposited
only with the customs and when the film lea-
ves the country ali except the 14-15 dinars
silver per 100 metres of supplementary tax
are refunded.

In § 9 of the recent cinema law of Decem-
ber 8, 1931 (published in No. 287 of De-
cember 8 in the Sluzbene Novine it is pre-
scribed that scientific films totalling 1/1 Oth
of the whole programme must be projected
at each cinema show. Half these films
should be of National production. The
term ' scientific ' is meant to include top-
icals, educationals, travelogues, etc.

An official communication of the Yugo-
slav government further states that while
in the law referred to there are not any ex-
ceptions made for these films in the matter
of taxation, a project for exempting from
customs dues and other taxes 600 educa-
tional films which the ministry of Education
will import from abroad is being considered.

Summary.

In the I. I. E. C. study of the cinema in
its financial aspect in all countries, a pre-
paratory work for the plan of abolishing
customs duties on educational films in all
countries, it was established that 13 coun-
tries favoured educational films in the matter
of import duties. They were: Germany,
England, Belgium, Egypt, Spain, United
States, Finland, Irak, Lithuania, Luxem-
bourg, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.

Twelve States : Australia, Brazil, Canada,

Equador, Greece, Ireland, Japan, Lettonia,
Norway, New Zealand, Tunis and the
Union of South Africa, accorded complete
exemption of customs duties.

To-day it is possible to compile a table of
the various manners in which the educational
film is favoured: —

Exemption, partial or total from enter-
tainment tax or tax de luxe :

8 countries : Germany, Austria, Bel-
gium, Finland, Ireland, Poland, Tchecho-
Slovakia and Union of South Africa.

Obligatory projection of educational films
in public cinemas :

6 countries : Chili, Italy, Lettonia, Port-
ugal, Romania and Yugo-Slavia, while
one, Hungary, admits the obligatoriness of
showing news-reel films issued by the spe-
cial national organization.

Exemption from import duties admitted
in principle :

15 countries : England, Australia, Brazil,
Bulgaria, Canada, Equador, Esthonia, Greece,
Ireland, Japan, Lettonia, Norway, New Zea-
land, Tunis and the Union of South Africa.

Exemption in part or under certain con-
ditions from import duties :

14 countries: Germany, Belgium, Egypt,
Spain, United States, Finland, Holland,
Irak, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Palestine,
Switzerland, Syria and Lebanon, Yugo-Slavia.
Encouragement to organizations having
the aim of educating by the film :

8 countries : Canada, China, Denmark,
United States, France, Holland, French
Morocco and New Zealand.

It will be remarked that some of the
above States enter in more than one of the
categories and that there are 1 5 States that
allow the educational film to live and
progress either by a system of taxation
exemption or obligatory projection of short
educational pictures in public cinemas.

24 States accord a total or partial exemp-
tion from customs duties. 4 States (Ger-
many, Belgium, Egypt and Finland) accord
partial exemption from import duties and ex-
emption from entertainment tax. 2 States
(Ireland and South Africa) accord complete

— 459 —

exemption from both import duties and
entertainment tax.

39 countries favour the production of
cultural films to an appreciable degree and
4 countries to a high degree.

Two systems are employed to this end, and
opinion is divided amongst educational film
workers as to which should be adopted.
They are the Italian System and the German
System.

The German system.

In 1915, the Central Institute of Education
was founded in Berlin (Zentralinstitut fur
Erziehung und Unterricht). This is con-
sidered by the Reich and the various German
States as a public Institution although it is
not strictly so. It has to observe the ge-
neral tendencies of pedagogy, to stimulate
them when necessary and to act as a consul-
tative body to the Ministry of Education.

In order to carry out its duties satis-
factorily with regard to the educational
film, the Institute formed in 1919 an auton-
omous sub-section, the Central Cinema
Bureau, Bildstelle, charged with the task of
examining all educational films. It was at
length decided that only those films which
were approved by this Office could be shown
in schools.

After this had been in service for two years,
the Reich, formed two special cinema control
offices (Priifstellen) one in Berlin for the
13 northern States and one in Munich for
the southern States (Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
Baden, Hesse).

These offices have nothing to do with
the control of educational films in partic-
ular. They are simply the ordinary film
censure offices which must see every film
projected in Germany under any conditions.
However an Educational Film Office was
started at Munich at the suggestion of the
Bildstelle so that there now exist two control
offices for each district one for educational
films and one for ordinary film censoring.
These offices, the Bildstellen, positively fa-
vour the production of good films, for

they not only certify films to be suitable for
school use but also accord to public cinemas
a substantial reduction of tax when such films
are shown in them. A programme consist-
ing of 9/1 Oths educational films is exempt
from all entertainment tax.

Thus the offices not only set a standard for
good films, but also reward their production
with financial help in the shape of tax exemp-
tion.

The Berlin and Munich Offices are also
required to give producers and renters all
details concerning artistic films, educational
films, etc. and to advise them how a film
which has been refused may be made accep-
table by cuts, insertions and other changes.

The Italian system.

The Italian system is by virtue of decree-
law No. 1000 of April 3rd 1926, and re-
gulations of August 5th 1926 of the Minister
of National Economy, modified August 1st
1929.

The following are the principal points
from the regulation : Art. 1. April 3rd 1926 :
Cinema managers are obliged to include
films of civic education, national propaganda
and general culture in their programme ac-
cording to the stipulations laid down.

Art. 2 stipulates that these films shall
be supplied by the Istituto nazionale per la
propaganda e la cultura a mezzo del cinema
(LUCE). According to Art. 1, modified,
the above stipulations apply to all public
cinema shows not organised by public
administrations and institutions. The edu-
cational films must be shown at every pro-
gramme regardless of the number of shows
in a day.

Art. 3, modified by art. 2 of the decree of
August 1929, stipulates that the educational
film should always be accompanied by an
ordinary theatrical film and should be pro-
jected for not less than three nor more than
ten days in each cinema except in the case
of cinemas changing programme more fre-
quently or operating irregularly.

The other parts of the ruling deal with

4 Ice ingl.

— 460 —

practical details concerning on the one hand
the distinctive marks which films should
bear and on the other the formalities to be
observed by cinema managers in obtaining
the films and the division of cinemas into
categories according to which the charge
for LUCE films is made.

Finally there are the regulations contained
in arts. 4-5 of the Decree-Law of April 3rd
1926. Art. 4 stipulates that local police
are not to approve programmes in cinemas
which do not contain a film such as prescribed
in art. 1 , unless the manager can prove that
he has applied for such a film and
it has not arrived.

Art. 5 determines the penalties for of-
fenders against the law and its regulations.
The local prefect can order the temporary
closing of the cinema and in extreme cases
the sections 30 and 37 of the law on Public
Safety may be invoked and the lessee of
the cinema may be deprived of his licence.

The above is a brief description of the pre-
sent situation in those countries which have
answered the questions put by the I. I.E. C.
with regard to the educational cinema and
its official treatment.

Besides those States which merely en-
courage the production of cultural films in an
abstract and generic way and do not supple-
ment this with practical fiscal measures ;
there are two systems in force the German
System and the Italian System. These are
merely different means to attain the same
end.

The German system has the advantage
of allowing the lessee complete liberty as
to the choice of educational films he will
show ; he is not obliged to accept any films
that are offered to him in advance. The
Italian system, on the contrary, ensures a
regular presentation of cultural films and
prevents the lessee from preferring the
higher profits on theatrical to films to taking
the reduction of taxes which the presentation
of educational films will allow him. This

system seems to answer better for the for-
mation of a certain taste in the spectator, for
guiding him along certain pre-determined
paths of scientific knowledge and general
culture. It is without doubt a kind of im-
position on the spectator, but one which
may be conceived as perfectly advantageous
to him.

It is however impossible to state def-
initely that one of these systems is better
than the other.

The Italian system is more easily applied
in countries where a State institution is al-
ready charged with the task of supplying
educational films and thus has a practical
monopoly of educational cinema activities.
The LUCE institute started as early as
1 926 to give public shows of an educational
character on the public squares of small
villages. The obligatory showing of this
type of film in the ordinary cinemas was
a result of this activity. It was the LUCE
itself that demanded and obtained the mea-
sure.

This is almost exactly what occurred in
other countries where a similar system is
in force. On the other hand, in those coun-
tries where no such institution has ever exis-
ted it is evident that the only practical
way of favouring the educational film is by
a system of detaxation.

In fact, there are, to date, two systems,
different means of attaining the same ends,
which are suitable to countries according
to the various intentions of the latter. But
the adoption of one or other of these systems
cannot be considered as a complete solution
of the problem. Many other things should
help to build up the educational cinema and
develop it.

In the first place, fiscal measures, in order
to be truly efficacious, should be integral.
In the article on the fiscal regime of the film
in the July, August and September Nos.
(1929) of this Review, which formed the
basis for the plan for the international
abolition of customs duties on educational
films, the figures given above were quoted
and showed that if many countries give a

— 461 —

reduction of customs duties on these films,
many more do not, making no distinction
between theatrical and educational films.

To promote universal culture and educa-
tion in a truly efficient manner, the educa-
tional film should benefit from a universal
and uniform, international fiscal regime.

It is difficult to conceive that certain coun-
tries should willingly admit films which
may instruct their people whilst others
should as jealously exclude them.

Nor can this be attributed to a desire to
protect the national production, for those
countries which produce the greatest number
of educational films are perhaps the readiest
to allow foreign films to cross their frontiers.

In any case, these questions will be solved
at an international conference. A positive
solution must inevitably stimulate educa-
tional cinema production.

The necessity for a solution of fiscal dif-
ficulties is seconded by the necessity for a
clear distinction from a cinematographic
point of view between the theatrical and
educational films.

The theatrical film is characterized by a
certain artistic merit sometimes which, if
it does not exactly ennoble the material of
these films it at least makes it palatable to
the spectator.

When the theatrical film leaves the
realm of pure fiction to seek material in
history, science and art, it enters in some
degree in the domain of the educational film.
The question is then whether on the whole
the educational elements in the film domi-
nate the dramatic elements or whether the
latter simply use the former as a background.

The purely cultural film, that which is
of special interest to us, is an appreciable
means of progress and a considerable factor
of intellectual life. It is incontestably, a
means of knowledge and persuasion, amongst
the most powerful that we possess, without
other limits than those of the scientific and
technical progress of humanity.

The educational film cannot depend upon
a powerful commercial organization for its
strength, as can the theatrical film and there-

fore it is only by fiscal measures that the pro-
duction of educational films can be effectively
encouraged by rendering them reasonably
profitable.

To-day in all countries stress is laid on the
progress of the cinema generally and the
necessity for relieving the industry from a
portion of the heavy taxation which is at
present levied upon it. But if such measures
are to be taken, it is evident that the educa-
tional film should come first as it has not the
same initial commercial advantages as other
films, which will always feel taxation more
lightly on account of their immense circu-
lation and high profits.

It is only by such financial encouragement
that the producer (the amateur through
lack of means can never fulfill other than a
supplementary function) can be expected
to produce educational films commercially.
Even if the educational film may in some
cases cost less per metre to produce than
the theatrical film this is not the case with
scientific films which are often extremely
costly to make and to present.

Another point to be considered in the
application of all systems of detaxation and
import franchise is that of the exact defini-
tion of an educational film and hence of the
film which is to benefit under these systems.
This is at present being considered carefully
by the I. I. E. C. with reference to the com-
ing international convention.

According to the fundamental principles
beneath the various systems, the films
shown should be films of civic education,
national propaganda and general culture.
Actually in practice, news reels and all
documentaries are included under a cultural
heading. From this it is obvious that the
original idea has been considerably de-
formed little by little for many news reels
contain elements which are distinctly anti-
cultural or at least without cultural value.

Consequently, in the system incorporating
obligatory projection, the competent autho-
rities should recall the original principles of
the system to the organisations concerned.
News reels should not simply form a side

— 462

line for those firms charged with the pro-
duction of educational films. Additionally
exploiters should have the choice of not
projecting new reels or doing so as they
wish.

It goes without saying that all producers
of educational films should be allowed to
circulate their product, even if through
those organisations which are officially
charged with the distribution of educational
films in the public cinemas, for if this is not
possible, a complete monopoly absolutely
opposed to the idea of culture and know-
ledge itself will be the result.

One objection to the obligatory projec-
tion of educational films in public cinemas
is that they only interest a small portion of
the audience and that those who do not
like the cultural film, leave the hall when one
is put on. It is true that in the beginning
of cultural films, the public, prompt to crit-
icise, showed its feelings towards these films,
but it has gradually become used to
such films and now objects to the educational
film being left out or hurriedly projected.

Is it possible at the present time for produ-
cers to make cultural and popular educa-
tion films ?

On this point there can be no doubt.
From investigations made in various coun-
tries, it is clear that producers can expect
a profit on such pictures. The possibility
is not perhaps absolutely complete at the
moment, but it is certain that the future
will present completely satisfactory financial
prospects for educational film production.

Educational films will inevitably enlarge
their field of influence at any rate in those
countries where they are already favoured.

Countries where projection of educa-
tional pictures is compulsory offer a certain
market for producers and consequently a
certain profit. The same thing is assured
in countries where a system of detaxation is
in force, as the cinema managers are induced
to shown such films, for financial reasons ;
since the more educational films in their
programmes, the less tax they pay.

From the beginning the I. I.E. C. has
upheld the idea of the preference for edu-
cational films. It may be said that this
preference already exists in part, and that
it is now necessary to perfect and com-
plete it.

In this connection, the complaints of pro-
ducers are only justified in part. If the pos-
sibility of doing good business exists, it
is their duty to raise the standard of their
product to meet with the aesthetic require-
ments of the public.

Many means of attaining this result have
been considered. Perhaps there is really
need to consider only one outside of fiscal
preference : would it not be possible to oblige
producers to produce a number of educational
films in direct proportion to the number of
theatrical films marketed by them ?

On this as upon all other allied matters, the
I.I.E.C. invites opinions — those of all in-
terested, producers, amateurs, educators, etc.
all who will certainly benefit the future of
the cinema.

463

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Soiinsl lecordiiD SioK Ti. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound ReconHno SHI Ti. 4

for Variable Area Process

464 —

Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up
General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
= 52-123 - 52-124 ==

C@^^g>D

^=^= Telegrams : ==
ANONIMA PITTALUGA

Works

R O M E : « Cines », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — SI, Via Macerata (outside Porta S . Giovanni)
TURIN: « Positiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafihn.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10 — Film Renting Agencies -10

72-8

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel.:
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galhera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafibns.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafibns.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel.:
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 —Tel.: 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams :
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009 •

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.:
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

- 465

- 466

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Institute of Public Credit.
Established by Royal Decree No. 1140, 15th August 1913, No. 416: 18th March 1929.

Paid-up Capital: 160.000.000 Liras - Reserve: 5.200.000 Liras

Savings and Current Accounts. — Correspondence

Current Accounts in Liras and foreign currencies. —

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REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF^THE

LERGUE ©F RED CROSS SOCIETIES

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The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or 1/-
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8 -

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For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

Information and Comment

THE CHINESE COMMITTEE OF THE 1. 1. E. C.

The Chinese Committee of the I. I. E. C. has been working for some time now in the
most satisfactory manner. The Institute is very glad to note the activity and representative
character of the committee, and sends to all its members, whom it considers as precious col-
laborators, its warm greetings by means of this review.

The constitution of a committee of the Institute in China, capable of concentrating
and organizing the work to be done in that important zone had for a long time been under
consideration, in spite of the serious difficulties connected with such a plan. The com-
mittee's work has to be carried on in a region as vast as a continent and as widely populated.
There was therefore the necessity of having a central organization of a solid and energetic
character in one of the principal cities of China. Such central organization, moreover, should
have a widespread net of correspondents, capable of carrying out a programme of penetra-
tion and development in all the provinces of the Republic.

In spite of the initial difficulties, the committee was finally constituted as it was originally
proposed. The brilliant beginning of its activity, the practical criteria which the councillors
are observing to reach their objectives, the eminent personalities in the Chinese political
and cultural fields attached to it give every assurance of excellent results.

The committee is composed as follows : — Mr. C. Bos, Inspector General of Customs
our delegate for China and President of the Rotary Club of Shanghai, the energetic organizer
of the committee ; Mr G. S. Foster Kemp, Superintendent at the Department of Public
Education of the Municipal Council of the International Concession of Shanghai, and Pre-
sident of our Committee ; His Excellency, Dr Hung Liu, Chinese Minister of Public Health
Dr Chu Kung, President of the university of Hunan ; Dr Herman Liu, President of the
University of Shanghai ; Mr H. C. Chen, President of the Educational section of the French
Municipal Council of Shanghai ; M. Ch. GROSBOIS, Rector of the French University of
Shanghai ; Mr Paul H. Hsu ; Commissary for Education at the Chinese municipality of
Shanghai. Other members include Dr John Y. Lee ; Miss Jane Shaw Ward ; Mr G. A
Fitch ; Mr John S. Barr ; Mr R. E. 0' Bolger ; Mr S. C. Leung ; Dr V. Rusconi : all
persons well known in the international world for their activity and interest in social prob-
lems. Mr U. ToRRESANI was nominated secretary to the Committee.

The Committee held its first meeting on March 14. The programme to be carried
out was examined, and the various officers of the committee were appointed.

After a lengthy debate, the committee decided to divide the programme of work into
three parts. First, attention would be given to an intense advertising campaign to be car-
ried out by means of articles in the principal English, French and Chinese reviews and news-
papers. Attention to be concentrated to begin with on the cities of Nanchin, Shanghai,
Pekin, Tientsin, Hankow and Canton.

A serie of conferences and illustrative film projections would follow the newspaper
campaign. The third item in the programme was to be the distribution in a systematic
manner of scientific-cultural films furnished by the Rome Institute.

One month later, on the 11th April, the second general meeting of the committee took
place, and an examination was made of results obtained. These proved to be very much

— 468 —

better than anyone had thought possible, for the interest awakened by the initial newspaper
campaign proved enormous, and numerous enthusiastic manifestations of approval arrived
from every part of China. The government authorities promised their full support, and the
municipalities, besides declaring their interest in the committee's programme, allowed it to
be known that as soon as it was possible, and in any case in the not distant future, they pro-
posed to set apart funds for introducing teaching by the cinema into all the schools under
their care.

The formal approval of the committee's work by all the universities of China and the
principal Chinese and foreign Chambers of Commerce was duly pointed out to the mem-
bers of the committee.

Encouraged by the first results, the councillors agreed to intensify their propaganda
and a debate followed on matters of detail.

A list of speakers was then voted, whose task was to be that of addressing shortly meet-
ings on various aspects of cultural cinematography at Shanghai. The preparation of a full
report to the Institute was agreed to.

"THE TRUE FACE OF AFRICA"

On May 16, the I. I. E. C. offered the con-
sular corps in Rome a cinema projection,
the chief item in which was the above film,
a piece of real life filmed in Africa by Baron
Gourgaud. The consular corps, the intel-
lectual world and the foreign press were
largely represented. The film had a most
successful reception, and was adjudged by
the guests invited by the Institute to possess
all the qualites of an authentic piece of docu-
mentation. Among the many films on
Africa, those which realize so exactly the
filmed diary of an expedition, not from any
desire of self-glorification but in a scientific
spirit, are rare. The desire to put on record
and illustrate by means of animated visions
the reports of the great travellers in whose
traces Baron Gourgaud follows was the
inspiration of the film.

A series of hunting triumphs giving the
idea of massacre must not be looked for
in this film. Baron Gourgaud, in the com-
mentary that accompanies the pictures,
states clearly that he killed as few animals as
possible and scrupulously avoided accidents
to members of his party.

The guests invited to see the film were
able to note and appreciate the sober com-
ment accompanying it, where happy touches
of humour appear together with a profound
sense of human sympathy with those people
whom progress has not yet included in the
list of civilized races. A careful choice of
characteristic sites and scenes was shown,
making the film one of the most instructive
that have been taken in Africa. Picture-work,
flawless, and sonorization, perfect : two im-
portant factors in the picture's success.

PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS OF THE SUB-STANDARD FILM

The continuous and rapid development
of cinematography outside the usual theat-
rical forms brings the various questions re-
lating to scholastic, cultural and amateur
cinematography more and more to the
front.

The essential problem here is certainly
the size of the film and its unification and
standardisation. The importance of the
question can be well judged from the num-
erous discussions on the matter which are
to be read in the technical press of every

- 469 -

country. The necessity of establishing a
size satisfying at one and the same time the
various opposed conditions which form the
essential and practical characteristics of the
reduced size film is universally recognized.
Technical considerations and sometimes in-
terests of a more or less private character,
however, conflict with a practical realization
of such a film and the integral solution of
the problem. The general question of the
reduced size film is still more complicated
by the necessity of applying the technical
principles of the sound film for scholastic
or family projections.

Without taking up a position in favour
of any one of the film formats now in use,
it cannot be denied that the efforts of the
supporters of the 16 mm film have had
results which allow one to believe that this
format has practically become standardized.
The sale of the sub-standard film today
greatly exceeds that of any other reduced
size film. It must be recognized though
that the wide spread of the 16 mm film is
not entirely to be attribued to the efforts to
which we have referred, but also to a com-
bination of technical improvements in the
material used with it, such as cameras, pro-
jectors, printing and reducing machines
and films. These improvements have not
been carried out to anything like the same
extent for other small size films.

It is extremely difficult to express a final
judgement on the size of film which in prac-
tice is best suited for scholastic and amateur
projections, because every size has advan-
tages and disadvantages which often in part
compensate or eliminate one another. Per-
haps from the strictly technical point of
view, the 17,5 size commonly used, in pro-
jection machines of the Pathe-Rural type
offers distinct advantages over the sub-
standard size (16 mm), particularly in the
matter of the application of the sound strip.
Nevertheless, as has been mentioned, the
spread of the 16 mm film is now such that
it is impossible not to take account of it
when examining the problem of standardiz-
ing the reduced size film.

The international market for machines
using sub-standard films offers a great va-
riety, both in type and price, and this ap-
plies both to cinema cameras and projec-
tors. There are on sale today machines
which are capable of satifying the severest
tests and others which for their simplicity
and relatively low cost may be said to be
practically within the reach of everybody.
In the important matter of safety, it should
be noted that the 16 mm film is exclusively
manufactured with non-inflammable cel-
luloid. In order to avoid the distortions
which the powerful lamps necessary for ob-
taining large size projections might cause in
the films, even without setting them on fire,
many projectors are today furnished with a
cooling plant which guarantees absolute safety.

The resolutions passed at the London
Congress in 1928, by which manufacturers
of film pledged themselves to use exclusively
non-inflammable supporting material has
permitted the definite introduction of the
sub-standard film even into schools and as-
sembly halls in those countries where there
exists restrictive legislation concerning safe-
ty against fire.

Thus, for example, the regulations issued
by a decree published on January 23 of this
year by the Prussian police authorities,
though particularly severe, are such that
machines using reduced size films do not
require the official certificate.

It cannot be denied that in order to secure
the greatest development and widest spread
of the 1 6 mm film it would be useful further
to reduce its price below the present level.
This seems especially necessary for amateur
cinematographers. A good European cine-
camera, such as the " Movex " of the
A.G.F.A. Co. costs today about 1000 lire.
One metre of 16 mm film, including the
inversion process and the carriage, costs in
Germany one mark. Even taking into ac-
count that one metre of sub-standard film
corresponds to about two metres and a half
of normal film, we must recognize that run-
ning expenses are in the present economic
conditions somewhat too high.

470 -

The problem, already in itself somewhat
complicated, is now rendered still more
difficult by the necessity of applying, even
on the reduced size film, the sound column.

Here again the solutions proposed are
numerous and all represent a form of com-
promise between the photo-acoustic require-
ments and the limitations imposed by the
reduced size of the film. Without going too
much into details, it will suffice to mention
that the proposals may be summed up in
two principal systems. In one, the acoustic
strip is reduced from the normal in length
and breadth in proportion to the reduction
of the size of the image. In the other
method, the sound strip is given a greater
length than in the first system, and either
an empty image is interposed between two
successive images (Blankfeld system), or each
image is rotated at an angle of 90° so that
the larger sides of each photogram run par-
allel and not at right angles to the film's
length. It is evident that in these cases the
sound strip will be longer than in the case
of reduction pure and simple, with no small
advantage for the reproduction of the sound.

Although in this field no actual standard-
isation has been arrived at, it is safe to say
that the experiments in the matter have
resulted in great progress. A proof of this
may be seen in the proposals put forward
by the Jones Research Sound Products
Inc. of New York and the scheme suggested
by the special sub-committee of the Society
of Motion Picture Engineers.

The proposal made by the Jones Research
people deals with the use of a sub-standard
film of 16 mm representing an exact reduc-
tion of the normal 35 mm film. To main-
tain the standard frequency of 24 photo-
grams per second, such reduced size film
must be run at a speed of 1 1 metres a sec-
ond, and projected — like standard film —
at 1440 pictures a miute. The width of
the sound column is 0,508 mm.

According to the firm in question, the
essential points which alone permit a success-
ful use of sound films with reduced size
projections are the following :

1) Exclusive use of sub-standard film
with sound strip and consequent abolition of
gramophone systems.

2) The film must have a double lateral
perforation ; no system of alternate images
as mentioned above.

3) The photo-acoustic registration must
be made in a way that is perfectly identical
with that used for standard film, and the
sound strip must not conceal, in proportion,
a section of the image greater than that con-
cealed by the strip itself in normal films.
That is to say, the width of the sound strip
must not exceed mm 1.14.

4) The sound registration must be such
as to produce qualitatively the same fre-
quencies reproduced in normal pictures.

5) The speed at which the film is run
must be metres 10,8 per minute, cor-
responding, that is, to a cadence of 24
pictures a second.

6) The original taking of the film must
be made exclusively on standard film, for
later reducing on to 16 mm film. This
with the object of obtaining a reduction in
the granulation such as to allow the projec-
tion even in halls containing between 300
and 400 spectators, without excessive en-
largement liable to produce eye strain.

7) The registration processes and the
machinery must be improved so to allow
absolutely perfect pictures, whether taken
in the studio or out of doors.

8) Improvement in the optical projec-
tions and in the sound reproduction.

9) The prices of machines and accessor-
ies should be kept within reasonable limits,
so as to render them accessible to schools,
communities, and educational institutes for
which they are specially destined.

The sub-committee nominated by the
Society of Motion Picture Engineers, on
the other hand, arrived at somewhat different
results. The proposals of this sub-com-
mittee for the standardization of the 16 mm
film deal with two types of standard film :
one with double perforation and the other
with lateral perforation, with the sound strip
taking the place of the second perforation.

471

It is not improbable that, given the un-
deniable advantages of this second type, it
may enjoy widespread use which also seems
likely from the great authority of the body
proposing it.

There are, nevertheless, numerous el-
ements to define, and various problems to
solve before a universal solution of the quest-
ion and an absolute standardization can be
arrived at. Among other points, the fol-
lowing should be remembered : maximum
dimensions of the picture on the screen ;

average luminosity of the superficies of the
screen ; aperture of the fixed or variable
projector ; width of the sound strip ; utiliz-
ation of duplicate negatives for printing
positives, etc. All these problems are at
present under examination, and it is likely
that in the near future they will be solved
in the most satisfactory way from the practical
point of view in the interest of the standard-
ization of the reduced size film, and in the
still more important interest of the spread
of scholastic and educative cinematography.

WHAT WOMAN CAN OFFER THE CINEMA "

Madame Laura Dreyfus-Barney, president
of the Cinema Commission at the Women's
International Council, whose clear vision
and activity we have referred to on other
occasions, and notably last October when
the commission of which she is president
met at the headquarters of the I. I. E. C,
has broadcasted at Geneva an interesting
conference on the above theme.

After speaking of the evolution of the
cinema and of the evolution of the ideas
concerning this potent instrument for form-
ing and educating public opinion, Madame
Dreyfus-Barney pointed out the interest
always shown in the cinema by parents,
educationalists, governments, international
organs and the League of Nations itself.

The illustrious conferencier spoke of the
activity of the I. I. E. C. in terms which
affect us, not only because they arouse our
amour propre, but also and especially because
they spread a far flung testimony through
the radio to innumerable listeners of the
efforts of the I. I. E. C. to make the cinema
more an element of science, education and
social progress.

Speaking of the inquiry carried out by
the Institute on the cinematographic cen-
sorship in various countries, Madame Drey-
fus-Barney insisted on the important role
which woman, more qualified than anyone
else to understand the effects of the film
on youth, can exert in the censorship com-

missions. She quoted the opinion of
Mr De Feo, director of the I. I. E. C, who
has recognized the unquestionable right of
women to a share in educative activity.

Madame Dreyfus-Barney also spoke of
the intimate collaboration of the Rome In-
stitute with the Committee for the Pro-
tection of infancy connected with the League
of Nations, to which there belong eminent
women, representatives of their governments
or important organizations in their own
countries.

Speaking especially of women's part in
educative cinema work, Madame Dreyfus-
Barney touched on feminine collaboration
in numerous symposiums made in order to
determine the dangerous influence of immoral
films and the salutary influence of good ones.
Certain feminine organizations publish lists
of films which they recommend. Other
feminine societies organize meetings for
families and young people. Others, again,
make it their purpose to render the beauties
of nature and art accessible to all.

Women who belong to the teaching class
willingly utilize the cinema as a scholastic
aid, and recognize its value for professional
work, the protection of labour, domestic
economy, hygiene, etc. The cinema is
also used for fighting with propaganda cer-
tain forms of disease and all women have an
intuitive perception of its great usefulness in
teaching the principles of child culture.

472

It may be said that the woman who is
conscious of her responsibilities is always
on the side of the man who in the cinemato-
graphic field, pursues educational and con-
structive aims.

After having referred to the conference
held last October under the auspices of the
I. I.E. C, Madame Dreyfus-Barney con-
cluded :

In concluding this synthetic and in-
complete exposition of woman's work in the
cinema field, the art of the greatest humanity,
I intend to make an appeal to those women
who can offer it all their influence by writing

scenarios or starting campaigns with news-
papers or cinema directors. I appeal also
to mothers of families, to teachers, to all
women in fact who according to their cir-
cumstances and means can contribute to a
work which, if well directed, will be a great
help for happiness in our houses, for social
tranquillity and a coming closer together
of the peoples ".

It is the earnest wish of the I.I. E. C.
that Madame Dreyfus-Barney's appeal may
awaken in women's hearts a full sense of
their responsibility in the matter of the
cinema.

ITALIAN CATHOLICS AND THE CINEMA

The General Meeting of the consortium
of the members of the C. U. C. E., or Cath-
olic organization of the Educational Cinema,
an association which is affiliated with the
Azione Cattolica Italiana, was recently held
in Milan. The secretary general of the asso-
ciation is Abbot Canziani, who represents
Italy at the International Catholic Cinema
Bureau. The reports of the meeting afford
us valuable indications regarding the action
of the Italian Catholic world both with re-
gard to the moralizing of public spectacles
and the development of the use of the cinema
in religious works and colleges.

Abbot Canziani declared himself partic-
ularly satisfied with the working of the Ital-
ian censorship, which, in his opinion, was
stricter than in other countries. At the
same time, he urged greater energy in the
application of the censors decisions. With
regard to the national cinema output, it
was not to be condemned in its entirety,
but it was regrettable that the good will
of the producers conflicted with financial
considerations.

Was the cinema to be considered a painful
necessity to be undergone, as some people
supposed ? Abbot Canziani protested against
this way of thinking, and we are glad of his
statement that the cinema should, on the
contrary, be considered as a social force and

a formidable instrument of propaganda.
The secretary general of the C. U. C. E.
perfectly agrees with the ideas we recently
set forth in this review when referring to the
protests raised by the Bishop of Cologne.

In one year over 80 million lire were spent
in Milan for amusements, and of this sum
the cinema received 50 millions. These
figures, stated Abbot Canziani, imposed
on Catholics the necessity of not limit-
ing their intervention to merely negative
action.

To speak of production, however, in the
present state of things would be practically
an absurdity, for the problem of a better
cinema is certainly not solved by merely
creating a good film. Other methods must
be sought. The producer will be able to
impose his views on the spectator and on the
renter so long as the latter are not organized,
but the day that sees an organisation of spec-
tators and cinema proprietors come into
being will mean that the problem will be
examined in quite another manner.

It is necessary also to come an arrange-
ment with the producers for the making
of good films of a religious, educational or
historical character, guaranteeing a satisfac-
tory profit for productions of this character.

The Italian Catholic world comes de-
finitely into line with the policy sustained by

473 —

the Institute for Educational Cinematography
from its creation. The cinema is an in-
dustry and a trade, which requires the sup-
port of large sums of capital. Every in-
dustry and trade aims logically at a profit.
Even a cinematographic organization spe-
cialising in loftier ideals in the production
of good films must make a profit, though it
be a small one, if it is to live and prosper.
It will therefore not be possible to obtain
good films until a distribution, not only

large enough to cover the expenses of pro-
duction but large enough to provide a certain
margin of profit, can be assured.

A sane understanding of the possibilities
and necessities of the cinema industry tends
to lead the Cinema Users Consortium to
positive action, without ceasing, on that
account, from continuing through its " Re-
view of the Cinema " and active propaganda
an action calculated to elevate the moral and
social level of public spectacles.

INQUIRIES

Dr. Roberto Assagioli, director of the Insti-
tute of Psychical Culture and Therapy in
Rome, intends to communicate to the world
of students and amateurs of psychological
problems the results of two inquiries, one
referring to children, the other to young folk.

The inquiries which he intends to make
derive from a series of meetings which took
place in January last at the Rome Lyceum,
where the debates turned on the latest cur-
rents of thought and the attitude of young
people in the struggle of life which conti-
nues without truce between the old and the
new generations.

It was these debates which gave rise to
the idea of getting the young people them-
selves to set forth their attitudes and their
way of thinking about life.

The questionnaires propounded by Dr.
Assagioli, which it is his intention to launch
in their several languages in the chief coun-
tries of the world, contain a series of indica-

tions of a strictly psychological character
rendered necessary by the origins of the
inquiry.

With regard to our own work, it is in-
teresting to note that the cinema is consider-
ed as one of the elements preeminently
worthy of examination and debate.

The questionnaire for the children contains
among other the following question. What
shows do you prefer ? Which do you like best,
the theatre or the cinema ?

Which films have made the greatest impress-
ion on you, and which have amused you most ?

Have any done you harm?

The type of inquiry is perhaps not new,
but, without doubt, will be more complete
than any so far attempted.

The I. I. E. C. wishes Dr. Assagioli the
fullest success, and will be glad at the oppor-
tune moment to communicate the results
of the inquiry, at any rate for that part which
refers to the utilisation of the cinema.

— 474 —

Technical Notes

LENSES WITH VARIABLE FOCAL LENGTH

The problem of constructing lenses with
variable focal lengths has for some time been
the subject of study by the makers of opt-
ical material. The principal object aimed
at with such lenses is twofold, 1) the possib-
ility of obtaining pictures of various sizes
at the same distance without changing the
lens ; 2) the possibility of obtaining a longi-
tudinal carriage (bringing the subject closer
or making it further away) without moving
the camera itself.

Two such types of lenses have been re-
cently constructed ; one by Bell and Howell
and the other by Otto Durholz of Paterson.
The " Varo " lens of Bell & Howell, which
is really a special device, is enclosed in a
rectangular box almost as large as the camera
itself, and is applied to the anterior part of
it. The focal length of the optical system
may be varied continuously from 40 to 120
mm, and the variation can be made dur-
ing the actual photographing. Naturally,
during such operation the various parts of
the lens move in such a manner that the sub-
ject is continually kept under its eye. The
dimensions of the pictures vary in the pro-
portion of one to three, that is naturally
when the whole field of variation of focal
length is used. The maximum relative
apertures do not, however, remain constant
for all the focal lengths. At between 40
and 50 mm, such maximum aperture is
F : 3,5. For the intermediate zones, up to
85 mm, the aperture is diminished to F : 4,5,
while for the other variations from 40 to
120 mm, the maximum apertures are from
F : 5,6 to F : 8.

With regard to the focussing, it must be

observed that this does not take place, as
with ordinary lenses, by means of varying
the distance of the plane of the image, but
by a focussing system that is calculated
from 1 50 feet to infinity. This really means
that with the lens in question the position
is less favourable than with ordinary lenses,
for the hyperfocal distance for 40 mm and
F : 3,5 is about 14 metres ; for 50 mm and
F : 3,5 it is about 21 metres ; for 85 mm and
F : 4,5 it is about 48 metres, and for 1 20 mm
and F : 5,6, it is 77 metres. When it is nec-
essary to photograph at a distance, additional
lenses must be employed, which are attached
to the front section of the device.

The variation of the focal length is obtained
by means of a handle placed at the side.which
gives a synchronized movement of the var-
ious parts of the device, each part moving
according to its own laws.

The solution of the problem offered by
the firm of Durholz seems simpler. The
optical system has in this case the appearance
of a telephoto lens, easily mountable in the
place of one of the normal lenses, and with a
revolver-shaped head. Its weight is about
2200 kilograms.

According to the instructions issued, the
focussing is very easy, and can be made from
a distance of one metre without any need
of adding additional lenses . The focal length
may be changed continuously between 40
and 160 mm. In fact, when it is necessary
to cover the reduced superficies of the sound
film, the minimum focal length can be reduced
to 37 mm. In this case, as in the foregoing,
the maximum aperture varies with the focal
length. Precise details are lacking.

5 — let ingl.

476

TECHNICAL SECRETS

The development of colour cinemato-
graphy is proceeding vigorously in various
countries, and it would seem that important
discoveries are on the eve of being announ-
ced. Among notable efforts in this field of
activity, may be mentioned the experiments
carried out by the " Multicolor Films In-
corporated " of California, which have been
made public through the details given in
the American patent No. 360819. The
particulars of the Spicer-Dufay system have
recently been made the subject of an ad-
dress by Thome Baker before the Royal
Photographic Society of London.

The " multicolor " system is especially
adapted to the coloured sound film. As is
common knowledge, one of the principal
difficulties hitherto encountered in the rea-
lization of this type of film was the fact that
colouring of the sound strip easily caused
acoustic distortion in the reproduction.
According to the statements of " Multi-
color Films ", the acoustic reproduction
suffers when the film is coloured with red
colouring material, while no such ill result
derives from the use of blue colouring mate-
rial.

A normal negative is used in the Multi-
color process for the sound registration, which
which is made with a constant intensity on
a lateral strip of the width of about 3 mm.

In the coloured positives obtained by the
systems where the black and white pictures
were afterwards coloured by absorption or
tinting, the sound section remained in black.
With the new method, the sound strip also
is coloured by means of a special chemical
process. The invention therefore amounts
to a new process for the preparation of a
coloured film, the sound strip of which is
coloured at the same time. By this system
one of the partial positive copies, both op-
tical and sound sections, are coloured in blue,
while only the optical strip of the other par-
tial positive copy is coloured in a comple-
mentary colour. Naturally, the process

requires two partial negatives, one of which
is made through a blue screen and the other
through a red. The resulting positives are
coloured in the complementary colours, that
is to say the first in red, and the second in
blue. The sound registration is made ex-
clusively in taking the partial negative with
the red screen filter. This is printed in
positive and then coloured in blue. It should
be noted that the coloured partial emulsions
can be placed both on the same part of
the celluloid support, instead of one on one
part, and the other on the other part.

Naturally, the chromatic results of this
system do not greatly differ from those ob-
tained by the usual bi-chromatic processes.
The novelty consists essentially in the col-
ouring of the sound strip as has been
pointed out.

The " Spicer-Dufay " colour system be-
longs to the group of microscopic lenticu-
lar mesh systems. The celluloid of the film
is of the non-inflammable type, and is manu-
factured in Spicers Ltd's factory at Sawston.

The mesh is composed of a series of col-
oured lines arranged at a distance of 1/20
of mm, one from another. These lines,
the actual preparation of which offers in
practice considerable difficulties, must have
perfectly clear cut borders. As these very
fine lines are printed on a thin collodion
soaked in green colouring matter covering
the film, it will happen that when the film is
placed in a bleaching bath, the green colour
will be eliminated from the stratum of col-
lodion except in the points where the faint
lines stand out. If then the film treated
in this manner is immersed in a bath of red
colouring matter, a film with microscopic
stripes in alternate green and red colours
will be obtained. When this operation has
been completed, the film is then subjected
to a similar process, by which a series of lines

477 -

crossing the first ones is obtained, which
lines are then coloured in blue. The final
result of these operations is a film which pre-
sents three kinds of stripes or fine lines, two
parallel ones in green and red, and the cross-
wise one in blue.

One of the characteristic points of the
" Spicer-Dufay " system lies in the method
of obtaining the positives. As is known,
in mesh systems the positive is generally
obtained by a process of inversion. From
the inverted original positive the counter-
types and the other positives are obtained.
In the system under examination, a small
number of duplicates are taken from the
original and these duplicates are again

used to furnish other copies. For printing,
an optical process is followed. Inasmuch as
between the upper part of the silver image
which is on the mesh side, and the mesh
itself there is a thin stratum of the thickness
of 6-8 micron, it is possible to print perfect
copies when wide aperture lenses are used
for printing. The printing takes place on
emulsions of extreme sensibility with a fre-
quency of about 800 images a minute.

In the projection made before the Royal
Photographic Society, a film was shown,
composed in part of original pictures and in
part of copies, and, according to the reports,
it was not possible to distinguish the one
from the other.

CULTURAL SECTION

KOCHSTRASSE 6-7, BERLIN S. W. 68

Large Choice of Instructional Films for schools, universities or the theatre.
We collaborate with the most important international authorities.
Our sphere of activity embraces the following:

All branches of natural science.

Geography and ethnology; short and long films.

Industry and technology.

Agriculture.

Sports and games.

Medicine: popular and technical films.

Recreational films.

Sound Films and silent Films,

We produce cultural " U FAT ON „ films in German, Eng-
lish, French, Czech, Polish, Spanish, and Swedish

ASK FOR OUR CATALOGUE

Latest projecting apparatus for sound and silent films

J '" — Ice ingl.

— 478 —

I" Hal Exhibition ol InHioil

AT

VENICE

1932

APRIL 28th to NOVEMBER 4th

The " Biennial „ at Venice is the largest and most important permanent
exhibition of Modern Art in the World

Sixteen Nations have pavilions

ITA Iv Y

GERMANY - BELGIUM - DENMARK - SPAIN - UNITED

STATES - FRANCE - GREAT BRITAIN - GREECE

HOLLAND - HUNGARY - JAPAN - POLAND

SWITZERLAND - TCHECO-SLOVAKIA

and the U. S. S. R.

= THE XVIIIth BIENNIAL 1932 ^=

will present large personal exhibition of the works of Pablo Picasso and Ignacio
Zuloaga. And retrospective exhibitions of Giov. Boldini, F. P. Michetti, V. Gemito,

E. Manet, C. Meunier, etc.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CONTEMPORARY ART

April 30 - May 4

INTERNATIONAL COURSES IN MODERN ART

by eminent critics and authors. June and October
Mugust

First international Cinema Festival

September

Second international Festival of Music

Traditional Venetian Fetes ~ Travel facilities

— 479

/=

=\

A modern system for
the modern traveller!

Provide yourself in advance with

" B. C. I.

i

n

Travel cheques of the

BANCA COMMERCIALS ITALIANA

in lire, French francs, marks, sterling

or dollars

No commission or other charges

Explanatory booklet obtainable at all branches of the
BANCA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA

vt

- 480 -

1/ ITHLIHM CINEMHTOGMFI

s. A,

CAPITAL, FULLY PAID 1.125.000 It. lire

Head Offices: TURIN - Via S. Francesco da Paola, 20

Telephone 52-121

Telegrams DIRTALCINE

THE LARGEST FILM-RENTING COMPANY IN ITALY

Authorised purveyors to the Royal Air Force, the
National " Dopolavoro „ (workers' leisure - hour
organisation) and the railwaymen's " Dopolavoro „

Special renting service for endowed institutes, ==
== schools and other educational establishments

FILM BUSINESS TRANSACTED FOR TRIRD PARTIES

11 chief agencies - 52 smaller agencies

BARI:
BOLOGNA :
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AGENCIES:

Via Candia, 21 - Tel. 21-38

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Via P. Colletta, 35 - » 51-535

Via Emerigo Amari, 142 - » 13-109

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ITALCINE

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Review of periodicals and newspapers

Social Problems and the Film.

On the occasion of the annual meeting
of the National Council of Women held in
Manchester, Mrs Eleanor Plumer addressed
the meeting on the working of the cinema
in the national life. (Manchester Guar-
dian, Manchester, 16-1 1 1- 1932).

A small increase in the production of
films for family spectacles is announced in
the United States. (The Daily Film, New
York, 28-111-1932).

A length debate took place in the House
of Commons regarding the influence of the
cinema on young folk. Sir Herbert Samuel
expressed the opinion that the cinema tends
rather to prevent than to foment crime.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 16-IV-
1932).

The " First National ' Company has
produced an educational and patriotic film
on the life of Livingstone, showing all the
activity of the great traveller and missionary
for the emancipation of the negroes. (Les
Actualites Cinematographiques, Paris, No.
990-1001).

For the next autumn season, the exhib-
ition of four films taken by Hans Schonburg
during his last African expedition is an-
nounced. The titles of the films are :
" Das letzte Paradies " (The Last Paradise) ;
" Mit 4 autos quer durch Afrika " (Across
Africa in four automobiles) ; " Das Waschen
eines Kontinents " (The development of a
Continent) and " Deutsche Pflanzer in

Angola " (German Colonists in Angola).
(Film Korrespondenz, Berlin, 9-1 1 1- 1932).

Under the auspices of the Danish govern-
ment, the Universal Co. has organized an
expedition for Greenland in order to film
the icebergs. (Motion Picture Daily,
New York, 6- IV- 1932).

The firm of Herbert Schonger has pro-
duced a new Alpine film, reproducing the
excursions of a group of young Germans in
the Swiss Alps. (Film Kurier, Berlin,
25-IV-1932).

A free projection was made in the Empress
Theatre, Hackney, London, of the film
" New Jewish Life in Palestine ". The film
deals with the Zionist Colonies in Palestine.
(The Cinema, London, 27- IV- 1932).

S. M. Eisenstein, has returned from Mex-
ico, where he spent 18 months making a
picture entitled " Long Live Mexico ! ".
He has brought to Russia 65,000 metres of
negatives on Mexican life. (FlLM KuRIER,
Berlin, 28-IV-1932).

Titayna, already known for some interest-
ing local interest films, shows " Voyage
in China ", a picture illustrating the uses,
costumes, rites and artistic and natural
beauties of China. (Le FlGARO, Paris,
I-V-1932).

The film " Northern Lights ", showing
the Watkins expedition in Greenland has
been projected. (The Daily Telegraph,
London, 6-V-1932).

482 —

Artistic Film.

With financial help from the State, the
first talking film, " The Road of Gold "
has been produced in Argentine. (Var-
iety, New York, 5-IV-1932).

At the Salon of the Independants in New
York, four pictures were transmitted by
television, meanwhile the artists gave ex-
planations of their works by radio broadcast-
ing. (The New York Times, New York
6- IV- 1932).

A new film, with designs by Lotte Reini-
ger, has been shown in Berlin under the
title ' Harlequin ". The musical accom-
paniment is made up of fragments from
Rameau, Pergolese, Couperin and Lulli.
Motives of the film are taken from scenes
of the XVIlth and XVlllth centuries. (Film
KURIER, Berlin, 7-V-1932).

Politics and the Film.

Some members of the Juvenile Socialist
Union of Vienna have produced a film of
Socialist propaganda on the life of the woork-
ers and strikers of Vienna with the title
" The young workers film their own lives ".
(Close Up, London, 1 -1 11-1932).

The International Film Foundation, re-
cently formed in New York under the pre-
sidency of Dr. Wallace W. Atwood, with
the object of producing and distributing
educational films, announces its first pic-
ture : " The Cry of the World ". The
film in question deals with the most impor-
tant problems of the twentieth century
peace, war, crime, the economic crisis, etc.
(Yhe New York Times, New York, 26- IV-
1929).

Religion and the Film.

The Vide-Vox Corporation, president
Mr A. Van der Pot, has been formed in New
York for the production of religious films.

(Motion Picture Daily, New York, 29-
II I- 1932).

Signora Dalmazzo, during the meeting
of the C. U. C. E. recently held in Milan,
delivered an important address on " The
Cinema and the Activity of Catholics in
international Life. (OsSERVATORE ROMANO,
Vatican City, 9, 11, 12-IV-1932).

On the 1 1th, 12th and 13th of May, there
was held in the Leonine College in Rome a
meeting of the directors of the three great
Pontifical missionary works : the Institute for
the Propagation of the Faith, the Institute of
St. Peter, and the Institute of the Holy
Infancy. The projection of two mission-
ary films, " Our Africa " and " Flames "
figured in the programme. (AGENZIA Fi-
des, Rome, May, 1932).

The Educational Film.

Professor H. M. Le Bourd publishes an
article of the greatest interest on the util-
ization of the cinema in the formation of
character. (Visual Instruction News, Law-
rence, No. 4, March 1932).

The Cinema and Teaching.

The French committee for teaching by
means of the gramophone has published a
first list of discs chosen by the General
Inspectorate of Public Education to form
part of the general programme for teaching
by the film. (ClNEMA Education, Paris,
15-111-1932).

Cinema Education of Paris, in the
issue of March 15, 1932, publishes an in-
teresting article by M. J. Prudhommeau,
entitled " The public teacher of deficient
children ". The article deals with the use
of the cinema in the re-education of abnor-
mal children.

Mrs Schultz reports a continually increas-
ing use of the means of visual education in

- 483 —

the public schools of Cleveland. (VISUAL
Instruction News, No. 4, March, 1932).

From the 8th of June to the 3rd of August,
a summer course of visual teaching for the
elementary and middle schools will take
place at the university of Kansas. (VISUAL
Instruction News, Lawrence, No. 4, March
1932).

L'EDUCATION a periodical bulletin pub-
lished under the patronage of " Redresse-
ment Francais ", carries in its March num-
ber a series of informative articles on the
use of the cinema as a means of teaching and
education. Particularly worthy of note is
an article by M. Lebrun, Vice-Director of
the Educational Museum on " The Film
in French Education " ; a report by M.
Favier, first class inspector at Genlis on the
results of an experiment carried out in his
district by means of the cinema and a note
by M. L. Riotor, municipal councillor of
Paris on the cinema in Paris, etc.

A meeting was held at Probstzella in 1 hu-
ringia, under the auspices of the members
of the teaching profession of the district,
in the course of which Dr Giinther, director
of the " Lichtbildamt ' of Berlin spoke
on the application of photography and the
cinema to education and teaching. (LlCHT
BlLD BUHNE, Berlin, ll-IV-1932).

In an article on the use of the film in
teaching, M. C. Lebrun points out that a
great number of films marked in catalogues
as teaching films do not answer this descrip-
tion. He mentions some examples of films
adapted for use in secondary schools, and
declares that if films of an assured scholas-
tic value for the State were produced, the
respective services and schools interested
in the matter would purchase them just as
they buy books or any other educational
material. (Cinema EDUCATION, Paris, 15-
IV- 1932).

Cinema Education of Paris, in the issue
of 15- IV- 1932, reports the resolutions agreed

to at the Congress of the National Federation
of Directors and Directresses of Public
Schools, held last March, regarding the use
of the cinema in teaching, the selection of
films and machines, preparation of teach-
ers, etc.

Mr. F. E. Cook stresses the necessity for
all schools to provide themselves with suit-
able visual educational material. (The
Scottish Educational Journal, Edinburgh,
22 April, 193?).

Mr. E. R. Enlow is of opinion that those
schools where visual teaching is not used
must be considered as lacking in modern
progress. (Educational Screen, Chicago,
No. 4, April 1932).

During the annual teaching conference
of the State of Ohio, Mr Carl E. Milliken
spoke on the social value of visual teaching,
Mrs Emeline Baumerster on auxiliary, visual
assistance in teaching, and Dr George Rom-
mert on the theme ". The microcosm in
Education ". (Educational SCREEN, Chic-
ago, No. 4, April 1932).

The educational commission of " Cine-
document " has decided to organize for
Thursday afternoons a series of instructive
conferences on the cinema for the benefit
of members of the teaching profession. (Le
ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 155, May 1932).

In an article entitled " The utility of pro
jections in teaching ", Mrs Clara Zyve as-
sures us that in teaching languages and
arithmetic, the results obtained with the
use of projections are much superior to
those obtained with the use of the black-
board. (Visual Instruction News Law-
rence, No. 3, 1932).

The Cultural Cinema.

The Bureau of Visual Instruction of the
university of Kansas sends gratuitously on
request its annual bulletin containing the

484

complete list of visual educational material
available for schools and educational and
cultural societies. (Visual INSTRUCTION
News, Lawrence, No. 3, 1932).

The Bureau of Visual Instruction of the
university of Kansas publishes a list of films
on Roman history, especially prepared for
teachers of Latin literature. (VlSUAL IN-
STRUCTION News, Lawrence, No. 4, 1932.

Under the title " New Art Cinema
Movement ", a society for the projection
of educational films and films of exception-
al artistic value has been formed at Glas-
gow. (The Cinema, London, 6-IV-1932).

The Devon Workers Educational Asso-
ciation (cultural association of workers in
Devonshire) has formed a cinematograph
group to study the use of the cinema as a
means of educating adults among the rural
populations. The group will be assisted by
the Teachers' Associations. (The Cinema,
London 20-IV-1932).

" The Associated Film Library " has
been formed in New York for the production
of 16 mm educational films. (MOTION PIC-
TURE Daily, New York, 29-IV-1932).

The Scientific Film.

In an article entitled " A visit to the Ma-
rey Institute. From Cinema to Ultra-Cine-
ma, „ M. Jules Casadesus, draws the readers
attention to the Marey Institute and its pro-
digious accomplishments in the field of
ultra-microscopic pictures. (La Volonte,
Paris, 25-IV- 1932).

Dr. J. Willard Hershey of the Chemical
Section of the McPherson College of Kansas
has made a film entitled " Components of
the atmosphere in relation to animal Life "
which can be rented by schools for one dol-
lar and a half, plus carriage. (Visual
Instructional News, Lawrence, No. 4,
March 1932).

The University Film Foundation of
Cambridge, Mass, has produced a film deal-
ing with one of the most singular aspects
of modern civilization, that is the interde-
pendence of individuals and human socie-
ties. (Visual Instruction, News, Law-
rence, No. 4, March 1932).

Educational and teaching " shorts ", pro-
dued in America by industrial and agricul-
tural associations, as well as by religious
missions and young folks protection societies
and colleges are increasing in number from
day to day, and can be counted by thousands
The University of California has inaugurated
a cinematographic laboratory, where Dr Mor-
kuwin, a scientist noted for his anthropol-
ogical researches, will produce a series of
films on the history and evolution of the
human race. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 8-IV-
1932).

A number of surgical films were exhibited
during a meeting held at the Western Elec-
tric Hall of Paris. There were present
Professor Brindeau, of the Obstetrical Clinic
of the Paris Faculty of Medicine, a number
of other doctors from the same clinic and
several members of the Committee of the
Maternal Aid Society. Professor Brindeau
expressed his admiration for the films,
especially for those which reproduced the
various phases of the Caesarean operation,
carried out by the illustrious Professor Lee
of Chicago. (L'EcLAIR, Montpellier, 1 1 -IV-
1932).

Erwin Schultz-Lindworth of Berlin, com-
ments, in an article entitled " New Methods
in Rontgen-cinematography , the commu-
nications made at the fourth ordinary ses-
sion of the " Club fur Kameratechnik E. V.
by Dr Kurt Jacobsohn on the experiments
carried out so far in this particular scientific
field. (REICHSFILMBLATT, Berlin, 23-IV-
1932).

The Film Society of Manchester has
made a film entitled " In the heat of the

485 —

moment ", the purpose of which is to il-
lustrate psychologically the effects which
heat and insects can have on the spirit of
a person shut, up in a room. (MoviE Mak-
ers, New York, No. 4, April 1932).

For the first time a talking film has been
shown at the Paris Academy of Medicine
by Professor Gosset, who projected a film
dealing with an operation for appendicitis
taken by Jean Benoit-Levy. (L'EcRAN
Paris, 7-V-1932).

Gaston de Renty spo!<e of the use of the
cinema in the Politechnic Schools of France
and of the advantages to be derived from it
in teaching various branches of science.
(Le Cineopse, Paris, No. 155, May 1932).

Electrical Research Products has made
three new films with a natural history in-
terest. They are : " Plant Traps ", " Moths "
and " Beetles ". (VISUAL INSTRUCTION
NEWS, Lawrence, No. 3, 1932).

Les Actualites cinematographiques In-
ternationales of Paris, Nos. 990-1001
contains a series of interesting considerations
and information regarding the use of the
sound film in hospitals, and publishes a
list of American hospitals equipped with a
sound film installation used, not for scien-
tific purposes, but to amuse the patients.

Hygiene and the Film.

The Italian Fascist Federation for the
campaign against tuberculosis has produced
a film entitled " Alarm Signals " in both
silent and sound editions to show the public
the problem of consumption under its econ-
omic, social, political and scientific aspects.
The film shows how the disease can be
fought and conquered, and the efforts made
by the State for this purpose. The film
will be shown all over Italy. (Popolo Dl
Roma, Rome, 28- IV- 1932).

The cultural, coloured sound film " Ryth-
mus und Tanz " (Rhythm and Dance),
showing the work of physical education in
the Jutta-Klant school, has been shown in
Berlin. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 7-V-1932).

The young people's Red Cross Associa-
tion of the Baltic States has organized since
1929 a service for the loan of educational
films in order to make hygiene propaganda
among young folk. The association poss-
esses 26 films and three projection machines.
(Revue et Bulletin d' Informations de
la Ligue de la Croix-Rouge, Paris, No. 1,
1932).

Legislation, Jurisprudence and the
Film.

In order to render clearer a controversial
question arising out of a trial, a film on the
glass-making process was projected in a
London court. (The Daily Telegraph,
London, 23-IV-1932).

A measure has been laid before the Rou-
manian Parliament, the object of which is
to obtain from the State a subvention for
the national cinematographic production.
The bill provides for the constitution of a
State fund, through the imposition of a
tax of five lei per metre on all imported
films placed before the censor. The fund
so deriving would be administered by func-
tionaries of the ministries of Public Educa-
tion, Cults and Arts, and representatives
of cultural societies. The Roumanian

Chamber threw out the bill, but in view of
the fact that the production of films spoken
in the Roumanian language is considered
in official circles as a national necessity, it
is probable that there will be little delay
in finding another means to arrive at this
object. (LlCHT BlLD Buhne, Berlin, 30-IV-
1932).

An office of cinematograph censorship
has been instituted at Rio de Janeiro. The
expenses are to be covered by the imposition

486 -

of new taxes. The proprietors of the pic-
ture palaces in Rio have already begun a
campaign of protest. (The Film Daily,
New York, 8- IV- 1932).

The Dutch censorship has forbidden the
German film " Cyankali ", because it was
held to fall into the category of propaganda
for birth control. (VARIETY, New York,
19- IV- 1932).

The Institute for Cultural Researches of
Berlin has discussed with representatives
of the Association for the European Customs
Union a plan for producing a propaganda
film for the lowering of customs barriers.
(Film-Kurier, Berlin, 7-V-1932).

Statistics and the Film.

La Cinematographie Franacise of Paris
of March 26th, carries a series of statistical
data. In 1931, there were made in French
studios 13' long films and 135 "shorts".
In addition 79 foreign versions of films were
manufactured. France uses every year 40
million tons of new film produced by French
factories, with a capital of 50 million francs.
There exist in France at present 78 news-
papers or reviews specializing in the cinema,
while 104 daily newspapers have a regular
cinema column. In the French schools,
there are today 12,000 screens, and it is
certain that this number will shortly be
doubled or tripled. There are also 1700
religious child protection or educational,
establishments and 500 similar lay institu-
tions making regular use of the film.

According to previous statistics, 10 %
of the cinemas in Chicago usually close
during the summer, but this year only 10%
will remain open. (The Film Daily, New
York, 10-IV-1932).

Labour : Syndical problems of the
Screen.

Rene geanne has completed an inquiry
on the various problems connected with
the French cinema. He publishes in three

long articles under the title of " Cinema
1931 " the replies of eminent personalities
of the international cinematograph world,
including those of M. Dulac, president
of the French Syndical Chamber, Mere,
President of the Dramatic Authors and
Composers' Society, Burgnet, President of
the Association of Film Authors, Lurville
president of the Union among Artists, Vuil-
lermoz, critic of the " Temps ", Arnoux,
critic of the " Intransigeant " and " Nouvel-
les Litteraires ", Rageot, president of the
Literary Society, Rene Clair and Poirier,
scenario writers, Harold Smith, Paris re-
presentative of the Hays organization, Pom-
mer, productions director of the UFA, Katz,
chief of the international of the Russian or-
ganization "Mejrabpom". (Revue Hebdo-
madaire, Paris, 1 -1 1-1932).

La Cinematographie Francaise of Paris
of March 26th publishes replies by various
French personalities in reply to a symposium
carried out in order to learn the opinion of
experts on five of the major problems of
the cinema. These were : programmes of
production, selling price of films in France ;
sale of films abroad ; contingenting problems
and dubbing and possibilities of develop-
ment.

In Japan, the " Benshis ", whose task it is
to explain to the public the scenes taking
place on the screen, have initiated a cam-
paign against the talking film, which threat-
ens their occupation. (The Times, Lon-
don, 4-IV-1932).

It is expected that more than 500 cinemas
will close in England if the taxes are not
reduced. (Today's Cinema, London, 23-
IV- 1932).

The Spitzen Organization of the German
cinema industry decided at the meeting
which took place on April 25 to invite the
owners of cinema houses to come to an
agreement with film renters to abolish, in
the interest of the national film production

— 487 —

the system of double cinema shows, that
is spectacles comprising two big pictures.
From now on, programmes ought only to
contain one long film and a supplementary
" short " . In order to supply the neces-
sary supplementary films required by this
ruling, the Spitzen Organization will ask the
government to import, extra-contingently,
silent or sound films for a meterage superior
to 500 metres. (Kinematograph, Berlin,
23-1 -1932).

A Lettish financier, Mr Sechters is at
present treating with the Education minister
of his own country for the creation of an
organization to produce national films.
Sechters will offer a first contribution of
200,000 lats for the purpose. (Der Film,
Berlin, 23-IV-1932).

A commission composed of delegates of
the Federation of British Industries and the
Trade Union Congress has presented several
proposals to the President of the Board of
Trade for helping the British film industry.
It is proposed to try and avoid the manufac-
ture of cinematographic films of a banal
character which have no other purpose
than to be useful to the requirements of
contigentmg. It is also proposed not to
accept films the price of which is below a
certain figure. (The Times, London, 26-
April 1932).

Labour Apprenticeship.

Le Genie Civil of Paris (19-111-1932)
speaks of the cinema in the superior com-
mercial schools introduced by the professors
of these schools themselves in order to col-
lect films suitable for their educational
programmes. The last two films were shown
in halls belonging to the Commune of Paris.
A film on the manufacture of metallurgical
coke was produced by Professor Cantagrel ;
another on the glass industry was made by
Professor Meyer, teacher in the High Com-
mercial Studies School' in collaboration with

the glass-workers syndicate. Both films have
animated drawings by M. Danil.

During Education Week at Chesterfield
a film will be shown illustrating the suc-
cessive phases of childrens' education up
to the time of their preparation for their
various professions. (The Daily Film
Renter, London, 26- IV- 1932).

The longest sound film in the world will
be made at Moscow and Leningrad this
summer. The film will be in ten parts,
with a total length of 25,000 metres, and its
purpose is to instruct young men aspiring
to become drivers of automobiles. In view
of the continually growing automobile pro-
duction, it has been thought necessary to
start intensive motor education of workmen.
Beginning with November, the film will be
shown contemporaneously in 20 cities.
Special teaching by experts will accompany
exhibition of film.

Labour Industrial Film.

The big industrial propaganda film, which
can be either a film of general culture or of
technical instruction, continues to increase
in all countries. In its April number
Movie Makers of New York enumerates a
whole series of such films, stating them to
be pictures of the highest interest. Under
the title, " The Largest Engineering In-
trument ", Mr C. Presgrave has illustrated
the manufacture of the " Universal Testing
Machine ". Mr. A. Le Neve Foster has
made a film on soap-making entitled " The
manufacture of Carbolic Soap ". The Gen-
eral Electric offer a film on the manufacture
of paper, " The World of Paper ". In the
picture, " The Photo Offset Process of
Printing ", the Photographic Co. of America
illustrates a new process for pulling proofs.
Visual Education News (Lawrence, No. 4,
March) announces that the Bureau of Visual
Instruction of the University of Kansas
offers a new film of an industrial character,
of 16 mm. size, entitled " Concrete and its

-488 -

uses ". The C. W. Briggs Company of
Philadelphia has organized a cinema projec-
tion school of mechanics for teaching pur-
poses.

The General Electric Co., moreover, pre-
sents a film of an industrial type entitled
" The Conquest of the Cascades ". (MoviE
Makers, New York, No. 5, May 1932).

The Film Daily (New York, 30-1 II-
1932) communicates that the " Metropoli-
tan M. P. C. has made for a great automobile
factory a propaganda film to be shown in
more than 6000 cinemas in the United
States.

In France the " Comite national des
Exportations coloniales " has put into cir-
culation for those interested in the matter
a film on the French textile industries.
The film is in six parts and deals with the
wool, cotton, linen, silk, artificial silk and
dyeing industries. (L'AMICALISTE, Paris, No.
65, March 1932).

Labour and Advertising.

Advertising films are largely used in
France by the most important industries.
Films of tourist propaganda are also numer-
ous, and are made in collaboration with
the Touring Club and the National Touring
Bureau. (La Cinematographie Francaise,
Paris, 26-111-1932).

Labour, Agriculture and the Film.

The committee for agricultural instruction
in Middlesex has organized in agreement
with the authorities of the county of Hert-
ford, a series of conferences for young
agriculturists. For the first time the con-
ferences were accompanied by the projec-
tion of sound films illustrating agricultural
subjects. The success of the projections
was such as to promise a development of the
idea. (The Times, London, 21-111-1932).

The " Zentralausschus fur Landspiele **
the objects of which are bound up with the
education of the rural populations of Ger-
many, offered last year on loan about 2800
films of instructive and recreative material
for a total length of 7,500,000 metres.
The organization also procured films for
numerous agricultural schools, superior
schools of veterinary science and univer-
sities. One film much in request was
" Deutsche Schutz, deutsche Arbeit " (Ger-
mans, defend the products of your soil !)
which shows the importance of agriculture
in the nation' s economy (Das Land, Berlin,
No. 4, April).

C. Michael Coissac, in a note in " Cinema
agricole ", points out that thanks to the ac-
tivity of the permanent commission of agric-
ultural Cinematography, France possesses
an agricultural cinema school of the first
rank. (Le ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 152, April
1932).

Technique and the Film.

In order to make all the scenes of a film
in a studio, the Austrian engineer Joseph
Jellinek has found a way of projecting in the
studios backgrounds taken in precedence,
and then continuing the making of the film
with the actors. (The New York Herald,
Paris, 28- 1 1 1- 1932).

The Society of Motion Picture Engineers
has organized in the Los Angeles Museum
an exhibition of thousands of objects il-
lustrating the systematic development of
the cinema industry. (Public INFORMA-
TION from the Society of Motion Pic-
ture Engineers, New York, 13-1 1 1- 1932).

Engineer Donovan Foster has invented
a new apparatus permitting stereoscopic
effects in cinematography. (Motion Pic-
ture Daily, New York, 21 -IV- 1932).

E. W. Nack of Berlin has explained the
working of a new slow motion camera in-

489-

vented by the Japanese Professor Suhara.
The apparatus, which can register 60,000
images a second, is under examination by
the superior Technical School of Berlin.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 23- IV- 1932).

The " Film Kurier " of Berlin, in its
April number, notes the extraordinary pro-
gress made recently in map-making cine-
matography thanks to the new " Repulsor
rockets, which allow of panoramic visions
at great heights.

The Triergon-Musik A. G. Society of
Berlin has taken out a patent for a new pro-
cess of registering light and sound. (FlLM
Kurier, Berlin, 23-IV-I932).

The Film Kurier of Berlin (30- IV-
1932) carries the description and the method

of using the Agfa Schmal VergrosserungS'
apparat for enlarging reduced size pictures.

The " Film Kurier " of Berlin, of April
30th, reports a description of a new machine
in three dimensions for animated draw-
ings. The apparatus is the work of Messrs
Schulze and Miiller of Berlin.

The Western Electric announces the crea-
tion of a new model of audiometer for the
scientific measuring of auditive capacity.
The price will be about 50 % below the
type generally in use. Thanks to its special
construction, it will permit the simulta-
neous examination of about 40 individuals.
(LES ACTUALITES ClNEMATOGRAPHIQUES IN-
TERNATIONALES, Paris, Nos. 979-989)

RADIOMARBLIvI

^ the best wireless and wireless-gramophone sets =
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— 490 —

HEAD OFFICES

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We draw once again the attention of

Employers

to the valuable assistance they will find in the National Insurance Institute in the matter
of the financial treatment of their staffs in cases of dismissal, resignation, unemployment, sickness
and death.

Why do you allow your administrative department to become complicated, why do
you have periodically and, often without warning to face new difficulties and meet new cases
in the matter of your liabilities to your employees ?

Such a situation disturbs your work, which should proceed uninterruptedly — without
incidents — to be fully effective. Neither does such a situation confer tranquillity on those
who are your precious collaborators.

Employers

The Corporative legislation has created the " collective labour contracts ", regulating
the relations between employers and employees.

You, for your part, should make it your duty to apply such contracts in the most prac-
tical way, and in the manner most in keeping with the spirit and letter of the law.

THE NATIONAL INSURANCE INSTITUTE

which — as was its definite duty — has conformed its methods to the progress of the
nation, drawing inspiration from the legislative reforms that have given the country a new
and solid social adjustement, offers you, therefore

COLLECTIVE INSURANCES

which comprise the most perfect developments of the day in the field of insurance technique.
These " collective insurances " relieve you of the various obligations which are imposed
on you, as a result of law, towards your employees and workmen because such obligations,
becoming the object of one single comprehensive contract, pass to the National Insurance
Institute, whose task it is to settle them in every case.

Employers

think over this appeal, and if you are anxious to enjoy an absence from worry, and appreciate
reasonable economies, do not neglect to ask plans and estimates from the various agencies
of the National Insurance Institute.

If — without obligation on your part — you wish an expert to come and examine the
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hesitate to make a request to the General Management of the Institute. (Rome Offices).

Remember that the National Insurance Institute is a State body and the first of all
Insurance undertakings in Europe.

ONE MILLION PERSONS INSURED
TWELVE MILLIARDS WORTH OF INSURANCE

Those insured with collective policies also participate in the profits of the Institute.

Bibliography

Cinema against Cinema. (Elements for an attempt
at organizing the Educational Cinema in Brazil.
By J. Canuto Mendes <Je Almeida. 1 Vol.,
224 pp.

This volume sets forth the great movement
proceeding during the last few years in Brazil in
favour of the educational cinema, of which the
author is one of the stoutest supporters.

As the title indicates, and a brief preface by
Lorenco Filho confirms, the volume defends, in
a concise and expressive manner, the thesis that
the evil of the cinema must be cured by the cinema,
and consequently film productions capable of dan-
gerous effects on the minds and spirits of young
folk should be annulled by the beneficent effects
deriving from well organized forms of educational
cinematography.

The volume is in five parts, in which the author
examines the historical development and the pre-
sent conditions of the technical, artistic, intellec-
tual and moral aspects of the cinema in a manner
that is simple and clear. There are numerous
illustrations. An appendix treats of the work carried
out by the General Education Department in Brazil
in favour of the educational cinema.

Morris Ryskind, C. F. Stevens, and James Eng-
LANDER. The Home Movie Scenario Book- Pub-
lished by Richard Manson. New York, 1927.
174 pp. $ 2-50.

The ever increasing number of cinema dilettanti
will welcome this publication with unfeigned in-
terest. Beside more than 20 scenarios of easy and
practical realization by people without much or any
experience, there is included in the second part a
brief manual where the technical notions, a know-
ledge of which is necessary for everyone who, even
for amusement, deals with cinematographic produc-
tion, are included. It is no gratuitous assertion on
our part to say that these amateurs of the cinema
are on the increase. The fact is confirmed by a
recent news item in the American paper " The Film
Daily ", which states that there are over 300,000
machines for taking pictures with films of 16 mm.
at present in the hands of American amateurs.

Guida Film. The Film Agency has published the
first cinematographic guide which provides a com-
plete list of all the bodies, associations, firms, estab-
lishments, traders, artistic directors, actors, journal
ists, and in fact of all those who develop their
activity in the Italian cinematograph world.

The volume is very useful and an authentic vade-
mecum for all those who have business contacts
with cinematography. Price, Lire 5. Agenzia Film,
Via Campania 8, Rome.

Robert Florey. Filmland. Los Angeles et Holly-
wood, les capitales du Cinema. Pans, 1932, Edi-
tions de Cinemagazine. 527 pp. (With Photo-
graphs). Price, 10 Francs.

Robert Florey. Deux ans dans les Studios Amer-
icans. Paris, 1932. Illustrated by 150 draw-
ings of Joe Hamman. Paris, Publications Jean
Pascal. 273 pp. Price 10 francs.

These two books of Robert Fleury consist of
a collection of notes, observations and interviews
made by the author in California. The various
methods used by the big producers of pictures
and their operators are passed in review. The tech-
nique of American studios is examined, and the
two volumes are rich in anecdotes and descriptions
of the private lives and careers of the most famous
screen artists. The purpose of the volumes is
especially informative. They have been written
for those who would like to have an idea of the inner
workings of an American film studio and see behind
the scenes.

An alphabetic list of existing studios and of the
independent companies in California, with their
addresses, and a brief glossary of American cine-
matographic terms, are included in the volume
Filmland.

Fred Dangerfield and Norman Howard. How
to become a film artist. Published By Odhams
Press Ltd., 39 King Street, Covent Garden,
London W. C. 2. 99 pp.

The plethora of artists, or rather the plethora of
actors who think themselves artists which for some
time has invaded Hollywood renders the publica-

492 —

tion of this book, with the ingenuous title " How to
Become a Cinema Artist ", superfluous. It is not
from abstract rules or books, but rather from the
actual words of the stage manager that new screen
stars learn the rudiments of their art today. Only
those excel in it who can draw understanding and
enthusiasm from the depths of their souls, those
who live each of their parts intensely, thus giving
the spectator the illusion of reality. Though
what- is asked of the cinema is generally an hour of
oblivion, and though it is to the unreal that we

turn to forget the life we live, nevertheless it is a
universal demand that the unreal take on the
appearance of the real — a vain and hypothetical
reality in which, momentarily, real existence is sub-
merged.

So if the rules and precepts laid down here are
insufficient for the task, it must be admitted, how-
ever, that in some chapters of more general in-
terest to the reader the authors give us descriptions
of cinema studios and a definite idea of the immense
work which is involved in producing a film.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Roma — 11 L'Universale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

- 493

COMPANY LTD.

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LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome, President.
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CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
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the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
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Protection of Infancy.
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Inc. (U. S. A.).
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Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

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The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
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de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

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EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.

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YEAR IV. JULY 1932 N. 7.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

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INDEX

Pag.

C. Legras — The Cinema and the Rural Exodus 497

Thos FlNEGAN .... — The Responsibility of Supervision for the Use of Si-
lent and Sound Motion Pictures 505

E. THIELMANN .... — Acoustics in Educational Sound Films 512

C. H. Barnick — The Close up one of the Greatest Technical and Ar-
tistic advances made by the Film 515

Tarbotton ARMSTRONG. — Research and Preparation in Motion Pictures ... 517
/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Students and the Didactic Fdm (concluded) 519

A /. E. C. STUDIES

The History of Visual Education (continued) 529

NATIONAL COMMITTEES OF THE I. I. E. C.

Formation of the German Committee 541

LEGISLATION

The Moral Protection of Copyright-expired Works 545

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

Cinema Aesthetics — The Use of Motion Pictures in Character Education —

The Florence Cinematographic Exhibition — Missionaries and the Cinema 553

TECHNICAL NOTES

Advances in Colour Cinematography — The Debrie Super-Parvo 561

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 565

BIBLIOGRAPHY 575

THE CINEMA AND THE RURAL EXODUS

By C. Legras

Everything in the world has its good and bad side, every medal has its
reverse, and as Prudhomme said, it is necessary to know how to use a sword
both to defend or attack the institutions of one's own country. The cinema,
for instance, can hold the agriculturist to the land just as it can drive him
towards urbanism.

Among the various classes of films, those which do not, even in theory,
appear dangerous are the films of professional and technical instruction.
Without filling the peasant with a desire to go to the city, they form an
excellent method of teaching, and those dealing with the small industries
closely connected with the land will doubtless be considered the most suit-
able. Such films, for instance, as those dealing with working in straw for
the art of basket-making and chair-mending — a dying trade in our country-
side. Everything that has to do with manures and fertilisers and the con-
struction and repairing of agricultural machines is suitable for the country
film repertory.

It should be remembered that instructive films are more tiring than
others. Our educationalists have observed that the scholars of from ten
to twelve years of age, in the primary schools cannot witness a projection
of more than 120 metres without showing signs of cerebral fatigue. Peas-
ants, apart from the question of their intelligence, which is not inferior,
on the whole, to that of townsfolk, are accustomed to think and live in the
open air, guiding their ploughs. They do not sit in a dark room facing a
luminous document. It is therefore essential to offer them shows which
recreate their spirit even to the extent of showing them theatrical films.

With regard to films of this type we must not forget that if they help
to keep the peasants in the countryside by offering them distraction, certain
of such films, stressing the attractions of city life, must be primarily con-
sidered as agencies tending to provoke the rural exodus. Luxurious halls,
dances and the feminine world of Hollywood, with all its splendours,
the actresses' dressing-rooms and the whole atmosphere of elegance should

— 498 —

be eliminated from films destined for country exhibition. There is a
shortage of female labour for the fields, and at all costs care must be
taken not to let the peasant women think after seeing similar films, that it
would be a much better and more pleasurable thing to be able to drink glas-
ses of champagne to the music of an orchestra than to be obliged to carry on
with the hard and often unpleasant life of the country. It is useless in such
cases to fight similar day-dreams by showing the opposite side of the pic-
ture : the worries, the debts, the dramas, the suicides. Man is always under
the illusion that the catastrophe will not touch him personally. The gam-
bler believes that he will win and his neighbour will lose. The soldier
thinks he will be sure to escape the machine guns, while his enemy will
receive the bullets. The spirit treasures the brilliant and attractive part of
what it sees and forgets the rest.

Woman, especially the young woman, is the principal element in the
rural exodus. In a large part of Central Europe, women work in the fields
under the superintendence of a man, who, as often as not, while inspecting
the work, merely idles himself. In France, in the summer, women assist
the reapers. Almost everywhere the milking of the cows, a fatiguing but
delicate work, is entrusted to women. The young girls therefore seek to
marry by preference a man who has a distinct occupation different from
that of an agriculturist or peasant on the land, a butcher, for instance, or
a grocer. Still more attractive seems a barber's assistant, an employee, a
railwayman. When such a young woman sees a picture show in her village,
she will draw the attention of her young man to all the scenes which are
opposed to country life, and if the youth has not a strong vocation for the
agricultural life, he will be induced to desert it even before his marriage.

A selection of theatrical films for rural audiences is indispensable, and
it will be advisable to consider the most inoffensive types.

In the first place, dramas and comedies of rustic manners may be con-
sidered. There are, however, very few films of this kind, and such as we
have seen are remarkable for their absurdity. It would be easy enough to
find excellent material in the Norman peasant stories of Guy de Maupassant
in the romances of Thomas Hardy (Far From the Madding Crowd, The Wood-
landers, etc.) in Ladislas Reymond for Polish audiences, in Gorki for Russians,
in Deledda for Italy, in Frenssen for Germany. Many other modern writ-
ers suggest themselves. The search for similar material could be'extended
to the entire romantic field, from J. J. Rousseau to George Sand, remember-
ing that today more truth and realism are demanded than formerly. Recent-

— 499 —

ly " La Terre qui meurt ",the masterpiece of Rene Bazin of the French
Academy was put on the cinema, and obtained a great success in Pans for
its poetry and pure and simple grace. There were no actresses ' dressing-
rooms but marvellous landscapes, and sunsets worth more than brilliantly lit
salons. It may be that this film will not have sent back to the country any
of its deserters, but, on the other hand, it has not acted as an incitement
to the rural exodus, and it is in any case a film capable of being shown with
the greatest success in agricultural centres. In another recent film " Peau
de Peche ", the return to the land is suggested with much ability, not with
philosophic or economic theories, but through a simple combination of
circumstances wherein the pictures of Parisian life do not show up the coun-
try scenes at any disadvantage.

The regional costumes of France have lost much of their traditional
freshness. They still exist, however, in Brittany, Flanders, Auvergne
and Provence. Although they have been reproduced on the screen in pro-
ductions destined for city audiences, the agricultural cinema has not taken
advantage of them because the problem of the rural exodus has little interest
for film producers. These traditional memories of our life should be given
back their historical value. The past is indestructibly connected with the
present. The ancient costumes are like deep roots of the race, and if they
die they leave gaps. Therefore we must not let them die.

In England, and especially in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, there is
still a great deal of the ancient picturesque life which has had the good for-
tune to be isolated by the surrounding seas. The Roumanian and Czech
popular traditions have not been utilized as they might have been. The same
is the case with all the countries of North Africa, centres of European city
colonization in which, thanks to Mahomet and the sun, local colour is not
lacking.

Comic films can also form part of the rural repertory. Eccentric,
humourous types will be always be well received by the peasants. The
old novels abound with stories of this kind. Thus, the old French spirit
is adapted to village life, opportunely presented. It is not difficult either
to find in modern authors amusing anecdotes suitable for the plots of plea-
sant films. Maupassant's stories in general have a dramatic turn which ought
to attract the attention of producers. Several of his short stories have been
turned into stage successes, but the stories dealing with peasant life have not
yet been used, although they are now no longer copyright.

The fantastic and terrifying pleases the people, and its unreality pre-

— 500 —

vents it from being dangerous, even if shown in sumptuous wordly surround-
ings. Among Hoffmann's works, for example, there is one which shows in
Curlanida, on the shores of the Baltic, a pine forest, a wolf hunt, snow-
storms and tempests, an old castle in which a brilliant reception is held, and
where sometimes the moonlight pours through iron bars behind which the
figure of a sleep-walker knocks on a walled-up door of a room where once
a crime was committed. A cinema setting capable of fully satisfying the
longing for the fantastic which lies deep in the soul of the peasant. So too
all the ancient legends of the desert plains and the lonely wooded country-
side are available. A search through the old prints of Epinal would yield a
rich mine of material. There are certainly treasures of this kind in all the
countries of Europe.

Along with the fantastic film, the film of adventure, with nomads and
horsemen galloping across the savage plains affords precious material.

Historical films also ought to be more numerous, for they can at one
and the same time instruct and amuse, and the plastic vision remains in
part at any rate in the mind of the beholder.

The history of France reproduced in a hundred famous pictures has
impressed it on our minds since infancy. Recently Sacha Guitry showed at
the Pigalle a series of historical episodes which was really more cinema than
theatre.

In any case, the film producer should take account of the rural exodus
and realize its serious dangers. When the rural cinema is sufficiently develop-
ed, this will probably follow naturally.

* * *

It is necessary to go further and actually create theatrical films with a
propaganda intent to combat the rural exodus and favour the back to the
land movement. It will therefore be useful to point out what are some of
the essentials of this type of film.

First of all, such films should be produced specially for the object aimed
at. The authors working for the cinema are not lacking in the inventive
faculty or artistic sense, while several of them are celebrated dramatists. All
the theatrical masterpieces, except Faust and the Lady with the Camelias —
rare exceptions confirming the rule — were written directly for the stage.
The same thing should come about for the film, which offers greater pos-
sibilities of transposition of the novel owing to the possibility of multiplying

— 501 -

pictures and scenes, remembering, however, that in the case of propaganda,
no novel, however well planned and written, can substitute a new idea
created for the special purpose.

The three principal elements of success are the comic sense, the senti-
mental side and the pictures of movement. For example, Chaplin's film
" City Lights " was made exclusively for the screen, and the three foregoing
elements are all to be found in it. The comic part is outstanding, and at
times even seems excessive. In any case, it is evident that the incidents,
though admissible in a film, would be out of place in a novel. For instance,
the scenes at the Peace Monument and the blind young girl who waters her
lover instead of the flowers. As the piece proceeds, the comic is joined with
the dramatic as in the romantic theatre of old, which was popular because it
satisfied the ideas and sentiment of the people. The dramatic action must,
however, always have a sentimental background. In " City Lights ' , a
young girl, beautiful as a cinema artiste, is blind. She is very poor and
reduced to selling flowers. She is loved, loves in return, but cannot see him
she loves. All these are elements are well adapted for a film prepared for the
rural public, which is simple and not spoilt by the vain prejudices of city
folk.

Movement is a highly important feature in films aiming at rural audiences.

It is absurd to say that action is more difficult to arrange in films of
rural propaganda than in other films. Not everyone is capable of writ-
ting such films perhaps, but the cinematographic art certainly possesses its
own virtuosi.

These latter should collaborate with men who can tell them all they need
to know about country life. Such collaborators could be found among lit-
erary professionals specialized in descriptions of peasant life of the simplest
forms.

The kind of propaganda to be used in rural character films is even more
important than the kind of sentimentality to be introduced. The peasant
has not yet been spoilt by city life, but he is more intelligent than is suppos-
ed. Frontal attacks are not advisable, and demonstrations, scenes or direct
visions tending to exalt simply and solely the fortunate life of countrymen
cannot be recommended, just as literature when it sets out to prove a determ-
ined thing or case is liable to fail. There is no harm in showing the fat-
igues of rural labour, the various scourges which ruin the harvests. Indeed,
the peasant, seeing such pictures, draws the feeling that he is understood
and gains confidence in the creator and idea of the film. Logically too

- 502 -

abundant harvests of wheat and grapes should also to be shown on the screen.
Country fairs, where the beasts are taken to be exhibited or sold should be
pictured, and the benefits to be gained from economy, savings, buying na-
tional produce and improvem mts in agricultural machinery are suitable for
filming. The propaganda should not be obvious, it should derive naturally
from the pictures shown on the sceen, it should provoke reflections and
ideas in the peasant's mind almost of a personal character. We should
limit our activity in casting through the screen a seed which can grow and
ripen in a soil unknown to us.

It might well be dangerous to demonstrate on the screen the necessity
of the agriculturist acquiring land unless a modest farm is shown adapted
for passing the end of one's days in peace. As a result of economic revolu-
tious following the great war, the land has passed into the peasants'hands in
many regions and in many countries, but when it has proved in one way or
another too heavy a burden for the peasant, it has become weighted with
mortgages. Often it has been badly cultivated, and at the death of the head
of the family has been sold, owing to the 'difficulty of dividing it among
the heirs.

Which are the subjects best suited for use in propaganda ?

One of the dominating sentiments in man and in peasants who have
suffered the ironic witticisms of the city man is vanity. It is therefore a
pleasure for the man of the countryside to see the city man in the country,
where the latter shows up to much less advantage than the countryman in
town, who manages with more or less success to make his way among the
underground railways, the trams, the banks and the businessmen.

In the country the town-man shows an almost complete ignorance of
farm life, cannot distinguish between wheat and oats, an oak-tree or an ash
and if out of curiosity he attempts a little farm work, he becomes soon aware
that he cannot plough a straight furrow or fasten a bundle of hay. If he is
asked to milk the cow, he will deem the task merely an amusement, to become
convinced only shortly afterwards that theory or the desire to do a thing are
very different from practical knowledge.

Rural life should not be irreconciliable with artistic and intellectual
culture. The great part of the world's famous artists lived isolated lives,
and the confusion and flurry of modern life is not [the ideal place for them
to create their works. How many famous works of art bear a country place
of origin ? The living flames of a nation are not only concentrated in the
capital or the big cities, and this does not only apply to the great names or

- 503 -

the so called intellectual classes, for artists, singers, poets and novelists of the
first rank have come from among the people, even when they have written
their works in dialect. There is also the rural artisan class, where a centre
of artistic activity may be looked for.

There are two modern inventions which are continually modifying the
country-side : the automobile and the radio.

In the vicinity of large cities, the villages situated near a river or a forest
rapidly become populated with small employees, officials or shop-keepers
who own a small motor-car of perhaps no more than 5 HP, with which they
travel to and fro their business. The automobile builders have met
with considerable difficulties in creating cheap models, but finally they have
solved the problem with very important results on social economy. In a
similar way house-builders had to face difficulties in the post-war epoch, but
eventually social legislation and the fall in the cost of materials permitted
the construction of a modern type of dwelling perfectly adapted to the subur-
ban population. Through all Europe, the conditions of the rural populations
in the matter of electrical communications, drinking water and roads have
been vastly improved. In the country, life is much less dear, room space
ampler, the air healthier, and there is far more tranquillity, especially in the
evening, when silence is necessary to the spirit worn out with the day's la-
bours. Today, thanks to the automobile, the spread of habitations on the
fringes of the big cities is continually increasing. In a propaganda film this
urban exodus towards the fresh air should be given its due value.

Radio too has conquered all property owners in the country and the
greater part of the prosperous peasants. It is always interesting and im-
portant to know the state of the prices on the eve of fairs or country markets.
Hitherto only the merchants knew exactly the movement of offer and demand
in any commodity. Now the radio has placed the producers on a footing
with the middle-men, and abolished isolation. The countryman can now
hear a speech pronounced at Geneva or Munich, thus enjoying one of the
special advantages of city life.

The importance of agriculture in the life of nations, which, apart from
certain special industrial or commercial interests, comes first should be care-
fully brought out. If half the population of a country is rural, it is well to
let the fact be widely known. The value of the wheat gathered with the
value of iron, and the coal production and live-stock figures may be usefully
compared. Monsieur Tardieu, when minister of agriculture, said : " I
admire our automobile production, which sells its magnificent machines at

— 504 —

barely three times the price ruling before the devaluation of the franc, but
what is a production of six milliards ? Merely the value of the oats crop
in a bad year ".

It is not advisable to illustrate these and similar figures with graphs or
cubes of various dimensions. The intelligence and imagination of our
cinema experts should be able to contrive animated pictures and scenarios
which will prove all the more convincing the more life-like they are. The
importance of any trade lies in the importance which the merchants in that
trade enjoy. The peasant then will feel himself the more important if we
stress for him the economic, moral and social value he has in the national
economy.

The difficulties of his work will fill him with a full consciousness of
its value. He sees himself become in turn veterinary, mechanic, botanist,
chemist and metereologist. Observation, reflection, a mixture of prudence
with necessary daring can be shown to be the desirable and noble qualities
of a good son of the land.

This is a summary and synthetic note of our suggestions, to which we
will not add anything else. Our intention is only to draw the reader's at-
tention to the problem of the cinema and the rural exodus. If the reader
has followed us, we can be sure we have done our work.

(Translated from the French).

THE RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERVISION

FOR THE USE OF
SILENT AND SOUND MOTION PICTURES

By Thos Finegan

In the treatment of the subject assigned me I shall make no discrimination be-
tween silent and sound motion pictures. What I shall say in discussing this
subject will apply with equal force to either of these types of motion pictures. It is
assumed, of course, that the type of picture used will be that which is best adapted
to the specific purpose of each occasion.

The adaptability of the film to the subject under consideration, the place where
it is to be shown — whether in the class-room or auditorium, the grade of pupils who
are to be instructed, and the purpose which the teacher has in mind for its use, are all
factors which teachers and school officials should wisely consider in determining which
type of picture shall be used.

For years motion pictures were considered an agency of diversion or entertain-
ment, instead of an aid to instruction. They do not receive today, in many of the
schools in which they are used, the commanding consideration which their demonstrated
value should be accorded. There are, fortunately, school systems whose supervisory
authorities have given serious and scientific consideration to the use of motion pictures.
Their use has been planned with special regard to their pedagogical value. These
systems are getting the results in class-room work which justify the expenditures made
for this service.

Within the last decade, the rapid extension of the use of motion pictures into new
fields, solely for instructional purposes, including industry, mechanics, business enter-
prises, research and educational institutions, has revealed the potentiality of the film
as a teacher s aid or tool in class-room instruction. This use of motion pictures has
brought to their support a large group of men of affairs and influence in every pop-
ulous center of the country. The press is practically unanimous in support of mo-
tion pictures as an educational agency. This constantly increasing prestige of motion
pictures in education, makes it incumbent upon all teachers and supervisory authori-
ties associated with the schools, to obtain a professional and comprehensive knowledge
of the possibilities in the use of this agency of power in the class-room.

To fix responsibility for the supervision of this type of service in a school system,
the supervisory authorities should possess an unqualified appreciation of the value of
such service, and a clear understanding of the function and possibilities of the motion
picture in the class-room. A sound, adequate system of supervision of motion pic-
tures is not possible if these conditions do not prevail. Without such supervision, there
will be great loss in the results that may be achieved.

- 506 -

Teachers and supervisors may properly inquire, what proof is there of a measur-
able value of the service of motion pictures in class-room work ? The proof is abundant.
This question is no longer a mere academic subject. The Eastman experiment under
the supervision of Freeman and Wood in 1928, and the Yale experiment in the same
year, under Knowlton, proved that films which were properly edited and correctly used
in the classroom, render significant aid to the teacher and to the pupil.

Since these experiments were reported in 1928, several studies of the value of mo-
tion pictures in class-room work have been in progress in England. The results of these
studies have recently been made public. The standing of the organizations and of
the educational leaders who sponsored these studies, give the results reported unusual
weight. These studies were made by the National Union of Teachers of the Schools
of Middlesex, the London Historical Association aided by the Carnegie Foundation*
and the British Commission on Educational and Cultural Films.

The results shown by these reports confirm in nearly every particular those reported
in the Eastman and the Yale experiments. They reveal not only a substantial gain
in the rating or standing of pupils, but what is of greater significance, they show that
motion pictures are a distinct help in achieving better results in many of the vital class-
room objectives. Moreover, the basic principles suggested in these reports for the
development of class-room films, are in complete harmony with the principles outlined
in the Wood-Freeman and the Knowlton reports.

It is not possible in the time limit assigned me to discuss all the advantages
afforded by motion pictures, but it is important, for the purpose of this paper, that we
should consider a sufficient number of outstanding advantages to obtain an intelligent
understanding of the real pedagogical service which films are capable of rendering in
class-room instruction. We cannot properly allocate their supervision without this
evaluation. We will, therefore, discuss briefly some of the chief claims of the film.

The reports of the English studies as well as those made in our own country point
out specifically that the usual criticism that films lead to intellectual inactivity, a mere
passive mental attitude of looking at the picture is unfounded. They show that the
direct opposite effect is produced. The attention of the children is not only held, but
their mental alertness is aroused to a greater degree than when the subject has the usual
oral presentation. The questions asked by the children, their discussion of the subject
after the film has been shown, and the reading pursued by them in their eagerness to
obtain a more comprehensive knowledge of the subject, is proof of the stimulating
effect of the film. The film, therefore, increases the desire to learn, and stimulates the pupil
to increased effort.

Such reports further show that motion pictures have demonstrated their ability
to aid children to express orally and in writing exactly what they have seen in the pic-
ture. The facility to express what the children had visualized was not only stimulated,
but accurate observation of what occurred in scenes, processes and situations was cul-
tivated. The ability to see things precisely as they exist or occur, and to describe them
clearly and concisely is a quality of class-room work that pupils need to practise and
that teachers need to emphasize. The film, therefore, stimulates accuracy of observation
and facility of expression.

But these reports state that the film brought remote events and interesting objects

— 507 —

of olden times nearer to the pupil. It presented these in the natural order, environ-
ment and process of their being. It created a setting that gave the subjects pictured
a realistic value. It provided the material which induced the child to reconstruct these
affairs into a living reality, and enabled him to visualize in a comprehensive manner
the basic thought, the very heart of the lesson, which, without the film, must be brought
within his mental grasp by the use of the textbook or other printed material and such
verbal explanation as the teacher deemes wise to make. The motion picture, therefore,
develops the imagination and aids interpretation.

Furthermore, one of the most general results revealed through these studies was
the stimulus which the film gave to the development of the initiative of the children.
The self -activities of the pupils were set into operation at once. The suggestion of the
teacher was not required, but of their own volition the children began to reconstruct
at home and in school, not only scenes of native life, of landscapes, of animals in their
natural habitat, of machines in action, and various enterprises, but they also began to
build original scenes and objects suggested to their minds by the motion picture. The
film proved, therefore, to be a potent agency in the development of the creative powers of
the child.

There are many problems in the complex civilization of our times whose diffi-
culties may be solved, or at least very much ameliorated through the viewpoint of life
which the class-room impresses upon the coming generation. Very much of the trouble
involved in this situation is due to the difference of opinion between the relations and
the rights of capital and of labor. This situation has been much improved during the
last quarter of a century. No better proof of the truth of this statement may be offered
than the lack of serious disturbance throughout the country during the past two years,
which has been one of the most disastrous economic periods in the history of the nation.

The work of the schools has had much to do in bettering these conditions. The
class-room teacher in her daily work of interpreting the curriculum and in training for
citizenship the millions of youth who have gone through the schools, who are now num-
bered among the employees and the employers of the nation, are entitled to share in
the credit for this improved social order and stability. There is yet much hard work
ahead of the school and the teacher in this practical field for the improvement of mu-
tual understanding between these two great forces. The school and the teacher must
be provided with every necessary instrumentality of instruction to render this imper-
ative service.

The satisfactory solution of these problems depends upon two conditions. One
o f these is that every man who works, no matter how menial such labor may be, shall
have an appreciation of the value of his service not only to his employer, but to so-
ciety in general. The laborer must realize that the service he renders is beneficial
to all other men. The other condition is that the employer of labor shall be able to
make a clear and impartial evaluation of such service and shall accord it an award
which equity and justice require.

To reach this common ground, labor and capital must understand the interdepen-
dence of mankind and the interrelated interests of our social and economic affairs. Lab-
orers, farmers, manufacturers, transportation corporations, financial institutions and
professional workers are each dependent upon the other for compensating returns on

— 508 —

their investments. If one is prosperous the others will be prosperous. If the bus-
iness of one is depressed, the business of all the others will be depressed. Cooperation
is the great need of all these groups. A clearer and broader knowledge of the fun-
damental aspects of human relationships must govern their conduct. The motion pic-
ture is an agency through which these basic economic principles may be portrayed with un-
derstanding and dynamic power. Through no other agency may these complicated inter-
ests be presented so clearly and effectively.

It is impossible to enumerate even the various ways in which the film may aid
the teacher. There is, however, an additional outstanding service of the motion pic-
ture which supervisory authorities must recognize. The chief objective of all class-
room work is to train children to think — to think straight, and to do their own think-
ing. The teacher should never attempt to think for his pupils. The teacher who
attempts to guide the thinking of his pupils along his own viewpoint, is doing them
great harm. The information acquired through instruction, through reading, or through
contacts of various kinds, and the imagination and genius that is stimulated and
developed are simply the materials and tools which are to be used by a child in anal-
ysing his problems and in the development of his own power to think them through
and reach sound conclusions.

Sustained concentration is essential to clear thinking. A device which aids a pupil
in concentrating all his mental powers on a subject will enable him to see more aspects
of the problem and to see them more clearly and accurately. A pupil who acquires
the power to concentrate will become more alert in reaching conclusions and in form-
ing a sound judgement. A pupil who acquires the habit of concentration will be able
to coordinate all his mental powers and center them in an orderly, logical and effective
manner upon any problem which he attacks.

The constant practice of this type of work develops the emotions and imagina-
tion, cultivates the powers of observation, and encourages original and independent
thought and action. A pupil who has acquired these intellectual qualities will use them
more and more in his school work. He will use them in his attack upon problems which
he meets out of the school. They will become his great asset when he assumes res-
ponsibilities in life.

One of the modern devices used in making films is the " fade-in ". When a word
is ' faded-in " and the arrow or finger points to a particular point or object in the scene,
the child recognizes it at once as something upon which emphasis is placed. There
is no distraction to the child whatever, neither is there confusion nor interruption. There
is a distinct gain in concentration and, therefore, in thinking power. Motion picture,
constructed on a correct technique, will compel a pupil to think — to do his own thinking

Research and the invention of new devices have made photography one of the most
effective agencies in the field of education. In addition to the fade-in, we have the
close-up, the animated drawing, slow motion and photo-microscopy. All these
aids have made photography a close rival of printing. By its use events and things
may be reproduced and made exact and real. It is applicable to every interest and
activity in which mankind has an interest.

The conception of the use of the motion picture in education, therefore, should
be upon the broad view of its universal and practical service and not simply on the aid

- 509 —

it may give in daily instruction, important as that service may be. The larger con-
sideration is the development of initiative, responsibility and decision of character.
Certainty of one's grasp of the details and fundamentals of a subject is essential to suc-
cessful work. An instrument which aids in these aspects of study or labor, gives one
self-assurance in the performance of one's tasks. The motion picture serves all these
interests. It portrays with impressiveness the symmetry and beauty of all organized
forms of life. It unconsciously cultivates an appreciation of the artistic. It is not
only practical in its service, but it adds refinement to the intellectual fiber. It affords
opportunity for training in the profitable use of leisure. The motion picture, therefore, is
capable of being made an agency of incalculable value as a cultural influence among the masses.

With this knowledge of the educational value of the film, and the possibilities which
it possesses, what recognition should teachers and supervisory officers give it in our
national program of education ? Films should first of all be regularly supplied to all the
schools in a system. The haphazard manner that is now followed in many systems
in showing films occasionally, without a definite plan and objective, is of little, if any,
value. The wise use of teaching films should be a part of the regular class-room pro-
cedure. The films should be placed on a level with printed texts. They should be
selected with a discriminating knowledge of their fundamental and comprehensive qual-
ities, similar to the method prevailing in the selection of textbooks.

There is no division of opinion among teachers on the necessity of integrating
the content of the film with the printed text and with the instruction related to the sub-
ject it covers. The whole purpose and service of the motion picture, including the
type of film selected, when it should be shown, and all other aspects of its service, are
so completely and pedagogically associated with the curriculum that the questions in-
volved in its use are purely curriculum problems. This service requires the highest
type of ability and scholarship which a school system possesses. The use of motion
pictures, therefore, logically comes under the scrutiny and control of the authority which
organizes and supervises the curriculum.

The American plan of education is one of state systems. Each state in the Union
has a State Department of Education. The chief function of such Departments is to
exercise leadership in education and to furnish assistance to the schools which these
institutions cannot generally provide for themselves. One of the subjects in which
many of these departments have rendered effective aid has been in the development
and promulgation of courses of study. To make such courses conform to social and
economic needs, several State Departments have developed a staff of subject special-
ists or research workers, who are making continuous studies of curriculum needs.

The close relationship between visual aids in instruction and the curriculum re-
sulted in the organization many years ago, of a division of visual instruction in several
of the State Education Departments. These divisions have rendered valuable aid to
their schools by supplying still pictures and slides. Some of these divisions have en-
larged their service in this field by including motion pictures. In some of the State
Departments of Education, an Extension Division has rendered similar service. In
other states, museums and state universities have pioneered in this field. The use of
films would contribute much more effectively to education programs, by proper assis-
tance and leadership of State Education Departments.

— 510 —

The intimate connection of motion pictures with the curriculum makes their use in
the schools a subject on which State Education Departments should exercise a leadership
on a plane with that which they have already assumed for the curriculum. There
are phases of every subject included in a modern curriculum, to which the motion
picture is not adaptable. Pictures should never be made on these topics. Teachers
should waste neither the funds of the schools nor the time of the pupils on pictures of
this type. The test of any film used in the class-room should be, is this film adapted
to the subject, does it accurately portray the theme, will it improve and enrich the in-
struction sufficiently to justify the expense incurred and the time consumed?

The general trend in the administration of education is to vest large supervisory
control in State Education Departments. This trend is especially true in the training
and certification of teachers. Teacher training institutions have a responsibility in all
affairs pertaining to the curriculum and to class-room and procedure. Ample provis-
ion should be made in these institutions for instruction in the economic and pedagog-
ical use of these modern aids in teaching. Teacher training institutions should be labora-
tories in which every phase of the value and use of teaching films is thoroughly tested.

The professional leadership of State Education Departments and the technical
and pedagogical assistance of Teacher Training Institutions, will result in the economic
and profitable use of motion pictures. But whether leadership and supervisory service
is or is not provided by these sources, each separate unit of administration in a state
system should provide adequate supervision in the selection and use of these aids. The
school system in many of the cities has a division of research and curriculum. These
divisions have the literature in general which has been made available in the extensive
studies and experiments that have been made in curriculums. In many cities such
divisions are equipped to make, and actually are making studies of their own needs.
They are making valuable contributions to curriculum-building. In many other sys-
tems a committee has been organized from members of the supervisory and teaching
staff, which is doing commendable work in adapting their courses of study to national
as well as to local needs.

Several of the leading city school systems of the country maintain a division of
visual aids, and have placed a director at the head of it. The director of such a divis-
ion should be a well trained and experienced teacher. The director should have the
general supervision and control of the service of such divisions as is generally exer-
cised by the directors of other divisions. The superintendent of schools and his assis-
tants should give the same detailed, scientific study to the work of this division that
they give to other divisions. In other words, this service should be placed on a par
with that of health, art, vocational training, research and curriculum studies, etc.

The director of the division should be the coordinating agency between his field
of service and that of other divisions and other supervisory authorities. His chief work
is to organize and administer his service so as to meet in an efficient and economic man-
ner the special needs of every branch of service in the system.

All these agencies of curriculum service should give special study to the instru-
mentalities which are capable of aiding the class-room teacher in illuminating and en-
riching her daily classroom work. This is especially true of an instrument of such signif-
icant help as the motion picture has been proved to be.

-511 -

The supervisory and teaching staffs of the schools of the country should be as cap-
able of selecting and using motion pictures as they are competent in selecting and using
textbooks. The teaching profession should develop the type of film which will be
most helpful in their work. The profession will soon exercise this influence in the
making of films if all the interests and obligations which I have specified are discharged
in the study, the use, and the adaptability of films to their intended purpose.

There is great need of extensive research in the technique of making films and in
their use. When the film is given adequate supervision and the teachers of the nation
have centered their attention on it, much valuable information on these questions
will become available. Films will then be given much larger use in the schools. When
they are generally used in the schools, we shall have films affording richer teaching mat-
erial, and at much lower prices.

Many of the problems involved in this type of service can be solved in no other
way than by the pratical use of motion pictures under adequate supervision of the pro-
fession of the country. For instance, what type of film provokes critical ability ? When
should a film be used as an introduction to a subject ? When should it be used for
review purposes ? How extensive should be the comment of the teacher ? How often
should a film be used ? When should the film be stopped for comment by pupil or
teacher ? How extensively should subtitles be used ? What feature of a film makes
the strongest appeal to the pupil ? Do boys and girls have similar interests in a film ?
There is great need of reliable and scientific information on these and scores of other
questions relating to the technique of making films, and also in relation to their use.
The trained, effective, resourceful teacher is the one who must determine the solution
of these problems.

There should be adequate check on the use of films. The film should not become
the slave of the teacher. Time should not be wasted in viewing films. The film should
be used only when it serves a class-room need. It is not to be used to relieve pupils
of work. It is to be used to stimulate interest and work. No film or other agency
should ever be taken in the class-room which lessens in any way the influence of the
teacher. The most vital influence in the class-room is the teacher. The prestige of
the teacher with her pupils should never be diminished. The commanding respect
for, and the influence of the teacher must always be supreme if the teacher is to remain
a powerful force in the development of character.

2 — he

ACOUSTICS IN EDUCATIONAL SOUND FILMS

By E. Thielmann

The sound and talking film continues its triumphal march in the cinemas, and in
addition to a large repertory of theatrical films, we have already a complete series of
educational and cultural films which permit us to observe the possibilities, hitherto un-
suspected, of this new technical conquest of the film. From many points of view, a
rational consideration of the acoustics of the educational talking film provides a much
graver problem than is the case with the film considered as a spectacle.

The choice of the sound or talking film is much more important in the educational
than in the theatrical field. As is known, there are two types of sound film which are
quite distinct, the gramophone synchronization system and the photo-electric system.
The difference lies in the fact that in the first system, the sound (words or noises) are
reproduced by a disc which is synchronized with the movement of the film, while in
the second case, the acoustic part is registered on the film itself. The synchronization,
that is, the relation between movement and sound both in producing and reproducing
is therefore better in the photo-electric method, since this inevitably reproduces the
sounds and movements as they were registered, and all film images are copied naturally
from life both as to movement and sound. This does not mean that it is impossible to
obtain by means of the gramophone system an exact synchronization of sound and
movement, but the perfection of the correspondence depends on a much greater number
of factors than is the case with the other method.

The photo-electric method may be considered then as being the best for the purposes
of the educational film.

We must remember that, in a great number of cases, the scientific value of the
educational film lies precisely in the automatic correlation of sound and movement. In
some cases indeed, the slightest disconnectedness between sound and movement, even
if of an almost imperceptible character or so little appreciable as to make no difference
in theatrical films, can dimmish the value of an educational film.

Nor should it be forgotten that educational films are not only prepared for exhibition
in public cinemas, but to a larger extent in schools, associations, and institutions where
it is desirable that the film be as easy to handle as possible. Public halls and cinemas
have a well trained technical staff for whom the difference of systems has little importance.
Consequently, when the gramophone system is used the operator has always at hand
an assistant to manipulate the discs. Photo-electric machines can, on the other hand,
be worked by a single person, and in the schools, the teacher himself can operate them.

With regard to the acoustic part of the educational sound film, it is possible : 1 ) to
register on the film the movements and the sounds of the subject to be taken as a simple

- 513-

document or fact without any explanatory text ; 2) to interpolate in certain determined
passages explanatory phrases between the movement and the sound ; 3) to make a silent
film and then synchronize it after with a spoken conference. It is best, however, to
decide each case on its merits.

If the instructive value of the film depends solely on the movements and the sounds,
the first method will naturally be chosen. Simultaneous registration of determined
passages of an explanatory text may be recommended especially when the movements
and the sounds might fail to bring out with sufficient clearness a passage essential for
the understanding or intuitive appreciation of the film. As, for instance, when in
technical or scientific films, it may be necessary to draw the spectators' attention to a
physical phenomenon at the very moment that it is being projected, or when the ex-
planation of a phenomenon is not clearly and definitely enough revealed by the sounds
and movements. Ethnographical films showing costumes and manners sometimes come
into this class. The explanations must in any case be concise and exact. It should
also be remembered that the acoustical accompaniments of singing or music cannot
be suppressed during the comment, but can be given in a muted form to permit a clear
understanding of the comment. An instance of this occurs in the registration of national
dances, the meaning of which cannot be completely gathered without some comment.
Some pictures that do not offer the possibility of sound present certain difficulties as,
for instance, films on botanical or acquatic fuana subjects. In these cases, a too detailed
comment may be useless and even harmful, especially for those pictures where the spec-
tator can make his own comment. For instance, in an instructional film dealing with
the influence of light on plants it is not necessary to say that the plants turn in one
direction or the other, for the spectator sees this himself, but it should be explained why
they turn preferably in one direction rather than in another.

To fill in the silent passages between the explanations in educational films of this
type it is useful to introduce some action. Thus a botanical film can show a teacher
walking with his scholars and giving them explanations of the various plants encountered.
Parts of the film treating of plants may be shown in close-ups, or only those parts of the
plant requiring comment may be exhibited. In films of this character, intervals of
repose may be secured between one picture and the next by starting discussions among
the students on the teacher's explanations. It is evident, however, that it is not neces-
sary to show on the screen the pupil whose voice is heard. The demonstration of the
movements or the parts of the plant and a reproduction of the students' questions and
remarks is sufficient.

With regard to the third system of synchronization, this should be used only when
it will not damage the scientific value of the film. The process of adding a sound reg-
istration to a silent film can be used, of course, for all films taken before the introduction
of the talkies. Moreover, some films cannot be directly sonorized owing to the cost of
the special apparatus and the transport expenses. The educational film-maker must
often be affected by this fact. Consequently scientists and amateurs often take frag-
mentary pictures capable of forming part of big educational sound films, and in almost
all these cases the acoustic part must be added later.

For the cultural and educational film the sound part may take the form of a con-
ference or comment as in the case of botanical or marine fauna films. In such cases,

-514-

whether the sound is registered simultaneously or added afterward is of no importance,
provided the synchronization is well done. Or there may be the exact and natural
reproduction of sound and movement, when the perfection of the synchronization be-
comes of the first importance for the large majority of educational films. Another ques-
tion interesting the users of educational sound films is the reproduction of the particular
quality of the voice. Any sound, whether it be in the form of words or music or any
other acoustic phenomenon has timbres which vary according to the size of the place
where uttered or made and according to whether made in the open air or not. Various
other factors, such as the way the walls of a room are draped or covered or the pre-
sence of people have their effect also. And since there is always a notable difference
between the place where the sound was registered and where it is reproduced, a certain
difference in the timbre of the voice will always be present, which is likely to undergo
further alteration in the amplifier and the loud speaker. It is not therefore possible in
the present state of cinematographic technique to register a sound film so as to be able
to secure a mathematically exact reproduction of the timbre of the sounds. Though the
matter is not of the first importance, care should certainly be taken to come as close as
possible to exact reproduction. We may give as an example the filming of a bell foundry,
where the resonance of the various metallic alloys has its instructional and scientific
value. The matter is also of interest to radio technicians who are engaged in a special
effort to solve the problem.

(Translated from the German).

THE CLOSE-UP

ONE OF GREATEST TECHNICAL AND ARTISTIC ADVANCES

MADE BY THE FILM

By C. H. Barnick

One of the most important advances in the development of the film occurred on
the day when, for the first time, a cinema camera, furnished with a Jupiter lamp, was
brought close up to the face of a cinema actor, and the " close-up " picture was made.
This event marked an important line of differentiation between the cinema and the stage.
The advent of the close-up marked out an individual path for the film, and made it what
it is today : an artistic microscopy of acting.

If we watch an actor on the stage, we can only see him in the whole. If he laughs
or weeps, if he speaks a monologue in angry mood, it is always the whole man who laughs
or weeps, the whole of an angry person that we see. Thus, the actor forms in a certain
sense a convention apart. He is an indivisible being, a unit that cannot be destroyed, or
resolved into various parts.

This was originally the case with the film. Formerly the film was merely the trans-
position from the plastic stage to the two dimensional screen, with, additionally, the
surrounding setting or landscape.

The came the close-up, and suddenly the actor, till then indivisible, was split into
a thousand separate fractions of the event in course of being acted. With the close-up,
it is possible to differentiate fractions of a smile, the twist of the mouth, or an eyebrow
raised in wonder, and keep the pose for a whole scene.

Complete dramas or entire comedies can can be revealed by the close-up in an
actor's or actress's face, but who would have thought it possible before the introduction
of the close-up ? The finest of opera glasses will not, even in the best circumstances, allow
a spectator at a theatre to see the actor's face torn with anguish, save in natural size. But
the face does not live a life of its own. It is only the mimic accompaniment of the text,
and joins this in an indivisble unity.

This is the reason why certain little peculiarities and mannerisms of celebrated
cinematographic actors have a very great importance, and have become identification
signals for the enthusiastic public. Chaplin's moustaches, Douglas Fairbanks' luminous
mouth, Harold Lloyd's eyes, with their half ironic half stupid expression would never
have reached world-wide fame had their owners been stage actors instead of film stars.
Charlie Chaplin's down at heel boots, or the good-natured childish face of Jannings, or
the coquettish laugh of Lya de Putti would never have obtained on the stage the effect
they make in the film with the close-up.

Long before close-up was thought out, Urban Gade wrote that the film was not for
psychological dramas, that it ought not to represent scenes limited to theatrical litera-

-516-

ture, but, on the contrary, as an exponent of animated pictures, it should simply trans-
port the spectator into a fantastic world of fables. Such a statement from one of the
most theoretical of stage managers would perhaps have been accepted if the close-up
had not opened a new path for the film that, namely, of the interior dramas reflected in
psychological details rendered visible.

Once a film was made in which nothing but hands was shown. Imagine a stage
play where such a thing happened! Why should we not have in a near future the possib-
ility of seeing films showing us only the tragedy of a pair of eyes, or the ironic play of
the mouth ? Films which would be all close-ups and advertised as such.

With the possibilities given by the slow motion projector and the speeded-up film,
the close-up is so far the biggest artistic advance made in the film world.

(Translated from the German).

RESEARCH AND PREPARATION IN MOTION PICTURES

By Tarbotton Armstrong

Director, University of Southern California
klnematocraphic and art mliseum.

With the progress of civilization, research
has become an essential part of modern
life. Comparatively few persons engage in
research activities, but the influence of these
few is boundless, even if the personal re-
wards received are sometimes negligible.

To research and experiment the motion
picture owes its existence. The drama of
the legitimate stage ecisted before the in-
vention of machinery, lighting, artificial
scenery, or anything else. The only re-
quirements for a play are actors and an au-
dience — and some outline of a play. In
the case of the Commedia dell'Arte, even
written plays were not used.

The case of the motion picture is entirely
different. It was only after considerable
research that cameras and, later, motion
picture cameras were developed. Like-
wise, about a quarter of a century elapsed
between the discovery of motion pictures
and the perfecting of accompanying sound
recording machinery.

In the mechanical development of the
motion picture, the value of research work
has generally been fully appreciated. How-
ever, one of the great needs of the film in-
dustry at present is a museum adequately
equipped to store and exhibit old forms of
motion picture equipment, and to have it
available for study wth full descriptions of
what is often obselete material. ,

A museum of this type has been started
at the University of Southern California,
but at present it has neither the space nor
the endowment to do anything like what

might be done on these lines. The project
should receive fuller co-operation.

While the main value of the motion pic-
ture is entertainment value, there is also
the educational feature and the fact that,
regardless of what may be the true facts,
the impressions given by the motion pic-
ture are liable to remain.

The motion picture has a distinct advan-
tage over the spoken legitimate theatre in
that spectacular scenes are far more within
its financial possibilities. A scene is done
only once, and that for an audience of
millions. Consequently, it is possible to
do things upon a much larger scale.

Many of the inconsistencies of motion
pictures are due, not to the expense of elim-
inating them, but to the carelessness and
lack of thought often exhibited by both
writers and directors. What is really miss-
ing, incongruous as the statement may
seem, is a proper combination of science
and art.

The motion picture industry is overburd-
ened with systems and technicians. Every
attempt is made to get something done that
will please the general public, and to get
it done as quickly as possible. Of course,
it is true that the big companies have their
own theatres to keep supplied with pictures,
but better pictures mean longer runs.

The motion picture offers a great field
for educated men and women — if they are
given a chance to break in. Eventually,
the motion picture field will be taken over
by college graduates, or others especially

- 518 -

trained. Many of the professions into which
the colleges are sending their graduates are
over-crowded — so the field of the motion
picture will become a desirable one.

Speed is one of the greatest evils of the
motion picture industry today. Some com-
panies rush through a programme, and then
close down for several months.

The great interest in stories is the un-
usual. Creating this by continually bring-
ing in ridiculous coincidences will end by
irritating the cinema public.

Veterans of the world war are often ex-
tremely critical as to proper depicting of
conditions during the great struggle — often
to the point of wishing to sacrifice the story
to some minor point of realistic presen-
tation.

The World War as a theme has been wide-
ly used, in fact over- used. Some of the
pictures and pathetic incidents have been
so badly overdone as to become almost
comedy. But there are no doubt hundreds
of angles to the World War which have
never even been touched upon.

Of themes of the past, there is only one
which has been overdone and that is the
" Wild West ". The unfortunate part of
it is that many of these " Westerns " have
been been of inferior grade, while the best
ones have often copied from each other.

There is a succession of type sheriffs, out-
laws, Indians, covered wagon caravans,
with accompanying Indian attacks, etc. Yet
there have been very few motion pictures
dealing with the pioneer days before the gold
rush times. This is partly due to the cha-
acter of the country adjoining Hollywood,
but it should be possible to find some pla-
ces giving the right atmosphere of the East-
ern coast.

Included in research, must be a great deal
of experiment. Let stars be permitted some
of their high-salaried time for trying out
new characterizations, even though nothing
be done with them. Let the directors of
period stories know thoroughly the history
of the times the story depicts — for that
matter the actors might also be given some
study of history as a side-line.

The motion pictures have been so popular
that the public has seemed to take any-
thing that was given it. But lately there has
been a great deal of discontent with the
" talkies ". The talking films demand a
higher standard of production than the si-
lent pictures. The reasons is that sound
effects serve to distract the attention of the
audience from the general theme of the pic-
ture. Another reason is that the talking
picture must become far more closely allied
to the stage play than previously.

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

STUDENTS AND THE DIDACTIC FILM

(Continued)

Negative Answers.

As has been mentioned, the negative answers were in all 370, equivalent to 2,53 %
of the total of those who expressed their opinions on the first question in the didactic
questionnaire.

Of the 370 negative replies, only 79 denned the motives of their dissent from the
opinions of the majority, 61 boys and 18 girls. Their answers have been summarized
in the two following tables.

Apart from the replies of a generic character, those answers which exclude the
utility of cinematographic education for determined reasons are worthy of note, as for
instance, those referring to the artistic field and for classical subjects. The answers
tally substantially with other ideas which will be examined later on. Such concepts
stress the necessity of differentiating between subject- matters of study and research in
which there is necessity for study of detail and subjects for which the teacher's word
is more than sufficient to give the desired explanations (classical matter) or for which
fixed projections are more useful to illustrate detail and the teacher's comments.

Comparison with the results of the Teachers' Inquiry.

With regard to the first question, the results of the inquiry made among the teach-
ers and educationalists are substantially very near to the replies given by the scholars,
and their very similarity is a demonstration of the value and exactness of the inquiry
carried out.

The teachers in fact affirmed in the great majority of cases that the cinema should
be considered the most potent ally for teaching as compared with mural designs and
still photographs. The teacher's word, however persuasive and intelligent, is incomplete
and ends by tiring. It does not give, at any rate, the intuitive representation of the facts
and phenomena which the teacher is called upon to demonstrate to his class ; it lacks
colour, efficaciousness and that sense of life which makes the cinema such a valuable aid in
teaching.

Even the opinions contrary to the didactic use of the cinema, few in number though
they were, like those of the pupils, do not differ from the replies of the latter. For the
most part, they dwell on the present difficulties of the screen in comparison with its
future possibilities, without examining or discussing the latter. But just because such
future possibilities are discussed, it is not therefore to be excluded that the cinema may
substantially be an aid to teaching which, when perfected, will reach high levels.

— 520 —

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— 521 -

The second question in the scholastic questionnaire was as follows : — ' Can the
cinema entirely take the place of the teacher's Work and in what subjects ?

The question was obviously a delicate one, in view of the circunstances in which it
was put forward. It must therefore be examined in connection with the results of the
teachers' symposium, even more carefully than the answers to the first question.

To this question, 1 1 ,598 students of the various schools included in the inquiry
replied, sub-divided as follows : —
7683 boys and 3915 girls.

The numerical results may be summarized in the following figures :

1 0,938 replies denied the possibility of the cinema entirely taking the place of the
teacher, while 660 answers, amounting to 5,70 % answered the question affirmatively.

With regard to the sex of the children giving the answers : 7330 boys answered
negatively and only 353, or 4,49 % replied in the affirmative.

Among the girls, 3608 answered in the negative and 307, or 7,84% affirmatively.
The proportion, it should be noted, is markedly higher than in the case of the boys.

In the matter of age, the percentages are as follows : —

10-12 years — Boys 3.26% and Girls 8.21 % of affirmative answers
12-16 years — » 6.57 » » » 7.57 » » » »

17 and upwards — » 6.20 » » » 4.27 » » » »

While the girls give continually decreasing percentages according to age, the per-
centages of the boys are larger in the case of the adolescents and the youths than for
the children, which suggests they have a greater importance.

With regard to large and small centres, we have the following number of affirmative
replies : —

Large Centres Boys 3.21% Girls 7.35%

Small Centres » 12.27 » » 15.52 »

In both cases we see that the percentages from the small centres are disproportion-
ately high in comparison with the large centres.

Looking at the data from the point of Parents' Occupations we find :

Workmen 5.43%

Agriculturists 4.47 »

Private Means 5.96 »

Professional Men 4.28 »

Shop-keepers 6.42 »

It is worthy of note that, apart from the professional men's class, it is the sons of
workmen and peasants who are inclinced to reduce in the percentages the possibility of
a substitution of the cinema for oral teaching.

The indications to be derived from the returns according to the various subject-
matters is interesting since it offers an index on the greater of lesser value of visual
education.

- 522 —

Geography 306 replies whereof 170 boys and 136 girls

Science 200 » » » 101 » » 99 »

History 181 » » » 104 » » 77 »

General Culture 110 » » » 70 »> » 40 »

Art ' 78 » » » 41 » » 37 »

Religion 45 » » » 23 » » 22 »

Hygiene 38 » » » 17 » » 21 v

The other subjects show smaller figures of little statistical interest.

It is interesting to note that the first six subjects classified show the same propor-
tions, with insignificant changes, as the returns made to the first question.

The following tables, with the usual divisions, give the numerical returns of the
answers in respect of individual answers to the questionnaire.

An analysis of the 460 answers in the foregoing tables does not offer notable results.
Exactly 218 answers or about half of the replies from scholars who sought to define the
reasons for their preference do not go beyond affirming the superiority of visual teaching
over oral. Others insist on the usefulness of sub-titles and running comment
especially when Well done, which is an indication in favour of the talking film and its
wider scholastic possibilities.

Other students remark on deficiencies in the oral method of teaching. The cinema,
they say, often points out that which is lacking in the text-books, and also causes none
of the fatigue which is sometimes a result of oral teaching. Further, the answers insist
on the important fact that the teacher, however well grounded in his subject-matter,
cannot know every particular of the facts or phenomena he is called upon to explain.

Several of these criticisms have undoubtedly a basis of truth. That especially
regarding the incompleteness of books offers a much vaster field for study and analysis
than that given by a written lesson. The teacher, again, is not always in a state of mind
to allow his words to have all their full force and effect in explaining the thought or phen-
omena under consideration. Here is one of the greatest obstacles to complete under-
standing on the part of the scholars, which also explains their desire to substitute
teaching by the book with film teaching.

It is to be presumed that such opinion is at least overstressed, as not only the
numerical value but also the motives given by 10,938 scholars bear witness.

The utility of the cinema as an aid to teaching is insisted upon, and the answers
stress the opinion that it should only be considered an auxiliary or help for the teacher.
The answers to the questionnaire show logically that :

the film cannot explain matters which depends on logical reasoning : 261 among
boys and girls, Still less, one might add, can the film be used for a discussion or for
clearing up doubts and misunderstandings.

The efficacy of projections for teaching depends entirely on antecedent cognitions impart-
ed orally to the students, and therefore on the possibility of coordinating the plan of
cinema teaching with the general scholastic programme — 1495. We have 874 answers
affirming that the necessity of oral comment depends on the possibility of obtaining
an explanation of what may be lacking in the film and also permitting the elimination
of errors of comprehension of facts or phenomena explained by the film.

- 523

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— 528 —

The moral value of the teacher's word and all its effectiveness is insisted on in
1790 answers. Children, according to these replies, have the need, apart from seeing
luminous visions of their subject-matter, of feeling themselves surrounded with affection and
care, and it is only the master who can give them these things, for he is their guide, in whose
word things become real and alive.

The teachers, even more definitely than the scholars, denied the possibility of the
cinema taking the place of the master and the text-book. Those who showed themselves
by a great majority favourable to the film as an auxiliary instrument for teaching pointed
out the cinema's advantages in teaching history, science and geography. They stated
that the difficulties surrounding the whole question depend especially on an improper
and unsuitable use of the film in scholastic programmes. The world is continually
renewing itself, and men's mentalities ought to be renewed at the same time. If the
screen is recognized as one of the most valuable auxiliary means for teaching, the schol-
astic programmes cannot remain without modification or be altered only within the limits
that must be considered as behind the times.

There is a clear agreement in this field of opinion between the teachers and their
scholars.

/. /. E. C. Studies

THE HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

(continued)

Naturalism — Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). — The principle of Naturalism
in education, which began to take hold of the public mind in the second half of the
XVIII century, through the writings of J. J. Rousseau, was advanced in refutation of
the theory of Humanism, according to which literary culture consists in the mere pos-
session of a command of literary forms ; and had for its object also the propagation of
the theory so brilliantly and, it may be said, paradoxically advanced by Rousseau in
his Emile, of a natural, indirect and progressive education which should develop the
natural gifts of each scholar to the utmost.

Emile, incisively defined by Credaro as " a mixture of the true and the false, of
Utopia and reality, of paradox and clever truth ", opens with the author's profession
of faith, which is to stand as the foundation of the artificial edifice of his educational
theories ; theories that are a mixture of brilliant intuitions and Utopian or paradoxical
assertions, and betray the lack of moral equilibrium that dominated his poverty-stricken
and wandering existence. " Everything that proceeds from the Creator is good ; but
everything degenerates in the hands of man ".

In order to carry out the education of his imaginary scholar under the best con-
ditions, Rousseau places him far from towns, which he looks upon as " the tombs of man-
kind ", and from the intercourse of man, so that the natural gifts of the mind, which
need nothing but a rational cultivation to reach their highest perfection, should draw
their best possibilities of development from close contact with nature.

The preliminary education must disregard the reasoning powers, not yet sufficiently developed, and
be devoted to the exercise of the senses. " The first faculties that are formed and perfected in us are
the senses. They are therefore the first to be cultivated, whereas they are just the ones that are either
completely disregarded or, at any rate, most neglected.

"... To exercise the senses is not merely to make use of them ; it means to learn by their means,
so to speak, to feel, because we cannot touch, nor see nor understand except as we have learnt .„ and
such exercise would therefore be mainly negative „.

This negative ideal, which is set forth in violent paradoxes, does not at all exclude
education in the usual meaning of the term, but insists that it should be profoundly
different from the education in vogue. In one of his letters, written in defence of Emile
against the many attacks on his book, Rousseau says :

" I call positive, an education that tends to form the intelligence prematurely and to instruct the
child in the duties of a grown man, while I call negative that education that aims at perfecting the organs
of knowledge before imparting knowledge itself, and endeavours to prepare the road to reason by a pro-
per exercise of the senses. Negative education does not mean a period of idleness : on the contrary !
It does not endow the pupil with virtues, but protects him from vice ; it does not inculcate truth, but

- 530-

defends him from error. It predisposes the pupil to take the road that will lead him to the truth when
he is able to understand it, and to good, when he has acquired the faculty of knowing and loving good (1).

During the first years of the child's life, the most important thing is to lead it to
a knowledge of things rather than of words : " It is a great disadvantage for it to have
more words than ideas at its command, and to know how to say more than it can think ".

It is only in adolescence that feelings can be gradually transformed into ideas, pro-
vided, explains Rousseau, " that the mind has always the senses as guide. No other
book than the world, and no other instruction than facts. The child that reads does not
think, does nothing but read ; and it does not become educated, because it learns nothing
but words ".

In the ideal education of Emile, Rousseau clings to the best, impracticable as it
often is, neglecting the more easily followed good : " You want to teach geography
to this boy, and you bring forward maps and globes and spheres. What a lot of appar-
atus ! Why all these representations ? Why not begin to show him the object itself,
so that he may know what you are talking about ? " There is no doubt that the " object
itself " is preferable to a representation of it, but when the teacher cannot bring forward
the actual object, it is logical to have recourse to illustrations and images that reproduce
it faithfully. Rousseau himself, who seems sometimes, in his fanaticism for things
to forget this fact, ends by admitting it. " Don't substitute a sign for a thing, excep
in cases where it is impossible to show the thing itself ". Those who have had ex
penence of teaching, however limited, can testify how numerous and frequent these
"cases'are, and how efficient, in such instances, are images, both static and dynamic.

But Rousseau emphasizes still more explicitly the importance of visual education.

" One of the errors of our era is that of making too great a use of pure reason, as if man were noth-
ing but mind. By neglecting the language of signs that appeal to the imagination, we have lost our
most forcible mode of expression. The impression made by words is invariably weak, and more is said
by the eyes than by the tongue. Desiring to place the highest importance on reason, we have reduced
our precepts into words and have put nothing into action . . . To apply reason to everything is the mania
of small minds ; large minds have another language, which they use to persuade and incite to action.
I notice that in these times men have no hold upon one another but force and interest, whereas in an-
cient times they acted largely by persuasion and through the feelings, because they did not neglect
the language of signs. "

"... What the ancients accomplished by eloquence is prodigious ; but their eloquence did not con-
sist in fine speeches carefully prepared, and never had greater effect than when the orator spoke but
few words. What was said most vividly was not explained in words but by signs : the thing was not
said, but shown. The object exhibited seizes hold of the imagination, arouses curiosity, keeps the mind
in expectation of what will be said ; and frequently, one single object will explain everything.

"... What attention did the Romans pay to the language of signs ? Different garments according
to age and condition : togas, sai, praetextae, seals, laticlavae, seats, lictors, fasces, axes, wreaths of gold
and grass and leaves, triumphs ; with the Roman everything was parade, performance, ceremony, and
everything made its impression on the mind of the citizen. It mattered to the State that the people should
meet together in this place rather than in that, that they should or should not see the Capitol, that they
should face the Senate or not, that they should take their resolutions on such or such a day. Persons
under accusation changed the style of their garments, as did candidates likewise ; warriors did not boast
of their feats, but exhibited their wounds. On the death of Caesar . . . Anthony, eloquent as he was, did
not utter a word, but had the corpse presented before the crowd.

(1) P. Monroe, op. cit.

- 531 -

"... Never go in for dry reasoning with young people, and give your reasoning body, make it alive,
if you want it to appeal to them.

"... Cold argument may determine our opinions, but not our actions.

"... If this is true of all men, so much the truer is it in the case of young people, who are still
entangled in their senses and who think only through their imagination. " And again, emphasizing his
former thought : " I do not like explanations and speeches. Things ! Things ! I cannot repeat too
often that we attach too much power to words (1) ".

But it was not only a teaching that was mainly objective and visual that Rousseau
wanted. Emile learns not from books but from things, and before teaching him to
read, his master carefully teaches him to see, by keeping the instruction spontaneous and
attractive and continuous with what has gone before.

" This, in fact, is the time (adolescence) to accustom the child little by little to give continuous atten-
tion to the same object ; but the attention should always be induced through pleasure and desire, never
through compulsion. It is therefore necessary to take great care that the child should not get tired
or bored. Keep your mind always on the end in view and, no matter what happens, let everything go
before it gets bored ; because it is not so important that it should learn as that it should not learn un-
willingly ".

The aim, in fact, is not to make a learned person of the child, but rather to give it
a taste for the learning that it will acquire so much the more readily in proportion as
the teacher's aims are disguised and the spontaneity of the pupil is developed.

Does not this principle of Rousseau's recall the assertion of his predecessor Come-
nius Komenski, who, as we have seen, declared that it was above all necessary that
" teachers should teach less and pupils learn more ? " How interesting it is to note,
once again, how all that is natural and human in the ideas of the greatest educators is in
admirable agreement in exposition of the few principles that constitute the cornerstone
of the educational process.

And, together with spontaneity, which the active school encourages instead of
restraining, we must have love. The love for children which Rousseau preached and
Pestalozzi practised, as We shall presently see, and which was preached and practised,
long before their time, by Jesus Christ, to whom we owe the phrase that has glad-
dened the heart of childhood in every age and in every place : " Suffer little children
to come unto me ".

Louis-Rene de La Chalotais (1701-1785), a convinced supporter of the visual or
natural method, writes in his Essai de Veducation nationale " I do not want to teach, to
either child or adult, any but facts controlable by the eye, at seven years of age as at
thirty, and he certainly specifies here, while exaggerating somewhat, a principle that
is in itself perfectly just.

And again :

" Nature is the best of masters.

" No method that begins with the explanation of abstract ideas is suited to children.

" Let children see many objects, and let the objects be varied, and show them again and again, in their
different aspects ; we can never feed the imagination and memory of chldren sufficiently with useful
facts and ideas, of which they can make use in the course of life. "

(I) J. J. Rousseau : Emilia, Sonzogno, Milan.

- 532 -

The object lesson conceived by Rousseau has a more explicit confirmation here,
and also the educational necessity of cultivating and guiding childish curiosity in the
direction of observation is likewise clearly shown :

" The majority of young people know nothing of the world they live in, the earth that nourishes them,
the men who labour to satisfy their needs, the animals that serve them, the workmen and artisans they
employ . . .

" No advantage is taken of their natural curiosity to increase it. And the consequence is that they
do not understand or appreciate either the marvels of nature or the prodigies of art.

" It is of supreme importance to show to children, first of all, the various objects as they appear to
the sight ; the figure is sufficient, with an exact and precise description. "

The figure with a precise description ? But here we have again Campanella's Ci-
vitas Solis, Comenius' Komenski's Orbis Pictus ; we have the talking film of the twentieth
century, which gives us both figure and description in as precise and realistic a manner
as can be conceived.

J. H. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814), disciple of Rousseau, gave publicity
to the latter s doctrines in his own writings : Etudes de la Nature and Paul et Virginie.

Compayre states that in the new schools he called the " schools of the father-
land ", he decided to have pictures, because children, like the people, prefer painting to
sculpture, and it would therefore be well to make widespread use of pictures of boy kings,
religious images, etc. (1).

Madame de Genlis (1746-1830) was another faithful follower of Rousseau, whose
influence can be felt in every page of her pedagogic novel : Adele et Theodore. It is
written on the lines of Emile, which had made this style of literature fashionable.

Madame de Genlis, convinced of the efficacy of the visual system, created the
environment in which the two children, Adele and Theodore, were educated on the lines
required by the system. The rooms in the castle where they live are hung with histor-
ical and geographical pictures that attract the children's attention and, arousing their
curiosity, succeed in teaching them, without tedium or effort, the subjects that often
necessitate a mental effort beyond their years when taught to children by word of mouth
alone.

/. B. Basedow (1723-1790), a follower of Rousseau, put the theories set forth in
Emile into practice, to some extent at any rate, when Herr von Qualen of Borghoest
(Holstein) engaged him as tutor for his seven year old boy. Basedow taught the child
entirely in an intuitive way, by means of walks and carefully stimulated conversations.
When teaching him geography, he started with the boy's birthplace, and then enlarged
his knowledge by means of figures and maps. Latin he taught him as a living language,
making use of the Orbis Pictus, studying pictures with him at length, so that they
became the source of new and exact forms of knowledge.

In 1774, as he desired to extend the advantages of an intuitive and progressive
education according to nature to a number of pupils, he founded a school at Dessau,
which he called the Philanthropinum : here the precepts of the intuitive method were
followed, and a large number of objects and pictures were used as visual didactic auxil-
iaries. In his Report to Philanthropists and Powers, he lays down a plan for the reform

(1) ?

- 533-

of elementary education, and in order to make his ideas known among the teaching class-
es, he brought out his Elementarwerk (Elementary Book) which was in four volumes
profusely illustrated and was a kind of Orbis Pictus modified by the influence of the new
Rousseau doctrines.

Speaking of the hundred illustrative plates of the Elementarwerk, G. Santini writes :

" Wolke and the engraver, Daniel Chodowiecky, prepared the drawings, some of which are of high
artistic value and of even greater historical interest, since they give living and highly detailed aspects of
private life in Germany.in the XVII I century. Over these pictures,) children would learn to speak cor
rectly in their own language or in foreign languages and in Latin, by means of conversations with their
teachers on the pictures under observation. In addition to the teaching of languages, the pleasure
taken by children in looking at pictures could be utilised to induce them to observe a thousand details
in the various objects, details that appear in too fugitive a form in the vicissitudes of real life. Many other
things and scenes that the child would be very unlikely to observe in reality are put before it by
means of pictures, and it is thus able to get an intuitive notion of them that would be difficult by any
other means ' .

The author himself defines his work in more concise terms :

" An elementary book of human knowledge for the expression and observation of reality.

" This first elementary book must give concrete knowledge only. Used with care before the pupil
reaches the time when he must learn to read, it must facilitate the first attempts without betraying the
object of the reading, which is fatiguing in itself ; and it must contain many useful illustrations, or be
assisted by plastic imitations ' .

The following paragraphs point out the necessity of enlivening instruction by the
aid of visual didactic auxiliaries, which alone can make education what it should be:
live and interesting. A good teacher needs a well organized child's museum, which con-
tains little models of everything that is susceptible of reproduction in such form, or pic-
tures or prints ".

" Boredom and indifference during study must be avoided at all costs. To ensure this, great atten-
tion must be paid to opportunity, order, the alternation of subjects and the elimination of obstacles.

" With young people, everything must be made evident and homogeneous ; evident by practice, and
homogeneous by the uniformity of the denominations given to the same things by showing their conse-
quences to be derived from a few premises, and by causing the pupil to note the agreement of one
piece of knowledge with others ".

When drawing up a list, therefore, of the things necessary to elementary education,
Basedow does not forget a collection of prints and pictures, which may be considered as
accessories, if we like, but accessories of the highest importance. He specifies the
numerous advantages of such a collection :

1) " Experience shows that children like pictures, even when they represent things to which they
are as a rule indifferent ;

2) " the observations and moral feelings that are aroused by suchpictures are more vivid than others,
last longer, and are communicated by the children themselves to their companions;

3) " there are many things of which it is impossible to give children an idea without the aid of
a picture, whether because they are exotic, or because, at the moment, they are too far off ;

4) " by the aid of pictures, a teacher can repeat with benefit to the pupil, in a dead or foreign lan-
guage, things which are already known to him in his own language ".

- 534-

The advantages of this system for all branches of education are indiscutible, but
they are especially advantageous in the teaching of the natural sciences, in regard to
which Basedow writes : " The study of the natural sciences must be made with the aid
of models, examples, figures and experiments that will render a real knowledge of the
object possible ".

The further I proceed in my study of this question, the more material I have to
deal with and the more I find myself compelled to multiply quotations. This shows
that, as civilisation progresses, instructors become more and more convinced of the great
efficacy of visual teaching. This being admitted, it is extraordinary that the latest
expression of visual education, the cinema, is not yet in common use in schools, where it
would give life to the teacher's words and sustain the children's interest, and make the
vitality of art and science more evident to both master and pupil.

Emmanuel Kant (1723-1804). The austere philosopher of the categorical imperative
estimated the efficacy of education at its real value, and said of it : " Man becomes
man only through education, and is that which education makes him. In order properly
to estimate the efficacy of education, whose aim is to develop the individual to his high-
est possible degree of perfection, it is necessary that a being of superior nature be charged
with man's education ".

Although an admirer of Rousseau, whose Emile made a strong impression on him,
and although a believer in the doctrine of the original goodness of human nature, Kant
may be numbered among the partisans of effort, who, instead of making education
attractive, believe rather in putting the laborious possibilities of childhood to the
proof. Horace's " Multa tulit fecitque puer, sudavit et alsit " does not unduly move the
follow ers of the effort theory, some of whom, while admitting that childhood must
have its hours of play and recreation, hold with Kant that it is going against the
child's own interest to accustom it to look upon everything as a game, because man
must be so occupied that he becomes a part of the thing to be accomplished and
therefore no longer himself, and he understands the best repose to be that which follows
labour.

Kant deplores the fact that children are educated on the plane of the present corrupt
world, thus obstructing the improvement of the world that would undoubtedly result
if the aspirations of new generations tended to higher and nobler ideals (1).

In education, Kant distinguishes discipline, which is the negative part, since it is
limited to curbing man's brutal instincts, from the positive part, instruction, which, how-
ever, under the influence of Rousseau has almost insensibly become negative and
indirect. And Kant is again in complete agreement with the author of Emiie, when in
his turn he asserts the tyranny of habit, against which childhood should be protected.
The German philosopher also had a word to say for visual education : admitted that the
intellect follows the impression made on the senses and that memory retains it, he is of
the opinion that what it is usual to call an " orbis pictus ", when suitably put together,
may be of the greatest service in the teaching of botany, mineralogy and physics.

He also considers illustrated accounts of travels of great utility, since they lead to

(1) The promotors of the new German pedagogy of the " As if " have perhaps taken their impetus
from this assertion of Kant.

-535-

the study of geography and geographical maps, which always prove seductive to chil-
dren, especially when enlivened with figures of animals and plants.

Even before Kant, the French encyclopaedist, Diderot, saw the importance of
objective teaching. In his Refutation suivie du Livre d'Helve'tius sur Ihomme, he points
out the pedagogic importance of the natural sciences, since they exercize children's
senses ; and, in the first decades of the XIX century, their pedagogic importance was
also recognized by the English philosopher, John Stuart Mill, who confirms the prin-
ciple when, in his Autobiography, he reproaches his father with following an educational
method that laid too much stress on the intelligibility of the abstract ideas presented
without the aid of anything concrete.

Living in an epoch when the excesses of the French Revolution were shaking the
nations from their lethargy and forcing them to reflect seriously on their own unstable
destinies, Pestalozzi saw salvation in education alone : a new education, it is understood,
seeing that the old one had proved impotent in mora than one trial. In a pedagogic
novel, Lienhardt and Gertrud, he gave a practical demonstration of the reformative power
of education ; and taking as an instance all that a poor peasant woman, Gertrud, had
been able to accomplish for the moral reform of her own village with no other endow-
ment than good sense and a good heart, he draws a deduction showing to what extent an
educational method in conformity with the needs of human nature could be of benefit
to society, if universally adopted.

Pestalozzi decided to begin his longed-for reform with the little vagabonds to whom
no one vouchsafed either word or look. And he started the work on his own farm at
Neuhof, the teaching of the first elements alternating with instruction in a trade. Lack
of funds, however, added to his special type of mind, whose dominant feature was cer-
tainly not an organizing capacity, forced him to suspend his experiment. But he took
it up again when the Helvetian Confederation was turned into a Republic as a result
of the French Revolution. F. A. Stapfer, who was then Minister of Education,
entrusted the education of the inmates of an orphan asylum at Stanz to him.

At Stanz, while continuing the type of industrial school that he had started at Neuhof,
Pestalozzi began to experiment with other new methods also ; but not even this time was
he allowed to see the results of his efforts, for barely a year later the vicissitudes of the
Napoleonic wars compelled him to cut short his activities.

Although he taught for four years, after this, at Burgdorf, and for the last twenty
years of his life at Yverdun, it was nevertheless at Stanz that Pestalozzi first had a clear
vision of the importance of objective and intuitional teaching, by which he meant direct
and experimental perception in both the field of the senses and that of the mind.

In How Gertrud Taught her Children, he expressed his views in the following
terms :

" At the open school of Stanz, I learnt the natural relation that must exist between a knowledge of
the alphabet and that of the outside world ; I also learnt how harmful the exclusive teaching of the alpha-
bet and an unrestricted faith in words, that is to say, in sounds, can be to the effective force of intui-
tion and a complete knowledge of the objects that surround us.

" I felt that my experiments were decisive, that they demonstrated the possibility of founding popu-
lar education on a psychological basis, on a real knowledge that should be acquired by means of intui-
tion and that should unmask the vain luxury of superficial words which constitutes modern teaching.

" Day by day I organized my teaching in a way that was more in conformity with the spirit of psy-

— 536-

cho-mechanical laws, according to which our minds receive and retain more or less easily the impressions
that come from outside. I based my explanations mainly on what appeals to the senses. From the
moment that a child's senses are capable of receiving impressions from nature, nature educates it.

" It was evident to me that it is unreasonable to make a child spell without having previously com-
municated many notions of things and words to it ; and the conviction persuaded me that the child
has need betimes of a sound psychological guidance in order to accustom itself to a proper intuition of
things. But as such guidance cannot be expected from the men of our day without the aid of art, I
was necessarily brought to feel the need of books of intuition to precede the alphabet and make clear in
the child's mind, by means of well carried out drawings, the ideas that we now attempt to communicate
by word .

Like Basedow in his Philanthropinwn, Pestalozzi endeavoured, in the schools that
he managed, to make Rousseau's theories positive and concrete, in order the better
to carry out the intimate aims of the new education, which the innovators placed not so
much in the acquisition of a greater or lesser amount of knowledge as in the harmon-
ious development of the intellectual, moral and physical faculties of the pupil.

He made use to some extent of the principles laid down in Emile in the education-
of his own son, observing his every tendency with loving care and giving a first example,
in his Diary of a Father, of the critical inquiry to which the infant mind must be sub-
jected in order to gam an intimate understanding of its needs, its aptitudes and its defi-
ciencies, if we wish to satisfy the former and direct or repress the latter, and so obtain that
harmonious development which alone can reasonably be expected to give the best results

The educational problem has changed, become more intimate ; the teacher no longei
treats the pupil as an adult in miniature, but, eliminating his own personality in order to
identify himself more closely with the mind of the little one who is looking to him for
enlightenment, he follows the latter's slow, progressive development, and uses it as his
guide for the assimilation of the new notions with which he daily feeds it.

The method, as we have seen, is strictly intuitive ; each new experiment strengthen-
ed Pestalozzi 's faith. One of the most interesting was the experiment carried out on a
boy of three, in whose case it was necessary to use, instead of the letters of the alphabet,
objects and pictures that enabled the child to express itself with exactitude in regard to
the things that came within the circle of its knowledge.

Pestalozzi made a list of the requirements of the new method, in various precepts :

1) Gradually enlarge the circle of the child's intuitions;

2) impress on its memory, in clear, precise and distinct characters, the intuitions which it already
understands ;

3) teach it a language that embraces all the notions it has received from nature or art, or that it
will receive from them in future ;

" While these rules were being definitely formulated, I became by degrees convinced :

1) "of the necessity of books of intuition for children ;

2) " of the need that the explanations of such books should be clear and precise ;

3) " of the necessity of giving children, by means of these books, a familiar knowledge of rules and
words before starting them on spelling.

" It is an immense advantage for children, to have an extensive nomenclature at an early age. They
never forget objects whose names they know and of which they have a clear idea, and a nomenclature founded
on exactitude and truth strengthens and preserves a feeling of the relationship existing between different
objects (1) ".

(1) J. H. Pestalozzi : How Gertrud Taught her Children.

- 537 -

And then, while exhorting the teacher not to make an abuse of language, and to
train the child's mind to observe, Pestalozzi continues :

" If children are to be taught to reason and to become capable, in time, of thinking for themselves,
they must be prevented from talking in season and out of season, and from giving their opinions on things
they know only superficially.

"... Truths generated by intuition make all vain circumlocution superfluous, and make the mind
of man invincible to error.

" The whole gamut of the knowledge that we receive through the senses is derived from observation
of nature and from the solicitude with which we treasure up what nature offers to our sight .

An intuitive, natural and objective method :

" I acted, with my children, as nature does with the savage, presenting objects
before their gaze one by one and then seeking for the appropriate term ". The perfect
visual method which, with the thing or its image, excites curiosity, arouses interest and
sharpens observation, without which the most brilliant phantasy and the sharpest brain
runs the risk of turning back on itself for lack of nourishment, before reaching its full
development.

Pestalozzi was also of the opinion that two series of figures should be presented to
the eyes of children, from the very cradle : the first series should, seconding nature,
make known things and their names to the child by means of images taken from nature ;
while the second series, associating example and precept, supporting the one by the other
and putting into the child's mind a notion of the form side by side also with a notion of
the objects that have reference to it, should make the teaching gradually progressive
and in conformity with psychological laws.

He insists at length (1) on intuition considered both as a vital value acquired from
the object, which in a certain sense identifies intuition with interest, and as a total act
of the subject " implicating sight, interpretation, estimation and actual or potential
action " :

" Do not believe in the ripeness of judgment of men except when it appears to be the result of
an intuition, complete in all its parts, of the object causing it ; when a judgment seems to you not
to be the mature result of a profound and complete intuition, look upon it as a fruit which has fallen
because eaten by maggots and has therefore only the appearance of being ripe.

In the first place, therefore, learn to classify your intuitions, to have a complete understanding
of what is simple before proceeding to what is complex. Study how to build up, in each branch of science,
a graduated series of cognitions, so that each new notion shall be but a slight, almost imperceptible
addition to the notions already deeply and indelibly graven on the memory.

" Let your impressions be stronger and clearer in important problems ; therefore, draw the various
objects together by means of art and make them act on your mind by the aid of several senses .

And he insists again, albeit implicitly, on the necessity of not neglecting the educ-
ation of the senses, which have such a large part in the acquisition of culture, when he
places the first origin of our whole knowledge on the visual impression of what surrounds
us and on our experience of and direct contact with things.

Lastly, returning to his point of departure, he once more insists on the necessity
of placing intuition as the foundation of the educational process.

(1) Carlo Sganzini : /. H. Pestalozzi.

- 538-

Intuition is the foundation of all our knowledge ; and we must draw the necessary conclusion
that correctness of intuition is the basis of correct judgment.

" The defects of European education, or rather, the artifices that take the place of natural proces-
ses, have brought Europe to the point at which she now stands ; there is only one remedy for the
moral, civil and religious depression which exists at present or which we have reason to expect in the
future ; to lead back our artificial, empty and charlatan education to its beginnings, and recognize in-
tuition as the foundation of all knowledge ; in other words, recognize that all our knowledge must start
from intuition and be brought back to intuition ".

The extract quoted confirms what we said above, namely, that Pestalozzi counted
on the new educational method alone for the reform of society.

The following extract is a further proof of Pestalozzi 's faith in the efficacy of the
visual method. After declaring that " only those ideas whose clearness is not to be
increased even by its own experience, are clear to a child ", he continues as follows :

" In order to enrich the child's mind with clear ideas, we must take care to put before its eyes in every
study such objects as possess in themselves the visible and distinct characteristic proper to the species
to which they belong, and at the same time we must teach it to distinguish the essential from the acci-
dental.

" The " nihil admirari " that has hitherto been the privilege of the old and decrepit, is becoming the
inheritance of childhood and innocence.

"... The first instruction given to a child must not be addressed to either the intelligence or the rea-
son, but to the heart and senses, and must come from the mother ".

But Pestalozzi continues the same method in the later education. With the definite
object of increasing the points of contact between education and observation and of
taking the living experience of the child as the point of departure, he procures number-
less engravings representing objects known or unknown to the scholar, making the
lesson consist in the naming of the parts, the description of their forms, uses, etc. His,
therefore, is the merit of having made the visual method the foundation of intuitive
education. If this method, exaggerated or falsified by the master's followers, gave
origin to that parody of the object lesson which, as practised by some, became but a
mere source of boredom to the pupil, the responsibility cannot be laid to the charge of
its creator, for the principle he laid down still preserves its unimpaired value, and long
experience has genuinely proved that the ' lesson on things ", rationally understood and
ably imparted, is more likely than any other to arouse the scholar's attention and at
the same time develop his intellect, without either exhausting its virgin strength or leav-
ing it to vegetate in culpable inactivity. The child, new to the world and dazzled by
the splendour of the things that surround it, needs a wise and farseeing guide who, while
stimulating its faith and enthusiasm, directs and, where necessary, modifies them ; and
who, leading the child progressively and without effort to the observation of whatever
appeals to its senses, makes of it an active and thinking being, conscious of its own
dignity.

It is to this end that the Pestalozzi method tends. And if its creator insists so ur-
gently upon it, to a degree that might be thought exaggerated by a superficial observer*
since the integral application of any method, however good, implies a false note of
conventionalism in the educational process, whose dominant note should instead be spon-
taneity, we may answer the caviller with Sganzini's phrase : " Pestalozzi fostered this
method in order to avoid any perversion of the educational task : mechanicalism, form-

- 539 —

alism and pedantry, as well as sceptical levity, dilettantism, capricious procedure, lack
of organisation, infatuation with novelty, and originality and the abandon of the pupil
to the impulses of his particular and changeable nature".

The conclusion that is necessarily to be drawn is that the Pestalozzi method is
the victory over passivity and the contradiction between the systems based on method
and its opposite.

As a conclusion to this rapid analysis, we give Fichte's significant eulogy:
" I expect the regeneration of the German nation through Pestalozzi's Institute ".

Gaetano Filangieri (1752-1788). The spirit of the century finds its completest
expression in Filangieri 's work : La Scienza della Legislazione. He counts on the good-
ness of the laws, apart from any national consideration, for the reform of society.

The " Plan of Education ", set forth in Book IV of this work, is inspired by Plato's
Republic, whose deficiencies, however, he accentuates, as when he suggests replacing
the education of family life by a rigid State education, and refuses to acknowledge
any educational value in the family.

The influence of Locke and Rousseau incline him towards a natural and progressive
education : " After long and profound meditation ", he writes in Chapter XXIV,
" I sought a guide in nature, and have determined to fix my plan on her infallible
example. Let us, therefore, consult this old teacher ".

While admitting the dualism between man and citizen, however, he offers a solution
that is diametrically opposed to that suggested by Rousseau : " If we are not permitted
to form the man, let us try, if we can, to form the citizen ".

With sure and profound intuition, Filangieri perceives the efficacy of the new
method promoted by Pestalozzi : " If the faculty of perception is nothing but the
faculty of acquiring ideas from the impressions made on the mind by objects through
the medium of the senses, the great art of education in making use of this faculty
consists, therefore, in procuring the greatest number of these ideas and illustrating
them with the greatest clearness ".

The senses being placed as the foundation of the first notions, the value and efficacy
of the visual method follow as a matter of course ; and therefore, in perfect coherence,
he adopts Buffon's advice to gather together in suitable buildings, animals, plants and
minerals, which the scholars should see again and again, in order to accustom their
eyes to the great variety of objects. Whence comes the principle that it is necessary
to see uselessly for a long time, in order to prepare oneself to see usefully.

Intuitive, visual and attractive education : that is the education that Filangieri
wants entrusted to the State for the formation of citizens.

J. F. Herbart (1776-1841). The starting point of Herbart's pedagogy, is the intui-
tion promoted and practised by Pestalozzi at Burgdorf and Yverdun.

Whereas, however, intuition was almost an end in itself for the Swiss master, for
Herbart it had a quite different meaning, having the sole value of a means likely to arouse
that interest in the child on which alone culture can be securely founded.

Now, the desire to arouse the scholar's interest implies an entire system of
didactic auxiliaries, not the least of which are the visual aids that make the master's
words live and impress themselves on the child's attention, which, however easily it is
distracted, is just as easily concentrated on an idea that is made evident and attractive.

- 540 -

" The final aim of education is the conception of virtue. But the immediate aim which must be assigned
to education, especially if it is to reach its final aim, may be rendered by the expression : Plurilaterality
of interest. The word interest denotes, generally, that species of intellectual activity that must be determined
by education, taking into account the fact that education does not mean simply to know. For knowledge
is considered as a supply of cognitions, which might be lacking without the man being other than he is.
Of those, on the other hand, who retain their knowledge and try to increase it, it may be said that they
are interested in knowledge. But since this mental attitude is of different kinds, it is necessary to add to
it the determining note, which is inherent in the word Plurilaterality (1) ".

The immediate aim of education being this many-sided interest, which necessarily
implies the harmonious development of every faculty, the search for the most suitable
means to this end follows as a natural consequence. First of all, as we have already seen,
Herbart places intuition in its two distinct forms : visual teaching and object lessons,
the latter of which, although they appeal to the scholar's every sense, may without con-
tradiction be specially dealt with in their appeal to the sense of sight, both on account
of its greater importance and the facilities it offers to the teacher.

(to be continued).

M. L. Rossi Longhi.

(1) J. F. Herbart : General Pedagogy.

National Committees of the 1. 1. C. E.

FORMATION OF THE GERMAN COMMITTEE OF THE I.I.E.C.

We are pleased to announce to our readers the creation of the German committee
of the International Institute of Educational Cinematography (I. I.E.C.). This com-
mittee, founded under the auspices of four ministers of the German Reich, has its
chief office in Berlin, and its task will be to develop in every way the relations between
the I, I. E. C. and the German cinematographic World, interesting itself in all problems
which have any special concern for the German cinema. The names of the members
of the committee are the best guarantee of its intention to do good work.

The following is the list of the members of the committee, all of them well known
to the German public and the international cinema world :

Dr. WlESSEN :

Ministerial councillor at the German ministry of the Interior.

Herr MuLERT :

Ministerial Councillor at the Ministry of Public Economy.

Herr Hencke :

Secretary of Legation at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs.

Dr. Jierold :

Superior Councillor to the government at the Ministry of Science, Art and Public Education .

Dr. Kruss :

Privy Councillor of the government, Director General of the Prussian National Library,
member of the German commission of Intellectual Cooperation and Councillor of the
I.I.E.C.

Dr. Magnus :

Director of the German Radio Society, President of the Executive Committee of the " Ges-
ellschaft fur Ton und Bild ".

Dr. Plugge :

Lawyer and notary, member of the " Spitzenorganisation der deutschen Filmindustrie e V. ".

Dr. Plugge was appointed chairman of the committee.

At the beginning of this year, when we announced the formation of the French
committee of the I. I. E. C., we expressed the hope that similar organizations would
be created in other countries. Our wish has been realized as far as concerns Germany,

— 542 —

China, Chile, Czecho-Slovakia, Roumania and Holland. We are sure that other coun-
tries will soon follow their example.

The I. I. E. C. will give in an early number of the review the official list of the
members of the committees which have been communicated, but have not yet been
mentioned in the review.

ACTIVITIES OF THE NATIONAL COMMITTEES OF THE I. I.E.C.

The International Institute of Educational Cinematography notes with satisfaction the
healthy development of its plan of having a committee of its own to represent it officially in every
country. Owing to the activity and the special authority of the persons called to form part
of such committees, they constitute a really precious source of collaboration for the Institute.

In our opinion, it is not only useful but even necessary that such committees should enter
into contact with each other, communicating their various experiments and successes. With
this object in mind, the I.I.E.C. as from today opens the pages of the review to any kind of
communication concerning the activities of its national committees.

tThe Chinese Committee of the
Institute has been working for some
months now, and has stirred up a
l®t| lively interest by means of an intense
campaign carried out through the

t press and by means of conferences
and educational projections. The per-
J3£ sons who have signified their approval
*Qy of the committee, both in high polit-
\ % ical and cultural spheres as well as
C&L private and official institutions have

tbeen numerous. Requests have been
received from many provinces to have
conferences given them, illustrating
as completely as possible the Institute s pro-
gramme. In view, however, of the vastness
of a country like China, the committee's work
must necessarily proceed by steps, and to
begin with its activity will be limited to the
larger cities, from which it will later spread
all over the territory of the Republic.

The first object of the committee was to
make a careful study of the present con-
ditions of the local cinema industry with the
view of seeing what might be done for a
future Chinese production of educational
films. The inquiry has given satisfactory
results. A Chinese cinematographic industry
does exist and i s fairly well organized. From
the following table the results supplied by

the Chinese censorship commission on its
work in the second half of 1931 may be seen :

Nationality

American
Chinese
French .
German
English .
Japanese
Russian .

Jo of films

Percent

834

60.2

427

32.2

41

3.1

41

3.0

31

2.2

4

0.3

1

0.1

.379

100.0

As we see, the home industry makes a
notable contribution to the Chinese market.
The Chinese firms organized for film produc-
tion are 58 in all. The principal house
among them, "The Star", contibuted 90
films in the second semester of 1931. The
" Great China Lilium Picture Co. " showed
41 films, the " Unique ", the " Tutan ", the
" Great Wall " and the " Hwa Chu " more
than 20 pictures each.

The great part of the Chinese production
consists of silent films, but there is a promis-
ing development of sound films. It may
be said that the public approves the sound

543 —

film. The proportions between silent and
sound films shown locally are as follows : —

Nationality

Sound Silent

(second semester of 1931)

American 2 1

French 1 1

English 1 2

German 1 2

Chinese 3 200

It may be interesting to observe the sub-
jects of the films both local and imported.

Subject

% Chinese

% Foreign

. 41

10

Social Problems .

18

6

Domestic life . .

15

23

Love stories . .

11

47

15

15

The first thing that strikes one from an
examination of the above table is that the
local production, free to choose its subjects
according to the dictates of local taste, has a
majority of films of an historical character,
therefore in a certain sense cultural. The
committee did not limit its work to establish-
ing the existence of a local industry. It

went further, and measures have been taken
to begin the production of educational films.
We quote in connection a note from the
leading British daily newspaper in the Far
East, " The North China Daily News ".

" In order to promote the production of
educational films in China and an exchange
of such films with the League of Nations
Institute for Educational Cinematography, a
certain number of persons belonging to Chi-
nese industry and finance have joined them-
selves into an association. Among other
names we note those of : Dr. Chu Minyi,
Messrs Cheou Kangsie, Poen Ju, C. C.
Wang, S. T. Tuan and Y. S. Kou. The
association will take the name of NATIONAL
Educational Cinematographic Society of
China. — At the inaugural meeting the
constitution of the association was drawn
up, and numerous telegrams and circulars
were sent out biding for support. "

The government has promised its sup-
port to the committee, as have several uni-
versities and the municipalities of the most
important cities. The committee is at pre-
sent preparing a complete report to lay be-
fore the forthcoming National Educational
Conference to be held in Nanking in Sep-
tember.

let ingl.

— 544

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Legislation

THE MORAL PROTECTION OF COPYRIGHT-EXPIRED WORKS

At the meeting held on June 4 last in Paris, by the representatives of the institutions which
concern themselves with intellectual rights and juridical problems connected therewith, the ques-
tion of authors cinematograph rights was debated fully, and among the motions voted and trans-
mitted to the International Commission of Intellectual Cooperation was the following : —

The Committee

after having examined particularly the question of the cinematographic marketing of works
no longer copyright and therefore belonging to the public,

considers it desirable that a system of international regulations or laws should prevent
serious offences being committed against the integrity of such works ;

agrees that the I.I.E.C. should examine, in connection with the International Bureau
of Berne the possibility of including this desideratum in article 6 bis of the Rome convention.

The I.I.E.C. is glad to note that a meeting of copyright specialists has considered a
problem which the Institute itself, always concerned with the educational and cultural import-
ance of the cinema, has considered should be debated by the Paris congress. This also be-
cause the problem was raised directly by the I.I.E.C. at the meeting of the Executive
Committee last April, and was laid before the meeting held at Paris at the request of the
organizers of the meeting themselves.

The I.I.E.C. has published in its review the various aspects of the report.

A problem of particular interest, recently
raised by the Permanent Executive Com-
mittee of the Rome Institute for Educational
Cinematography refers to the protection
of literary works suitable for the cinema
that no longer enjoy copyright.

The desperate search on the part of
the film-producing houses for subjects to
interest the public, the introduction of sound,
the need of obtaining with the great mass
of the public an approval, as it were, in
advance by using the names of universally
known writers : all these various elements
have caused a regular sacking of the vast
treasure store of literary works which have
fallen out of copyright and become public
property. In this, there is nothing wrong.
Indeed it is generally considered desirable
that the great masterpieces of literature,

like the choice pages of music should be
brought to the knowledge of the big public.
Such a spread of literature is a work of
education.

In several countries we have recently
seen polemics turning round one side of
the question, which is, whether a literary
or musical work which has become public
property is to be deformed, mutilated, and
whether substantial alterations may be
introduced into it, not merely for simple
cinematographic exigencies, but at the will
and fantasy of the adapter. It may further
be admitted that such persons are not
always men of such culture and intelligence
as to be able to safeguard the best portions
of a masterpiece or modernize it with ar-
tistic criteria. Does there then exist any
way of protecting such works ? Who has

546 -

the right to exercise it, and how can it be
exercised ?

The matter, it is obvious, is highly im-
portant and delicate, and is connected with
the question of authors' moral rights over
literary and artistic works in the inter-
national field. The Rome conference of 1 928,
brought up the question very definitely,
while in the revision of the Berne inter-
national convention there was introduced into
the text revised at Berlin on November 12,
1908 on the proposal of the Italian delegate
an article 6 bis which ran as follows : —

Independently of the author's prop-
erty rights, and even after such rights
have ceased to exist, the author conserves
the right to assert his authorship of the work,
and to oppose any deformation, mutilation
or other modification of his work which may
be prejudicial to his honour or reputation.
" The national legislation of the various
countries of the Union will have the right of
defining the conditions for the exercise of
these rights. The means ol invoking the
protection of such rights will be determined
by the legislation of the country where pro-
tection is asked for ".

It is clear that the regulation applies to
the cinema from the wording of the follow-
ing article No. 14.

The protection of the author's moral
rights, while important for all kinds of works,
is especially so for the cinema, because the
author in assigning the right to adapt or
produce a cinematographic work generally
divests himself of all his property rights in
favour of the producer by means of separate
agreements so that from the author's point
of view it is only the rule of the moral prin-
ciple which permits him to take action for
the defence of interests which constitute
the affirmation of the right of authorship in
works.

Under the convention, moral rights can
only be invoked by the author, and therefore
only while the author is alive. No inter-
national regulation has yet been enforced
concerning the safeguarding of the author's
moral rights after his death, either for works

still enjoying copyright, or such as have
become public property.

This is the situation. There exists there-
fore the possibility of safeguarding in the
case of a living author, in the case, that is
when such safeguarding of rights is, in the
majority of cases, less important. This
for the reason that obviously the purchase
by a film-producing house of a given work
by a living author leads to collaborating
agreements and co-operation in the produc-
tion, in order to avoid possible commercial
damage arising from an author officially
complaining of the mutilation of his work.

The whole point is an extremely contro-
versial one with the commercial heads of the
business, for they fear that the recognition
of moral rights may lead to actions capable
of creating incalculable disturbance in a
world as dynamic as that of the cinema.

In the Italian juridical sphere, moral
rights for works of the mind, which nat-
urally includes cinematographic works, are
today more widely recognized than the Rome
convention would lead one to suppose.
The terms of the Italian law concerning the
subject are to be found in articles 13, 14,
15, 16 and 24 of the Royal Decree of Nov-
ember 7, 1925, No. 1950. According to
article 16, independently of property rights
the author has at any time the right of pro-
claiming and asserting the paternity of his
own work and preventing any modification
mutilation or alteration likely to cause grave
and unjust prejudice to his moral interests.
As a result of the following article, No. 24,
" after the author's death, the rights be-
stowed on him by article 16, can be made
use of, without time limit, by the wife or
husband of the author and by his children,
or failing them, by the author's parents or
by other relations in the ascending or de-
scending line, or by the brothers or sisters
of the author or their descendants. If
no person exists in any of the foregoing
categories to defend the author's rights,
then action may be taken by the Public
Prosecutor

As can be seen, according to the Ital an

-547

law, even in the case of a work which has
become public property the moral rights
of the dead author can be effectively protec-
ted through the intervention in the last re-
sort of the State, by means of the Public
Prosecutor, and this for the reason that
the rights which it is sought to protect
are in themselves public rights.

The principle admitted by the Italian
law was proposed to the Rome conference,
in an implicit form, by the Italian delega-
tion in the Piola Caselli scheme. The
report of the conference in fact shows that
the original Italian text, later modified in
a final version, contained the following
words : —

" After the author's death, these rights
shall be exercised by persons or institutions
decided upon by the legislative authority
of the country of origin of the author ".

Looking at the matter from the purely
international point of view, we are of
opinion that the protection of an artistic
or literary work v/hich has become public
property ought to be admitted when the
work has been altered or deformed with
grave and unjust prejudice to the moral figure
of a dead author.

One should endeavour to find out just
what is the basic concept behind the whole
idea of the author's moral rights. Either
the moral rights of an author exist, or they
-dor they do not. If they do not exist
during the author's life, then still less can
they exist after his death, and still less again
when his work has become public property.
In the other case, admitting that the person-
ality and the moral spiritual and intellectual
individuality of the author must not be
deformed, the juridical ground for a post-
mortem intervention on the part of the
State arises from the fact that the work of
art is not the property of a single individual
alone but of the whole public, and is an
element of culture and dignity which through
the creative work of a certain physical per-
son becomes the property of the nation.

Going still further, and speaking theor-
etically, if we admit the existence of protec-

tion of moral rights, we can easily admit the
right of the state to oppose, in the name
of the living author, and within the time
limits for which protection is granted by
the laws of the rspective countries, any
deformation or alteration in a work of art
which the author himself by means of an
agreement or through tolerance has allowed
to take place.

We must not forget that similar regulations
and laws exist in modern nations in
respect to the so called vincolo export, or
ban on works of art. The State can recog-
nize in the productions of genius works
of such an exceptional value that it becomes
advisable to impose restrictions or limitations
on their export. Why should the State
not also intervene in the case of works which
though not plastic works of art are, just
the same creations of the mind and symbolic
of a cultural or scientific epoch.

This proposal in no way closes or obstructs
the highways of life, but leaves them
free to all movement on condition that every
work of art, every artistic creation is and
remains a manifestation of its epoch, cap-
able of becoming a historic document of
such epoch, without alterations or modifi-
cations which, though possibly tolerable and
understandable to superior minds accustomed
to analysis and criticism, would inevitably
produce confusion and lack of comprehen-
sion in the great public to whom the cinema
makes its appeal.

Here lies a great social danger that the
film in its capacity for suggestion and in
its wide appeal may show a life that is not
true, and a great intellectual and spiritual
danger if it reproduces falsely the world
of art.

Who could honestly consent to alterations
and banal or grotesque adaptations of the
works of Dante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Vic-
tor Hugo or of other more ancient creators
of our spiritual heritage ? The public, how-
ever, which is often ignorant of works,
though knowing the names of their authors,
would, if we admit such a limitless liberty,
come to consider these intellectual giants

- 548 -

on the same level as commonplace scenario
writers turning out plots and scenes at so
much a page. Which would be absurd and
immoral.

It would be possible juridically to oppose
the concept of the personal character of the
author's moral rights to the property rights.
The protection afforded to a work of art,
whatever it may be, depends on public
rights. If, owing to the personal charac-
ter of the rights it is held that a third party
cannot act on them, this does not mean
denying the States possible rights, for the
State enters on the scene to represent or
be the substitute of the person possessing
the rights of whom indeed it is an emana-
tion, and, as such, has the duty of protecting
the person's interests by reason of the exis-
tence of an interest superior to the contin-
gencies and possibilities of the individual
himself.

The question is a very delicate one, espec-
ially as the principle of moral rights, exist-
ing during the author's life, is still violently
opposed in many countries by commercial
interests. The matter is further complic-
ated by the fact that a work, written a cen-
tury or two ago, which has become public
property may very well by a clever adapt-
ation or renovation of some of its motives
or of some of its parts be ree'ndowed with
a richness and freshness likely to make it
more acceptable to the big public. Such
modernizations do in fact take place in the
theatre.

To abandon the great masterpieces with-
out any possibility of a fresher and intens-
er life might very well mean condemning
them to the bookshelves or the museums,
where only a few would have the privilege
of enjoying them. Art and literature are
continually evolving ; the new age has fresh
tastes, and requires adaptations that sat-
isfy it.

Provisions might be made on the follow-
ing lines :

A) the creation of an obligation on
the part of film-producing houses anxious
to reproduce with suitable changes or modif-

ications a work which has become public
property to announce publicly in the ad-
vertising part of the film that the work
has undergone adaptation and treatment at
the hands of a certain author or producer.
This should be done in order that the pub-
lic may know that the piece has been taken
from a real national literary masterpiece, and
has been arranged for the screen according
to the exigencies of the cinema by a com-
petent person.

B) establish the principle that pro-
tection must in the last resort devolve
on the state of the original country of the
author or the work. The carrying out of
such protection or protection of rights
might be left to the syndical associations of
authors of the country, such bodies being
certainly the best fitted to exercise such
right.

In any case, the problem ought to be de-
bated and thoroughly examined. Therefore
the Rome Institute puts forward the present
note, well remembering the eminent part
which Jules Descree had in the discussion
on the principle of authors' moral rights
at the Rome conference in 1928.

The Rome Institute has thought well to
submit to the International Institute for the
Unification of Private Rights in Rome the
problem under consideration in order to
learn if the argument which at present is
being examined by several students of the
question lends itself to observations.

We are happy to say that there is a com-
plete uniformity of opinion between our
line of thought and that supported by an-
other important organ of the League of Na-
tions, the Institute for the Unification of
Private Rights.

In its communication the latter Institute
stated : —

" Even according to Italian law, which
envisages the intervention of the Public
Prosecutor in cases of grave and unjust
damage, the problem continues to exist

549-

when even such extreme limits are not
reached.

" It remains also for all those works of
art, which on account of their age, do not
come under the provisions of modern leg-
islation in the matter of copyright.

" Proper legislative reforms are required.
As a matter of fact, since the existence of
public dominion over an author's works
after a certain period of time is recognized
in what concerns its financial value, it is
not easy to see why a moral protection over
works of art should not be regularly assumed
by the State when the copyright period has
come to an end.

" In the same way that the State has pre-
pared a catalogue of art objects belonging
to private individuals which cannot even
be removed from place to place without
the intervention of special officials attached
to this service, why should it not become
law that musical and literary works cannot

be launched commercially except on deter-
mined conditions ? There is no reason why
the State should only exercise its rights
for fiscal purposes and not for artistic rea-
sons : Moreover, this protection which the
State can give need not be limited to cases of
grave and unjust damage but might include all
cases in which a work of art undergoes defor-
mation, contamination or maltreatment, etc.

In this way a notable step forward would
be taken for the defence of art, while at the
same time a small advantage would perhaps
derive therefrom for the State but especially
an important economic advantage for con-
temporary artists who would see the com-
petition with their predecessors diminished.

" In any case, if the Institute of Intel-
lectual Cooperation should decide to tackle
the problems, the International Institute for
the Unification of Private Rights will cer-
tainly be very pleased to collaborate with
all the means at its disposal.

550-

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Information and Comment

CINEMA AESTHETICS

As we announced in our April number, the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters at the Uni-
versity of Barcelona has organized, under the direction of Professor Guillermo Diaz-PIaja,
a series of conferences on the cinema. The conferences were inaugurated with a course of
three lessons on " Cinema Aesthetics " by Professor Diaz-PIaja. A summary of those
lessons may interest our readers.

I. The appearance of the cinema in the
life of our epoch has constituted such an
important and characteristic phenomenon
as to admit the coming into being of a regular
from of cinematographic culture.

II. What is the cinema? The cinema is
the play of an animated plastique, expressive
in itself, in which case it is identified with
the documentary cinema. Or else it move
in the field of elemental emotions, when it
may be said to become an art cinema. A
film is therefore not really cinematographic
except in so far as it solves its problems of
expression without abandoning an expres-
sive plasticity, without concerning itself
with secondary considerations of a moral
or sentimental nature which have an extra-
cinematographic importance.

III. Animated plastique, that is time and
space. The work of the cinema is one of
selection. The cinema director has at his
disposal a) an inexhaustible material, namely
the world we live in ; 2) a selective instrument,
namely the cinema apparatus.

The cinema becomes in reality a kind of
catalogue of the universe. It reveals the
value of things and the perceptible world
which surrounds us. In other words, it is
the art which permits us to see the world
in its various formations and gradations.

IV. In the history of humanity a certain
moment of decisive importance should be
remembered, which occurred when graphic
signs were transformed into phonetic abstract-

ions, the moment in which the concrete and
plastic conception of things was transformed
into an ideal or abstract conception.

At this movement, a definite culture of an
intellectual and verbal character came into
existence, which was in antithesis with every
thing that could be called form. And this
has been the condition of things up to today.
It is the cinema's task to transform this tor-
mented culture based on intellectualism
into a direct culture by means of images.

V. This return of the image can be con-
nected with a series of symptoms which
characterise the crisis of the word. Such
indications may be found in the writings of
Goethe, Pirandello, Ors, Abel Gance, Wal-
demar George, Aldous Huxley, Gomez de
la Serna, Remy de Gourmont, Maeterlinck,
Bergson, Maragall, Breton, and Pierre Mar-
cel Jousse.

VI. The cinema is an art of the present
century, and consequently anti-romantic.
It must be clear and exact, and loathe every-
thing that is confusion or intuition.

Every film should be true to life except
in the case of deformation of images the su-
per-realist film, and animated designs.

VII. Beside being absolutely true to life
and precise as a document, a minimum of
beauty is necessary in every film. Clarity,
nobility of intentions, intelligence should
characterise the faces and bodies of the per-
sonages filmed. Deformations and ugli-
ness are relics of romanticism and Russian

554-

literature. Cinematographically speaking,
ugliness is immoral.

VIII. The linking up of the realities sur-
rounding us effected by the cinematogra-
phic machine has a narrative value, subjec-
tive, in so far as the machine is in itself the
protagonist of the story, but objective, when
the machine has an auxiliary value, and only
follows the phases of the action.

IX. The close-up and long shot. The
importance of the close-up, thought out by
Griffith, is enormous, for it is the best
way of exercising a selective choice of
nature.

The long shot loses nothing of its import-
ance. It appears in the whole history of
the cinema as a necessary complement of
the action, just in the way the XVI Ith cen.
tury animates the backgrounds of inanimate
pictures of the XVIth century.

X. According to an orthodox and rigid
doctrine, man and objects have, in relation
to the cinema machine, the same expressive
force. As J. Epstein has said, the very
objects themselves know how to assume
attitudes on the screen.

In any case, however, the face predom-

inates as factor of expression. This is a con-
sequence of the theatrical tradition.

All the history of the cinema shows a pro-
gressive tendency to render the miming of
the face more sober. Compare Francesca
Bertini with Lilian Gish, Aime-Simon Ge-
rard with Clive Brook.

XI. The departure from melodrama leads
the cinema actor to concentrate his efforts
on rendering sober and severe the facial acting
Whence comes the value of hand gest-
ure, of object gesture, the humanizing of
gesture, connected with the dehumaniz-
ing of art, of which Ortega y Gasset speaks.

XII. Mobility of the machine in space.
Selection of objects. Mobility of the ma-
chine in time The possibility of fixing the
attention on a movement and of using micro-
croscopy, with slow motion, or speeded-up
motion. In the cinema, slow motion is,
in relation to time, what the close-up in
is relation to space.

XIII. An intelligent succession of close-
ups and long shots constitutes cinemato-
graphic rhythm. Rhythm which is the
fundamental principle of the aesthetic of
the cinema.

THE MOTION PICTURES IN THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS

The United States Department of the
Interior (Office of Education) has recently
issued a circular (No. 46) on " Motion Pic-
tures in the Public Elementary and Secon-
dary Schools ".

In 1929, the Office of Education cooperated
with Mr E.I. Way, Chief of Industrial and
Education Section, Motion Picture Dept. of
Commerce in the preparation and distrib-
ution of questionnaires designed to coll-
ect information on the administration of
film service in the public schools in America.
The questionnaires were sent to 3,226 supe-
rintendents of schools and to 22,491 prin-
cipals and supervising principals in towns
and villages having a population of 2500 or
more. Returns were received from approxi-
mately 6000 superintendents and principals,

2000 of whom reported that motion pictures
were not used in their schools. The remain-
ing 4000 reported some use of films.

The United States Department of Com-
merce arranged for the tabulation of the
data, and issued a series of circulars on the
topic between January and August of 1931.
The circular under discussion, therefore,
was prepared by Mr J.C. Malott, specialist
in commercial education at the Office of
Education.

The results of the inquiry show that the
American schools do not often buy films or
pay high rentals. Ninetyeight per cent
of the schools reporting on this item stated
that they do not purchase films for scholas-
tic purposes. Only 39 communities main-
tain film libraires or depositaries, while 54

-555

communities report that they propose in the
future to have such libraries or depositaries.

In 13 per cent of the communities, " free "
films were used exclusively. In 19 per cent
of the communities, the average rental rates
per film were less than one dollar, while in
28 per cent of cases they ranged from one
dollar to 1 dollar 95 cents. In 23 per cent
of cases the rentals were about three dollars
per reel. It is probable that the films
costing one dollar and a half or less were
really distributed free, and that the only
cost was for transportation.

The subjects for which films were used
in the American public schools show that
the largest percentage went to the teaching
of Social Science and Natural Science, with

Physical Education, Manual Arts, Domestic
Economy and Commercial Instruction com-
ing next in the list.

The questionnaires issued and examined
showed that the great majority of teachers
approved the use of the didactic film in the
public schools. Some of the advantages
cited were : " increased interest in school
work " ; improvement in accuracy on the
part of the scholars » ; improvement in voca-
bulary " ; " increased mental activity ".

Among the disadvantages referred to in
the answers to the questionnaires, were :
" Darkening of the school-rooms " ; " im-
possibility for the teacher to make sufficient
detailed study of the film " ; " too many
titles per film ".

THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES IN CHARACTER EDUCATION

Mr Howard M. Lesourd has published
with the above title an interesting study
on the possibilities offered by the use of
cinematography, especially in schools for
educating the character of the young. Be-
lieving that the two subjects of greatest
popular interest in the educational world
today are the cinema and the education of
character, the author examines the means
and systems which give the most effective
results in these two important fields.

The methods of educating character
adopted in public schools comprise both
indirect and direct means. Recourse may
be had to the use of cinematography in
indirect education of character when the
films form an integral part of the scholastic
curriculum. The cinema opens up to
young and perceptive imaginations vast
horizons which otherwise would only be
known in a purely abstract fashion. For
example, trials have been made to determine
the effect obtained by films reproducing the
habits and costumes of various peoples and
races. Such effects varied considerably ac-
cording to the way the subject was presented,
allowing it to be gathered that there exists
a definite possibility of developing in chil-
dren the sense of brotherhood towards other

peoples by means of suitable pictures of
their qualities and characteristics. Even
films of a purely spectacular nature can be
used in schools with an indirect educational
intent. Besides a careful choice of subject-
matter, an appropriate discussion of the
ethical principles contained in the film is
necessary, bringing such principles into
application with the children's practical
daily existence. Notable effects have been
remarked in some cases by the use of pro-
jections of scenes taken from films being
run in local halls, such scenes being suitably
commented.

The direct method of educating character
by the cinema is carried out by the use of
specially prepared films. Such films may
be obtained either by the production of new
" shorts ", or cutting from real life films
or theatrical films such special situations
and characteristics as fit in with the ideas
it is proposed to inculcate in the children.
Films dealing with the choice of a career
may be recommended in the first case, or
pictures representing problems on the rela-
tions between peoples or dealing with social
justice or international good will.

After showing that the cost of acquiring
and using such films is in no way excessive,

-556-

the author states his conviction that schools
will in the near future use film programmes
tending towards the education of character
on the lines indicated.

Placing what Mr Lesourd has said in
connection with what has often been re-
peated in the pages of this review regarding
the possibility of utilizing the cinema as a
means of mutual comprehension among
various peoples, and consequently as an
instrument of international brotherhood, our
readers will easily understand the import-
ance of the statements made by the Amer-
ican professor. He tells us of experiment.0
from which we see that the way of represent-

ing the characters and qualities of different
peoples can have a considerable influence
on the sensations evoked by a cinema pro-
jection. It seems clear to us that what is
true for children is also true for the big
cinema public, which is even more under
the influence of the film, since it is subject
to the well known phenomenon of crowd
psychology. The attitude and sensations
of the crowd depend on the method of
representing films dealing with the lives of
peoples. If the representation is made in a
sympathetic spirit, the crowd will react
sympathetically to it. When such presen-
tation is made in any unfriendly spirit, the
responsibility must be divided between the
producers, renters and exhibitors.

THE FLORENCE CINEMATOGRAPHIC EXHIBITION

Organized by the committee of the fourth
International Book Fair, an International
Exhibition of Cinematography took place
in Florence between May 1st and June
15th. In spite of the limited time at the
disposal of the organizers, the difficulties
of the present time, and the fact that the
Exhibition closely followed the Milan Sam-
ple Fair, the result of the Florence Exhibition
was most gratifying both for the number
of stands and the material exhibited. The
latest types of Italian and German projec-
tors (Cinemeccanica, Pio-Pion) and Zeiss-
Ikon, with accompanying sound reproduc-
tion apparatus, as well as some types of
portable sound reproducers proved partic-
ularly interesting. Among the latter, the
Phonobox of tne Zeiss-Ikon may be men-
tioned.

Educational and amateur cinematography
was also largely represented at the exhibi-
tion. The " Afga " firm showed its latest
models of cinema cameras and projectors
of 16 mm film. The Pathe-Baby had in-
stalled a well-fitted scholastic hall where
several educational films were shown from
the company's extensive repertory.

Among specialities exhibited, there were
the machines for electric-acoustic registra-

tion and reproduction on a steel ribbon
(Blatterphone and Stille patents) and the
small retrospective museum kindly lent by
Pathe-Nathan of Paris, consisting of cinenu:
cameras, projectors and perforators of the
most primitive types, going back to the early
days of the industry.

No less interest was aroused by the sec-
tion devoted to the cinema periodical press
and book production. Numerous reviews
and publications of every country in num-
berless languages allowed the visitor to
form for himself an idea of the importance
of cinema journalism. The I.I.E.C. was
represented at the exhibition by a complete
collection of the review and a collection of
all the Institute's publications. Official and
semi-official institutes and offices were also
represented, such as the " Office National
d'Hygiene Sociale " of the French Public
Health Ministry ; the " Istituto Nazionale
L.U.C.E. " ; the Evangelischer Bildspielver-
band, etc. Commercial houses such as
Paramount, the Cines and the Afga were
also represented.

The exhibition must be considered a com-
plete success. Without doubt, it represent-
ed one of the biggest attractions of the very
interesting fourth International Book Fair.

— 557 —

MISSIONARIES AND THE CINEMA

Missionaries have always made use of
illustrations, doubtless understanding that in
order to give a clear idea of things nothing
is so useful as a drawing or sketch. Past
centuries have handed down to us works of
missionaries in which the descriptions of
the ethnography, geology, flora and fauna
of distant countries, much more inaccessible
then than now, were illustrated with draw-
ings made with great care by draughtsmen
of talent working under the authors' direc-
tions. A collection of drawings of this
type in fact almost allows us to follow the
progress of engraving, not so much as an
artistic expression but as a method of popul-
arizing information.

There is therefore nothing to marvel at
if as soon as photography was within every-
body's reach a camera appeared as part
of the outfit of a missionary. At the head
houses of the various missionary congre-
gations can be seen collections of photographs
of extraordinary interest and historical and
ethnological value.

The cinema has not entirely taken the
place of the photographic camera as a means
of visual documentation for missionaries
any more than it has for other people, but
the cinema was not long in winning the
approval of these pioneers of civilization.
The missionaries have given us numerous
films, which are all the more interesting
inasmuch as the missionary cinematograph -
ist does not go to more or less unexplored
countries merely to make films according
to his taste and judgement, but as a result
of long residence in one country has the
time to observe and choose those objects
and events which are worthiest of being
registered

We have already referred in our column
" Book and News Notes ", to films taken
in all parts of the world by missionaries of
various lands and faiths, films considered
important by experts and valuable for pur-
poses of scientific study. Some missionaries

have even gained fame as experienced oper-
ators, as, for instance, Father Dufays,
whose film " From Dakar to Goa " enjoyed
a success in the public cinema palaces and
caused discussions in the technical press.
This " white father, carried away by the
passion of the cinema, is today gathering
together in Africa with his machine material
for an important film on French penetra-
tion in Central Africa up to Timbuctoo.
The film, which will have as title " The
Blood on the Sand ", will recall the sacri-
fices of the pioneers of European civiliza-
tion in these regions, the first missions of
the White Fathers, who suffered martyrdom
for the faith, the murder of Father Richard,
and the massacre of the Flatters mission,
together with similar events. During his
wanderings for the preparation of the film,
Father Dufays takes care to film whatever
seems to him interesting from the historical
or folk-lore point of view. He has thus
been able to film at Chardaia in Southern
Algiers the preparations for a nuptial ban-
quet. " I shot the whole ceremony ", he
told a reporter of Cine-Magazine ", in the
women's quarter, and I am sure that I
made an original document such as no-one
has hitherto seen and which perhaps no
other European will see again for a long
time " Commenting the difficulties of the
undertaking, our contemporary justly re-
marks : " This is another proof that the
missionary cinematographist is in a position
to film documentary pictures of human life
quite our of the reach of other operators ".

An interesting news-item of the Fides
Agency takes us from the torrid Saharan
desert to the icy solitudes of Alaska, and
reports the activity of another outstanding
cinema enthusiast, the Reverend Bernard
J, Hubbard, Director of the Geological sec-
tion of the Saint Claire University.

The priest left New York in December

558-

1930 and covered over 4000 miles by air-
plane and over 1500 on sleighs, the greater
part of the time alone, in order to visit the
Jesuit missions on the banks of the Yukon.
The reverend gentleman also covered some
300 miles on foot, carrying over 100 pounds
of baggage on his back in order to reach
Aniakchok the great erupting volcano of
Alaska.

The account of this trip is both simple
and highly impressive. It was made with
temperatures that went as low as 50 below
zero, in tempests of snow and winds as vio-
lent in their way as the simoons of the Sa-
haran regions. Father Hubbard brought

back a film on the life of the missionaries
and Eskimos of Alaska, one of those unpre-
tending pictures without other intent than
to show things as they really are.

The documentary cinema is already in
the debt of the missionaries for some notable
pictures, but still, more may be expected
of them. The improvements in cinema
technique have placed at their disposal a
magnificent instrument, which in some
countries can only be used by persons acting
under the impulse of a powerful ideal, faith
or science or maybe both.

Banca Nazionale del Lavoro

Institute of Public Credit.
Established by Royal Decree No. 1140, 15th August 1913, No. 416: 18th March 1929.

Paid-up Capital: 160.000.000 Lire - Reserve: 5.200.000 Lire

Savings and Current Accounts. — Correspondence

Current Accounts in Lire and foreign currencies. —

Cheques issued on Italy and Foreign Countries.

Purchase and Sale of securities

ALL BANKING OPERATIONS

Branches and correspondents throughout Italy

HEAD OFFICE: ROME - 117, Via Vittorio Veneto

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Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up
General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
52-123 - 52-124 =====

C^^D

=^^= Telegrams : ===
ANONIMA PITTAI<UGA

Works

H R O M E : « Cities », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S. Giovanni)

■ TURIN: ■ Pontiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

B
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■ General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

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General Agencies Abroad
a

■ BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PARIS :£Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10

Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel. : 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, I. — Tel. :
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009 •

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

llBBIBBBIIDBIlBBaiBIHBIIIIBIBBBIBIIBBIDBIBHIIIIIBIIIIIIIII

Technical Notes

ADVANCES IN COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

It is generally known that the methods,
followed by inventors for resolving the
difficult problem of colour cinematography
are fundamentally two : first, the chemical
method, consisting of chemical processes
of colouring or toning down of films ; and
second, the optical process, consisting in
improving the optical systems of separat-
ing analytical images. Such systems must,
it is true, be pursued contemporaneously
if really practical and satisfactory results
are to be obtained, but while the chemical
colour processes have by now reached a
degree of perfection which cannot easily
be surpassed, much still remains to be done
in the selective optical field.

The essential condition to which division-
al and selective optical systems for colour
cinematography must respond is that the
apparatuses traversed by the luminous rays
proceeding from the lens which are intended
to separate and filter such rays must be
absolutely identical, so as to obtain two or
three perfectly equal partial images of the
total image or picture. Otherwise it is
impossible to obtain perfect superimposition.

In the two colour processes, optical sys-
tems have been developed which for all
practical purposes satisfy the above men-
tioned conditions, but bichromy does not
give sufficient wealth of tints to provide
natural colouring of the subject. The three
colour systems complicate the optical pro-
cess considerably, and open up a wide field
for study and experiment for the technicians.
So far, however, results are uncertain.

Among processes which have given tan-
gible results, the recent experiments of En-

gineer F. Kuhnert of Friburg described by
the inventor himself in an article published
in the review " Die Kinotechnik " may be
mentioned.

Kuhnert's optical system is made up of
a series of prisms a, b, c, d, e, /, and g)
(see fig. 1) connected and placed between
the principal lens and the secondary lenses
2, 3 and 4. Two sides of the prism « d» are
coated with semi-transparent silver leaf
(h), but while the side attached to the prism
a " has a reflecting power equivalent to
33 and 1/3 per cent, the silver of the side

attached to prism " e " reflects up to 50 per
cent. The superficies of the prisms indicat-
ed in the cut with the letter " r " offer total

— 562

reflection. In f], /2 and /3 the three anal-
ytic prisms are represented. A simple
examination of the path followed by the
ray issuing from the lens partially reflected
and partially proceeding through the various
superficies allows one to perceive that at
the sensitive surface " E " of the film three
filtered rays of equal intensity (33 and 1/3
of the initial intensity) arrive, having tra-
versed equal distance. The optical system
therefore fulfils the essential conditions of
colour photography set forth at the begin-
ning of this note.

If it is desired to give the pictures the
size of standard films (mm 18 X 24) the
analytic images can take the form indicated
in fig. 2, in which case the total width of the
film would be about 62 mm. Which does
not exclude the possibility of printing or
composing the three analytical images on
a positive strip of normal dimensions, using

printing systems already in use for other
colour cinematography processes.

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Y

THE DEBRIE SUPER-PARVO

The firm of Debrie has recently construct-
ed a new model of its well known camera
" Parvo '*, which is very suitable for making
sound films. This machine, known as the
" Super-Parvo " is built in such a way that
the use of sound-proof compartments has
been entirely done away with. In spite
of recent improvements these compartments
have always been a source of trouble and
inconvenience owing to their size and weight.

The " Super-Parvo " is perfectly silent,
and allows the taking of close-ups, with the
microphone at less than a metre's distance,
without any special arrangement and with-
out any danger of registering background
noises.

The new machine has all the characteristics
of the modernest types of " Parvo " cameras :
internal magazine of 300 mm, standard
optical mountings allowing the use of any
kind of lens, direct focussing on the film,
direct focussing on frosted glass screen,
focussing lens of special type, fade-out
shutter, rack and pinion fixing for carriage.

The lower indented drum is provided with
a special anti-bourrage system safeguarding
against all mechanical accidents due to the
irregular passage of the film.

The motor is situated in the inside of the
machine in the " Super-Parvo ", and can
be dismounted or changed for another.
The apparatus can take either a synchroniz-
ing motor of 1 10 or 220 volts, or a continuous
current motor of from 1 10 down to 24 volts.
The latter may be worked from accumula-
tors. The synchronizing motor can be run
either at 48 or 50 periods.

All the mechanical parts have been con-
structed so as to avoid noise. The cogs and
wheels for instance have been worked in a
special material as resistent as steel but free
from the characteristic rustling noise of
interlocking metal.

All the mechanical parts of the "Super-
Parvo " have been mounted so that no
vibration can be transmitted to the outer
container, which in its turn is perfectly
s ound-proof .

-563

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on Cinematography, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching -~ ~

" Dei* Bildwart "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The " Bildwart " Supplements :

" FILMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);
" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);
" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses) ;
" MKROPROJEKTION " ;
"PATENTSCHAU" (Patents' Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

===== Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =====
(BILDWART VERIAGSGENOSSENSCHAFT G.m.b.H., BERLIN, N. W. 21, Bochumer Strasse 8.a)

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEAGUE OF RED CROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARISl(VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or 1/-
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8 -

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

— 564 —

A modem system for
the modern traveller!

Provide yourself in advance with

" I C. I.

w

Travel cheques of the

BANCA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA

in lire, French francs, marks, sterling

or dollars

No commission or other charges

Explanatory booklet obtainable at all branches of the
BANCA COMMEKCIALE ITALIANA

Review of periodicals and newspapers

Social Aspects of the Film.

The authorities of Doncaster, England,
have forbidden a youth to frequent the
cinemas for two years. The young man
was found guilty of theft, and it was ascer
tained during the trial that he had come
under the influence of detective films.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 13-VI-1932).

" The Film Committee of the Churches "
of Belfast has published a report on the
cinema declaring that 70 per cent of the
films shown are moral, amusing and educa-
tive. Five per cent are of dubious morality,
and 25 % are harmful and immoral. (The
Cinema, London, 5-V-1932).

Monsieur E. Villermoz, in an article deal-
ing with the American films, " Tom Saw-
yer " and " Skippy ", featuring actors of
less than 15 years, and with the German
film ", Emile and the Detectives ", represent-
ed with great success by children, invites
the French producers and directors to turn
to the young people for making little mas-
terpieces of this kind. (Le Temps, Paris,
14-V-1932).

The Cine-Journal of Paris of May 25
publishes an interesting article by M. L.
Druhot on dubbing and other present day
problems of the cinema. M. Druhot deals
with advertising announcements where an
abuse is committed in stating that a certain
film is only for adults and not for young
boys and girls. According to the author,
this is merely an advertising stunt intended
to deceive the public and disguise the
mediocrity of films which do not justify
such statements. M. Druhot invites exhib-
itors to be more straightforward and
honest.

According to the programmes of the most
important American film producers, it seems
that no gangster films will be made in the
forthcoming season. (The Film Daily,
New York, 29-V-1932).

In his opening address at the Cinema
Exhibition organized in London on the oc-
casion of the International Congress of Cin-
ema Managers, Mr Baldwin put forward
the idea of instituting a " Children's hour ",
during which only films chosen for and
adapted for young people would be shown.

In her triple capacity as member of the
Council for the Protection of Infancy,
correspondent of the Revue des Parents
and mother of a family, Mrs Eva Hanse
shows in a very interesting article how par-
ents should treat the cinema and obtain
the greatest possible profit from it. (Na-
tional Board of Review Magazine, New
York, No. 5, May, 1932).

Pour I'Ere Nouvelle of Paris (No. 77
of April-May, 1932) publishes a series of
articles on various interesting points regard-
ing the persuasive effect of the cinema. We
may note particularly, ' L enseignement
de la paix a I'ecole " by Max Hebert, on
propaganda in favour of the League of Na-
tions, " L'Ecole Beige et la S. d. N. by
Maurice Peers with a similar theme, and
" L'instinct combattif et la Paix " by Mme
Angles on the influence of war films.

At the conclusion of a banquet given by
British cinema businessmen, several speeches
were made pointing out the notable and
growing influence exercised by the cinema
on the life of nations. Mr Ormiston de-
clared that the cinema is capable of producing

566

results superior to those obtainable at any
international political conference. (The CINE-
MATOGRAPH Times, London, 3-VI-1932).

The documentary film.

Messrs Francesco de Rege and Stanislaus
Cantone, alone, without escort, and on an
ordinary automobile, crossed in 65 days
Somaliland, Keyna, the Sudan, Eritrea,
Egypt, Lybia, Tunis, Algiers and Morocco,
arriving at Rome via Madrid and Marseilles.
They made a real life picture of their trip,
which has been shown with success in pub-
lic picture halls, notwithstanding that the
authors of the film are only amateurs. (SCE-
NARIO, Rome, No. 2 of March 1932).

Deputy Sardi, President of the National
Institute L. U. C. E. deals in SCENARIO
(Rome, No. 3 of April, 1932) with the activity
of the L. U. C. E. operators in China during
the recent Chino-Japanese conflict and
illustrates the difficulties at the cost of over-
coming which it was possible to make films
which constitute authentic and precious
documents of those days of fighting.

The government of the United States of
America has secured the registration of a
film, to be kept as a document for the future,
of the gesticulated language of the various
Red Indian tribes. (ITALIAN Mail AND
Tribune, Florence, 7-V-1932).

In view of the great success obtained in
Paris and London by the newsreels, a pro-
posal has been made in Germany to add to
the " Landinstitut " of Berlin a special film
department and a projection hall for the
exhibition of the best films of current events.
(Licht-Bild-Buhne, Berlin, 20-V-1932).

Johnny Walker has made a film entitled
" Jungle Sheiks ", illustrating life in the
Island of Sumatra. (The Film Daily,
New York, 23-V-1932).

The filming of a new 12 reel picture of
a documentary type, entitled " The Isle of

Paradise ", dealing with the life and habits
of the natives of Baki in the Dutch Indies
is announced. (The Film Daily, New
York, 24-V-1932).

A film representing travels in the South
Seas, entitled " Hawai, the Paradise of the
seas " has been shown in the Planetarium in
Berlin. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 3-VI-1932).

The Pan-Russian Society for cultural
relations with abroad intends, it is an-
nounced, to organize a travelling exhibition
giving cinematographic visions from real
life of Russia. The travelling exhibition
is to visit Western countries, and will make
a considerable stay in Paris. (Film Kur-
ier, Berlin, 17-VI-1932).

Mr Martin Reepel and Dr Murawski of
Stettin have made in collaboration with
the geologist Dr von Biilow and on behalf
of the Provincial Administration of Pome-
rania a film " Das Land am Meer ", a film
which shows in three parts the natural beauty,
the history, the folk-lore traditions the
agricultural and forestal activity and the
industries of Pomerania. (Das Land, Ber-
lin, No. 6 of June 1932).

The Mejrabpomfilm has taken pictures
of the visit of the delegates of the S. 0. I.
(International Labour Relief) of the Soviet
Republic. The pictures of the Calmucchi
country are particularly interesting inclu-
ding the capital Elisca, the Buddhist temples,
the Artem mines, where the delegates de-
scended to a depth of 51 1 metres, and views
of the Dnieper. The film should have
had sound added. (Les NOUVELLES So-
vietiques, Moscow, No. I, 1932).

The cinematographic expedition which
made the sound film " Four of the P. C.
issued by the Mejrabpomfilm has returned
to Moscow. The expedition worked in
the Ucraine under the management of scenic
director Borodko and scenario writer Held-
stein. During the making of the film, the

-567-

expedition lived for some time with de-
tachments of the Red Army, and an in-
teresting film of a documentary character
on military life in Soviet Russia has resulted.
An original contract was drawn up between
the learders of the expedition and the con-
mander of the division. According to the
terms of this accord, the cinematographists
undertook to keep the soldiers informed as
to the progress of the film, and to exhibit
it to them for their approval. The soldiers,
on their part, undertook to give the direc-
tors, operators and artists of the company
information and advice on military scenes,
and to invite discussion on the part
of the soldiers themselves as to the merits
of the film, " Four of the P. C. ", before
releasing to the public. (Les NouVELLES
SoviETlQUES, Moscow, No. I of 1932).

Political film.

There is at present being shown in the
Moscow cinemas a sound film by Soiuskino
entitled " Mountains of Gold ", which is
considered one of the masterpieces of the
Soviet production. The film has a political-
sociological background, and contrasts the
mentality of a peasant who came to the city
in 1914 and the revolutionary mentality of
the city populations. Conquered bit by
this spirit, the peasant becomes a partisan
worker of the new doctrine. (Les Nou-
VELLES SoviETlQUES, Moscow, No. 1, 1932).

The Mejrabpomfilm is preparing a new
film with a political background entitled
Horizons containing real life pictures of
the port and city of Odessa.

Le TEMPS of Paris of May 5, 1932 demands
a film policy from the government in order
to avoid the influence of bad films on the
native populations and also to prevent pro-
paganda by film on the part of other states.

In a polemical article Mr. S. K. Lewis
sets out his ideas on the way in which the
cinema could help world peace. (To-
day's Cinema, London, 3-VI-1932).

Interesting article setting forth the reas-
ons for which certain films cannot be con-
sidered suitable for the colonies. (The
{Cinematograph Weekly, London, 19-VI-
1932).

Religious Film.

Three films of a religious character are
announced for early production, namely,
" The Miracle ", " The Sign of the Cross ",
and " The Ten Commandments ". (The
Universe, London, 13-V-1932).

Cultural Film.

Die Korrespondenz of Berlin of May 1,
1932 publishes an article on the interest
which the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ought
to develop in cinematography, especially
in connection with the political-cultural
influence of the German film abroad.

The " Evangelische Bildkammer " of Ber-
lin invites cinema proprietors to keep one
fixed day a week for educational and instruc-
tive films. It suggests Monday, as the cin-
emas are usually less frequented on that
day, and, as a consequence, the exhibitors
run less risk of financial loss. The custom-
ary cinema public would keep the other
days for its visits, and the commercial suc-
cess of the Monday cultural gatherings
would be assured by the propaganda which
the evangelical organizations would make
in their favour. (Die Film Korrespondenz,
Berlin, ll-V-1932).

In an editorial entitled " Un devoir social :
aider les Educateurs ", Monsieur P. A.
Harle insists on the necessity of offering
teachers films that are easy to handle such
as a uniform type of film to be exchanged
between schools. Projections should also
be able to be given in a half light. The
cinema ought to have its own place in teach-
ing and not be considered an accessory to
scholastic education. Film producers should
take this matter resolutely in hand, thereby

-568

fulfilling a social duty. (La ClNEMATO-
TOGRAPHIE FranCAISE, Paris, 14-V-1932).

The Berlin Central Institute for Teaching
and Education (Zentralinstitut fur Erziehung
lm Unterncht) is organizing for the month
of June as part of its ordinary pedagogic
meetings a series of conferences on education-
al cinematography, cinema teaching and the
artistic film. Debate will be invited. Am-
ong the subjects of the conference, there
will be : The value of present day films
from point of view of national education ;
the importance of the cinema in national
education, the cinema operetta as a new art
form, etc. The Institute has also in mind
to establish a special course for the utiliz-
ation of the cinema in the elementary
schools. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 18-V-1932).

The forthcoming publication of the re-
port of the British commission for the teach-
ing and educational film (Commission on
Educational and Cultural Film) is announced.
The report, which is the result of two and a
half years of studies and inquiries, will
insist on the necessity of the film in national
life and the urgency of creating in England
a national film institute similar to those
already existing in other countries. (EDUC-
ATION, London, 3-VI-1932).

ClNOEDlA (Paris, 4-VI-1932) announces
the invention, thanks to the film and to a
new system of registering sound on films,
of the sound book- The possibility of an
infinite series of applications of this new
invention is at once suggested, such as the
instantaneous registration of conferences,
lessons, reports of meetings, readings of
classical and modern authors. The system
should offer great possibilities of education
and entertainment for the blind.

Scientific film.

The University of Chicago has commenced
to produce on its own account scientific
talking films. The production, which is

intended for purely scholastic purposes,
will shortly be extended to cover all branches
of education. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 17-V-
1932).

Dr. J. L. Faure gave a lecture to the Paris
Academy of Medicine on May 17 last on
the various methods of operating cancer of
the uterus. An interesting film showing
a completely successful operation was given
at the end of the conference. (La Presse
Medicale, Paris, 25-V-1932).

The Egyptian government, which is al-
ways alive to the possibilities of the cinema,
has equipped a travelling cinema with the
object of spreading in the farthest off regions
of the country the elementary principles of
hygiene and preventive medicine. (KlNE-
matograph, Berlin, 27-V-1932).

Didactic Film.

Among recent outstanding articles deal-
ing with the educational cinema the follow-
ing are worthy of note : " Englische Lehr-
und Kulturfilmschau in Basel " by Herr
Imhof ; " Der Film in der Schule als Quelle
psychologischer Beobachtung der Kinder-
natur " by Herr Otto Miltz, published in
Der BlLDWART of Berlin, No. 3 of March-
April, 1 932 ; " Das moderne Lichtbild-
zimmer " in which Adolf Scade of Prague
describes in detail the technical and econ-
omic conditions desirable for a school-
room fitted for film projections. The ar-
ticle is published in the Prague BlLDlENST
No. 4 of April 1932. Other articles are
" Cinema et Pedagogie " by Jules Casadesus,
published in La Volonte of Paris, of April 8,
1932 and " Le film sonore d'enseignement •
by Ronald Guerard, published in C.INEMA
of Paris, in the May number of this year.

The new occupant of the Chair of Prospect-
ive at the Paris School of Fine Arts intends
to utilize the cinema as a complementary
method of teaching. (L'Echo DE Paris, Pa-
ris, 6-V-1932).

— 569 —

The Congress of the Welsh Federation
of Board School Teachers, recognizing the
great scholastic value of the cinema, has
proposed that accords should be entered
into with the managements of picture palaces
for the organization during study hours of
projections made in connection with the
scholastic programmes.

Artistic film.

The Fono-Roma is preparing a sound
film short on the symphony " The Pines
of Rome " by composer Ottorino Respighi.
The photographic part ought, according
to the instructions of the maestro, to be
merely a comment on the music. (Scenario,
Rome, No. 2, of March 1932).

Revenue tax on Cinemas.

In Belgium the tax on cinemas has been
increased by 10%. (The Film Daily,
New York, l-V-1932).

The Chancellor of the Exchequer informed
the House of Commons that it was not
possible to diminish in any way the amuse-
ment tax. (To-day's Cinema, London, 13-V-
1932).

In Hungary a recent decree has notably
modified the regulations in favour of a
national cinema production, creating a fund
the source of which is to be found in a
subsidiary tax. From today, there is a
tax of 20 gold centimes on each metre of
sound or silent film controlled by the cen-
sorship. This, if the sub-titles are in Hun-
garian ; if not, the tax is increased to 30 gold
centimes. Moreover, for every foreign film,
request must be made to the management
of the National Cinema Fund for a quota
certificate which will be granted upon pay-
ment of 100 gold pen go for films of from 200
to 400 metres, of 400 pengos for films of
from 400 to 800 metres, and of 1000 pengos
for films over 1200 metres in length. The
censorship certificate of permission to exhibit

will not be granted except upon payment of
the foregoing taxes. An exception is made
in the case of educational and news-reel
films. The revenues deriving from the
fund may be used for the creation of prizes
to be distributed among Hungarian film
producers according to economic possibil-
ities and by the mutual decisions of the min-
istries of Commerce and the Interior.
(Licht-Bild-Buhne, Berlin, 17-V-1932).

Brazil has reduced by 50% the customs
duty on films. As a result the tariff applied
from May I is as follows : 54.446 paper mil-
reis for every kilogram of film positive of
35 mm size ; 27,223 paper milreis for every
kilogram of positive film reduced size (9 and
16 mm) ; 5,644 paper milreis for each kilo-
gram of unexposed film. (KlNEMATOGRAPH,
Berlin, 25-V-1932).

Censorship.

At the assembly of the National Directory
of Free Evangelical Churches, held at
Blackpool, Dr. Benjamin Gregory made
a speech in which he recognized the great
value of the cinema as a means of propaganda,
at the same time criticizing the present day
production and insisting on the need of
creating a new censorship organ of a na-
tional character. (Manchester Guardian,
Manchester, 8-IV-1932).

The Annual Congress of the National
Federation of Women s Institutes recently
held in London examined the moral level of
modern cinematographic production and
approved a motion that the censorship should
be stricter. (The Times, London, 1 l-V-
1932).

More than 7000 questionnaires were
distributed at Edinburgh among parents,
teachers and children in order to obtain
opinions on the influence of the cinema on
the young. The object of the inquiry, as
well as that of similar inquiries being held
in various parts of England is to urge the

570

government to put a stricter censorship
into force. (To-DAYS ClNEMA, London,
17-V-1932).

At the congress of the Cinematograph
Exhibitors Association, Mr Hame Welsh,
vice-President of the association stated that
the censorship as carried out in England to-
day can only bring the industry to ruin. In
his opinion, the only competent judges of
morality are the parents, who know what
films their children ought or ought not to
see. (The Daily Telegraph, London,
3-VI-1932).

In the course of an address given at the
Diocesan Conference in London, Mr Edward
Short, president of the cinema censorship,
after having rebutted the accusation of
venality made in the House of Commons
against the censorship, declared that 18 per
cent of the films examined by the control
office undergo cuts or modifications. (To-
day's Cinema, London, 7-VI-1932).

The new Prussian law on the cinema cen-
sorship requires amateur films to obtain
the censors' approval. This is also the case
when it is only intended to show such films
in private clubs or halls belonging to private
associations. Herr Hellmuth Lange of the
League of amateur German cinematograph-
ists publishes an article to show the obstacles
to cinema development created by this law.
(Die Photographische Industrie, Berlin,
No. 13, 1932).

Statistics.

The Czecho-Slovakia cinematographic
production is increasing in a remarkable
fashion. From the two or three sound films
produced in 1930, the production has now
(1931) reached 18 sound films. (The Film
Daily, New York, 24-IV-1932).

In 1931 there were produced in Europe
570 Ions; films representing a total value of
30,147,000 dollais. (The Film Daily, New
York, 6-V-1932).

In the course of an address given to the
Picture Club Forum of New York, Mr. AL
Lichtmann stated that during the last few
years cinemas had suffered a cut of about 40,
per cent in their takings. (The Film Daily,
New York, 6-V-1932).

A communique from the United States
Department of Commerce points out that
in 1931 the export of American films into
Europe underwent a notable diminution.
Nevertheless, 28% of the films shown in
Germany and 48% of the films shown in
France in 1931 came from the United States.
(Motion Picture Daily, New York, 10-V-
1932).

About 22% of the films shown in Polish
cinemas are produced nationally. (The
Cinema, London, 25-V-1932).

Industrial film.

The review Securitas of Milan of March
31 publishes a report on the activity of the
A.N. P. I. (Associazione Nazionale Preven-
zione Infortuni) in 1930. Frequent men-
tion is made in the report of the assistance
rendered by the cinema in preventing ac-
cidents. The A.N.P.I. has secured the
production, through the National Cinema
Institute (L.U.C.E.) of a series of films on
the principal precautions to be taken in-
order to avoid the commonest accidents.

The manager of the French foundries of
Foug is taking a personal interest in the
propaganda for the prevention of accidents
in his establishments. He publishes a
monthly bulletin which deals with the
frequency of accidents and the means adopt-
ed for avoiding them. The bulletin stresses
the importance of the cinema as a means of
propaganda. The last bulletin announces
the forthcoming projection of the film
" Why ? " the object of which is to prevent
accidents. (Revue DE l'Union DES INDUS-
TRIES Metallurgiques et Minieres, Paris,
No. 142 of April).

-571

During the meeting held on April 22nd
last in Paris by the National Committee for
the French Industrial Organization, M. Bloch
engineer in chief of the Railways exhibited
two new films for the instruction of the rail-
way staff attached to repairs. The film
showed the workings of the service. (L'U-
sine, Paris, 6-V-1932).

The New Era has in hand a series of
films on British industry. The first film
will deal with the development of wireless
telegraphy. (To-day's ClNEMA, London,
17-V-1932).

The Wardour Company has issued a film
" England Awake ! " illustrating the origins,
development and success of the major
British industries, as well as the activity of
pioneers in the commercial and scientific
fields. (The Cinema, London, 18-V-1932).

Techique.

Mr Charles M. Stitt of San Francisco
has successfully experimented a new lens
called the brain lens. Applied to a cinema
apparatus, it yields excellent stereoscopic
effects. (The New York Herald, Paris,
6-V-1932).

On the occasion of the meeting of the Pho-
tographic Section of the Academy of Artistic
and Scientific Cinematography (Academy
Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) an exhi-
bition was held in the Paramount studios at
Hollywood of the latest sound film camera
models. (MOTION PICTURE DAILY, New
York, 13-V-1932).

The Austrian government has granted a
subvention of 200,000 shillings to the Sele-
nophon Company of sound film makers for
experiments to be made with films having
a paper support. (Kinematograph, Ber-
lin, 28-V-1932).

Cinematograph technique has been en-
riched by a new and notable improvement
for photographing with the invisible heat

rays. It is now possible to take a film from
an airplane flying at a height of 500 metres.
(Kinematograph, Berlin, 28-V-1932).

Dr Robert Mond has invented a new
type of apparatus permitting photographs
of the stars at a certain distance. (The
Daily Telegraph, 30-V-1932).

The first exhibition of telecinematography
took place in London on June 1 , at the Me-
tropole. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 3-VI-1932).

The French Photographic Society has
inaugurated a television section with the
object of studying the manufacture of prac-
tical telecinematograph apparatus. (FlLM
Kurier, Berlin, 7-VI-1932).

Labour.

The Dominion Education Film Associa-
tion has been formed at Toronto Canada, for
propaganda in favour of visual teaching.
(Motion Pictures, Washington, 13-IV-
1932).

The SoiUSKINO which has the monopoly
in Russia for the production and distribution
of films has been reorganized as the result
of a decree issued by the Soviets. From
now on the entire Russian film production
will be grouped under the following mo-
nopolies : Russfilm, Bellfilm, Ukrainfilm,
Vostokfilm, etc. Monopolies have also
been formed for the photo-mechanical and
photo-chemical industries and also for the
preparation of technical films. It is calcul-
ated that about 160 technical films will be
produced in Russia in 1932. (FlLM Ku-
RIER, Berlin, 28-V-1932).

Spain is getting ready to compete in the
international film market. The founding
of a big Spanish producing firm to be called
' Ecessa " is being arranged at present.
The firm in question will attempt to supply

- 572

a large portion of the requirements of the
home market.

The British United Film Producers Ltd.
formed to advance the sale of British-made
films in the colonies, has sent 270,000 feet
of film to British India and Ceylon. (Th3
ClNEMA, London, No. 1, June 1932).

Syndical Problems of the film.

The Berlin Chamber of Commerce has
decided in connection with concessionary
rights of films forbidden by the censorship
that in the case of the censorship prohibit-
ing a film the exhibitor is not obliged to
pay the fee for the right to show. More-
over, the exhibitor can demand the return
of any money he may have paid in advance
to obtain the concession of exhibition on
condition that the film has been definitely
barred by the censors without the exhibitor
having in any way provoked the prohibition.
This latter condition was inserted because
a case arose when exhibitors, dissatisfied
with their bargain, brought about of their
own initiative the barring of the film they
had acquired. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 1 1-V
1932).

An agreement regulating the relations
between authors of cinema scenarios and
film producers was concluded on May 1
last in Hollywood. (INFORMATION FROM
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and
Sciences, Hollywood, 26-V-1932).

Unemployment and the film.

While the cinemas of New York have
decided to offer gratuitously an afternoon
show to the unemployed ( Variety, New
Yor 3- IV- 1932) it was also decided to set
apart for the unemployed the profits on the
first performance of the film " State's At-
torney " of the R. K. 0. Radio Pictures.
(The New York Times, New York, 5-V-
1932).

Film critics.

Walter Boje of Berlin in an article on cine-
matographic critics, deplores the arid, super-
ficial and often foolish criticism of cul-
tural films made by journalists, who, with
limited notions of cinema technique, and
little or no musical culture, believe them-
selves authorized to judge a cultural film
without concerning themselves with its spir-
it or content, and without pointing out the
gross mistakes of ethnological, zoological
and other kinds often to be remarked. Ac-
cording to the writer, criticisms of this type
are useless for the cinema industry, and are
indeed harmful to the popularisation of
cinema culture. (Der BlLDWART, No. 3
of March and April, 1932).

In an article on the Italian film, Nicola De
Pirro, recalling that the intervention of the
State effected with the creation of the NaN
ional L.U.C.E. Institute the production and
diffusion of cultural films, is of opinion that
it is advisable to direct the Italian film to-
wards better forms of art, culture and
science. He suggests that the constitution
of the National Technical Committee of the
Cinema might prove to be a step in this
direction. (Scenario, Rome, No. 3, of
April).

During the Vlth World Congress of the
International League for the New Education,
which will be held at Nice from July 29 to
August 1 1 , an international and a French
cinema exhibition will be held. (Pour
l'Ere NOUVELLE, Paris, No. 77, of April-
May, 1932).

Under the leadership of Dr Schultz of
Berlin, a new cinematographic expedition
organized by the U.F.A. has left for Norway,
Sweden and Finland. (OESTER Film Zei-
TUNG, Vienna, 15-V-1932).

Under the auspices of the Scottish Educ-
ational Cinema Society, an exhibition of
projection machines and scholastic films
will be held at Glasgow on July 11 and 12.

573 —

(The Scottish Educational Journal, Glas-
gow, 27-V-1932).

The Superior Council of the Academy
of Fine Arts in London has conferred a
gold medal on the Nero-Film Co. for its
picture, " Kamaradschaft by G. W. Pabst,
considered to be the best film produced
in the world during 1931. (KlNEMATO-
GRAPH, Berlin, 28-V-1932).

The Film Kurier (Berlin, 28-V-1932
publishes the replies of the cinema organiz-
ations of Czecko-Slovakia, Denmark, Eng-
land, Yugoslavia, Holland, Sweden, Switzer-
land and Hungary to a questionnaire on the
present state of the sound film in Europe.

Sir Charles Grant Robertson has been
nominated president of the National Cinema
Inquiry Committee, the formation of which
was decided upon at the Cinema Conference
held last April at the Birmingham univers-
ity. (The Daily Telegraph, London,
4-VI-1932).

Le Film of Antwerp of June 5 describes
a visit made to the cultural section of the
U.F.A. studios at Neubabelsberg. A large
number of animals used in the making of
films are kept there and looked after, so
as to be always ready for a film.

A photographic and cinematographic ex-
hibition will open shortly in Berlin illustrat-
ing the beginnings and development of
photo-cinematography in Germany. More
than 200 historical films will be shown,
fragments of negatives, 200 film manu-
scripts, and so on. During the exhibition,
conferences will be held, particularly by Dr.
Gottheimer on the most recent films taken
with Rontgen rays, and by Major von Lin-
singen on the film made to illustrate the cen-
tral government archives. (Film Kurier,
Berlin, 18-VI-1932).

M. Lebrun, the new President of the
French Republic, is a convinced partisan
of teaching by the film. Nothwithstanding
his new high office, he will remain president
of the Officie regional du Cinema educateur
of Nancy. (Le ClNEOPSE, Paris, June, 1932).

Hollywood possesses a most interesting
library where are preserved architectonic
models of palaces, temples and entire cinema
cities with copies in plaster of the columns,
capitals, friezes, together with copies of
the masterpieces and most characteristic
works of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese
and Renaissance architecture. The volumes
of this library often consist of enormous
architectonic models 30 feet high and cor-
respondingly broad. (Eco DEL ClNEMA,
Florence, No. 103, June 1932).

574 —

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Bibliography

Du Choix d'un mdtier, by H. GAILLARD and A. Lo-
MONT, with a preface by E. Labbe, Director
General of Technical Teaching. 1 Vol. 380 pp.,
60 illustrations Published by " L' Information
Professionnelle ", Paris.

This work, written by two prominent experts
in the field of career-choosing appears under the
dictum of Pascal, " La chose la plus importante
de la vie, est le choix d'un metier ". Monsieur
Labbe adds in his preface that to find oneself in
one s right place is a guarantee of effective work,
for the individual can thus realize his destiny and
can give life to a well-ordered society capable of
sure progress.

Career-chosing is the subject of more or less
theoretical inquiries. The advice offered us by
Messrs GAILLARD and LoMONT in their book is
the result especially of their experience in the man-
agement of the professional schools of the Paris,
Chamber of Commerce. This can be deduced
from the book's sub-title " professional career-
choosing according to the experimental method of
the professional schools ".

It may be said that every chapter of this volume
offers material for several conferences and articles
suitable either for the big public or or for experts
who exercise a useful influence on the authorities,
or indeed for everyone interested in the problems
of work. The first chapter particularly (" The
Crisis in Apprenticeship ") is of first rate import-
ance. It deserves to be read attentively by all
educationalists who would certainly find in it the
best possible arguments for convincing parents and
children of the nobility of every craft that is prac-
tised with a sense of its usefulness. The chapter
contains a series of considerations full of good sense,
notable moral elevation and high social value where-
in the authors endeavour to destroy the common
prejudices against the handicrafts and manual
labour.

One might, in connection with this, paraphrase
an old saying, namely that there is not a trade or
craft which is not admirable, but only persons who
are not admirable.

The successive chapters develop fully and clearly
various essential points such as the practical organ-

ination of choosing careers, propaganda, the work
of the schools, professional associations, the exper-
imental method suggested by the authors them-
selves, teaching in professional schools, and the work-
ing of the Paris Chamber of Commerce. Nor
should we forget to mention the part taken by the
cinema in the installation of these professional
schools. Our readers, in any case, know the name
of Monsieur Lomont as a collaborator to this re-
view and a fervent supporter of the educational
and instructional cinema.

Messrs Lomont and Gaillard's book is completed
by some thirty radio-telephonic propaganda con-
versations on various trades and crafts composed
by specialists and published as examples.

In conclusion, we may say that this book, which
is easy to read and pleasant, should be in the hands
of all those interested in educational questions, and
should enjoy a wide circulation, not only because
it is within everybody's reach but is necessary to
everybody.

PAUL Rotha, " The Film Till Now " London, Jon-
athan Cape Ltd., (1st Edn, 1930, reprinted,
1931. pp. 362. With numerous illustrations).

Paul Rotha, " Celluloid " The Film To-day. Lon-
don, Longmans Green, 1931, pp. 25. illustrated.

The volume " The Film To-day by Rotha is one
of the most interesting books written on the cinema
during the last few years. The author reviews
the pick of film production among the great nations,
including Soviet Russia and Japan. He illustrates
the possibilities and objects of the cinema, and dis-
agrees with the idea that it is necessary always and
at any cost to introduce dramatic features into
scenarios, giving to every film a character that must
be either dramatic, comic, sentimental, etc. The
volume " Celluloid " by the same author traces the
course of events in the film world since the revolu-
tion of the sound film took place. He analyses the
well defined and outstanding tendencies evident in
the modern cinema as they can be studied in the
most important films of the day.

The author's idea is to induce a fresh movement
into in the cinema, which since the profound changes

6 — Ice ingl.

576

wrought in it by the introduction of sound, has
fallen into a state of apathy. The silent film haa
reached, if not perfection, at any rate, a certain artis-
tic level, and compelled a general interest of such
quality, that it was possible to consider the conquest
of the cinema as already made. The introduction
of the sound principle upset the situation, and we
are faced with a new technique and a different con-
ception of the subject, in fact with a new kind of
spectacle altogether. The two volumes under re-
view examine the whole question from various
points of view. The present static condition of the
cinema may mean a retrograde movement, for there
exists a danger of the public losing its interest therein,
and there is a still greater danger that the screen
(expressive form of art absolutely different from all
others) may become nothing different or better
than a copy of the dramatic theatre, the opera or
the cafe concert.

The principal causes of the present standstill in
the cinema are according to the author, to be looked
for in the lack of originality and a guiding policy
in handling productions, in the paucity of fresh ele-
ments, in insisting on the usual sensual appeal and
in failing to understand that the cinema is a new form
of art requiring a construction and form of its own.

Other causes have contributed to the cinemato-
graphic depression. The Americans believed it
necessary to give the public the illusion of a better
life in order to distract it from the anxieties of our
daily existence. As a consequence, we had luxur-
ious settings, a predominating sense of wealth and
happiness. But the basic level of the film has
not been raised in proportion.

Rotha's remarks are sensible where they refer to
the existence of a radical question in the cinema
field. What is the type of film preferred by the
people in general? Is it true or not that the Ameri-
can belief that the great mass of spectators wishes,
even as a form of repose, to see something different
from the surroundings in which its daily existence
is passed for the reason that only so is it possible
to find distraction and to dream ?

The world is always anxious to dream something
better.

Another question discussed by Rotha is the col-
oured film, and here we find his conclusions just
and reasonable : namely that the public is begin-
ning to get tired of such films. We would add to
this : specially if something artificial and not corres-
ponding to verity is what we are always to see. Ro-
tha's report on the Soviet production is full of inter-
est. We must admit its absolute originality and
novel technique.

Noteworthy are the pages dealing with an exam-
ination of the relations existing in picture palaces,
or that are in one way or another determined be-
tween spectator and film, the influence of the latter
on the former, the adaptation of the former to the
latter, and the possibilities of a vast plan of pop-
ular cinema education.

Rotha s considerations on the new conception of
the film have notable value. We are fully in agree-
ment with the author's ideas here. The sound
film should be considered as an entirely new form
of art and spectacle. For this to happen, it will
be necessary to create a new school of writers who
feel and understand all the possibilities of the screen
and the new sound technique. The old tradition of
re-shaping and adapting theatrical works to the
cinema must be abandoned. The infinite possibil-
ities offered by life and nature to the screen must
be duly understood. The old prejudice for having
a sentimental, erotic, passionate or sensual plot must
be put on one side if we are to have an art cinema and
and not only a commercial cinema.

The life around us, the difficult social problems of
the day, the possibility of translating thoughts and
ideals into screen language help to persuade us that
the cinema has a magnificent future. This is, pro-
vided it abandons its present fashion of merely
copying the theatre and turns towards new forms
which will give it a quite different place in the
show business.

We have referred to this matter on previous occa-
sions. It is not difficult to understand how the
big American, German, French or Italian mov-
ing picture producers, when the sound film came into
existence and put in jeopardy enormous industrial
and capitalist interest prefered to make their experi-
ments in the new method by following what had
hitherto pleased the public in other departments of
the show business. Thus we soon had the cine-
operetta, and the theatrical piece transposed for the
film. Yet this was not the sound film. Now that
the public is beginning to grow tired of this trans-
posing of the stage to the screen, (and we are in
complete agreement with Rotha here) the big indus-
trial organizations must perceive the task that de-
volves on them : namely to give a new form and struc-
ture to cinematographic production.

The present period of economic deflation renders
such a move all the more necessary, for at the pre-
sent time the logical necessities of selection in the
matter of amusements on the part of the public
render its patronage more difficult to secure.

The two volumes under review are of the greatest
interest. We hope to refer to them again, bring-

577 -

ing out certain specific points touched upon and dis-
agreeing with others. The present crisis, which is
perhaps more spiritual than economic, has had grave
repercussions on the destiny of the cinema.

DlCK Grace. / am Still Alive! With introduction
by William Wellmann, Producer of Wings
and Young Eagles New York, San Francisco,
Chicago, (Rand MacNally, 1931) 255 pp. whit
illustrations.

The cinema in the course of its technical-artistic
development has need of all the means which human
science places at our disposal. Recently a series
of films on aviation and the daring acrobatic perfor-
mance of our pilots has amazed the film public.
Tricks or reality? Or rather, how much of them
tricks and how much genuine ? This is the question
film fans have asked themselves when admiring
pictures showing the marvels of flying, the immense
possibilities of the heavier than air machines, and
the daring of pilots, whose audacity is only equalled
by the technical advances realized in their machines.

Dick Grace is both a magificent aviator and a be-
loved star in the film firmament. We remember
him in the films, " Wings " and " Young Eagles "
which made us hold our breath and suggested the
question : is this trickery or reality?

Now we have Dick Grace as a writer, and a most
original and interesting writer too. The handsome
volume before us explains his technique, shows us
the system used by Grace in flying his planes at
high speed and launching them earthwards so as to
allow the operator to make authentic pictures of
fantastic aviation scenes.

Dick Grace, with that calm which is characteristic
of the Anglo-Saxons, seeks to disabuse the reader of
any admiration for the daring of his deeds. There
is nothing heroic about it ; everything is calculated
with extreme care ; all is meticulously pre-arranged.
It is merely a question of solving once and for all a
difficulty which requires great readiness of mind
and steady nerves for successful handling.

Mr. Grace tells us in his book the reasons which
Jed him, after his experiences as flight captain dur-
ing the war, to take up the strange and highly in-
teresting sport of cinematographic aviation, and
brought him to the point of being able to give the
exact real sensation to the beholder of seeing an
aeroplane crashing to the ground or about to smash
against a wall.

To obtain his successful results, Mr. Grace had
to undergo a lengthy physical training and under-
took a patient study, based on mathematical formu-

lae, of just what movements and manoeuvres it
was necessary to make in order to obtain the desired
end, at the same time saving one's skin and when
possible also the machine.

The part of the book in which Mr. Grace speaks
of his experiments with an automobile launched at
high speed against a wall or other obstacle to give
the impression of a motor disaster is most interesting
Here again, it is all a question of a mathematical
calculation, interesting to airmen, motorists or cin-
ema operators.

The book, which ought to enjoy a large circula-
tion for its valuable lessons, contains numerous
graphs, wherein the new theory developed by Grace
for the film both theoretically and practically is
carefully explained.

Mr. Grace's volume belongs to that series of pub-
lications now being issued in many countries for
the purpose of spreading a knowledge among the
general public of the infinite resources of the cinema.
The book is well presented, the photography hand-
some, the text attractive.

Francis M. Kelly and Randolph Schwabe, Hi-
storic Cosiume. A Chronicle of Fashion in Western
Europe 1490-1790. 2nd edition. London, B. T.
Batsford, 1929. 305 pp., with many illustrations,
some in colours.

When it is desired to make a practical reconstruc-
tion of some historical event, an infinite number of
small questions of detail present themselves. The
ordinary costume book is as a rule insufficient
so §ettle such difficulties as may arise. For this
reason the authors have prepared for us this guide
to past fashions for the use of artists, actors and cin-
ema producers. The book is based upon docu-
ments both pictorial and literary of the periods
treated.

The volume accurately traces the evolution
of fashion from the late fifteenth century to the
French revolution, describing the changes and de-
velopments especially as they occurred in France,
and in England, with some references to Italian,
Flemish and German fashions. The country origi-
natnig any special fashion is given, and the partic-
ulars are explained.

The book contains the following chapters : The
Italian tendency (1480-1510; puffed sleeves and
breeches with insertion work; Germani nfluence
(1510-1545); Spanish ruches (1545-1620); long
hair, lace and leather (1620-1655); Effects of the
Grand Regne (1655-1715); panniers, powder and
"queues" (1715-1790).

578

Richly illustrated with historical drawings and
vignettes to show details, the volume contains
several models of typical costumes of the sixteenth,
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. A chrono-
logical table of principal fashions opens the book.

C. A. Lejeune, Cinema. London, 1931, (Alexander
Maclehose) 255 pp.

A long shot of the artifices of the cinema and the
individual aspects of the new art, a book written to
arouse interest in them, to place them in contrast by
comparing them. The author has been a cinema
critic for some ten years. His book throws a light
on the great names in the film world and on the
exponents of the various tendencies from the early
days to the present time. Producers, scene directors,
actors, technicians all come under his review.

The author is an optimist. He states that if
the cinema in its thirty years of existence has pro-
duced a Chaplin and directors like those of the
Soviet cinema — the opposite poles of individua-
lism and collectivism — if it has produced the slap
stick, the impersonal work of Flaherty and Schoed-
sack, the abstract experimentalists and the specia-
lized operators of the news-reels, as well as outstand-
ing masters like Clair and Griffith, Pomer, Lubitsch
and Pabst, it is clear that the cinema has great
vitality and a definite place in the history of art.

The volume is divided into three parts : a detailed
study of the most important American names,
the outstanding Europeans and a miscellany deal-
ing with films that have no hero — that is pieces of
the slapstick type. The latter also deals with the
task and importance of the operator in modern
cinematography, the experimental film, the news-
reel and travelogues dealing with the agriculture
and industries of various countries. The author
hopes that cities may become movie stars, and con-
cludes with a chapter, which he calls an " extra ",
dealing with films showing a life in which the earth
is the principal character.

Harvey C. Lehman and Paul A. Witty, The
Psychology of Play Activities. New York, 1927,
(A. S. Barnes & C°) 242 pp.

After examining the changes that have taken place
in the human attitude towards play and amuse-
ment generally in the course of history, and after
considering some of the best known theories ex-
plaining the causes and origins of the same (Schil-
ler, Spencer.'Groos, Patrick, etc), together with their
methods, the author passes on to examine the
various tendencies and preferences of children,

according to their age, sex, and social station. The
play instinct as it effects both white and black
races together with the effects due to the seasons
come under review. The closing chapters of the
book deal with such subjects as " the school and
entertainment ", " play and intelligence ", " play
in relation to professional advancement ". On
page 228 we find a brief note on the great attraction
exercised on students by the film and the possib-
ility of using the cinema in schools.

Hans RlCHTER, Filmgegner von heute — Filmfreude
von morgen. Berlin, 1929 (Hermann Recken-
dorf)- 125 pp. Numerous illustrations. (Today
the enemy, tomorrow the friend of the cinema).

The volume under review is rich in ideas and pro-
posals for the realization of a new kind of film that
is to be more serious and better suited to an intel-
ligent and artistic public. According to the author,
the film of today has many enemies, but it can never
have enough, for the enemy of the film has a mis-
sion in life, which is to combat the bad film and to
organize protests against it. We should not heed
those persons who say that the film must be bad,
because the public wants it so. We ourselves
are the public. Do we desire the films which are
shown today ?

Nor is it to be believed that better films cannot
be made. The author's appeal is made not only
to the public, he also addresses the producer and
film dirctor who ought to have a sense of respon-
sibility and take part in the fight against bad films.
The enemies of the film of today must become the
friends of the film of tomorrow. They should
study the means for bettering it, they should love
it to-morrow as a perfect art when it reaches its
true purpose, that, namely, of reproducing nature,
of offering the truth without falsities or tawdry
embellishments.

There are numerous explanatory illustrations,
placing in contract scenes in bad taste with more
original pictures or pictures with a greater sense
of life and reality. The whole volume is clear and
readable.

Harry Reitenbach. Phanton Fame. The Anatomy
of Ballyhoo. New York, 1931. Simon & Schuster.
258 pp.

This is a posthumous work, a lively and inter-
esting composition, the autobiography of a great
American publicity agent. It is the only fortune
he has left as a witness to his colourful life and his

- 579-

amazing quickness of thought and action. The
book takes us behind the scenes of American ad-
vertising and publicity. We see the first steps of
Zukor, Lasky, Goldwin, and Mayer on the path to
fame and glory. We follow the careers of Douglas
Fairbanks and Gloria Swanson from their beginnings.
Reitenbach's story is an example of the new and
imaginative methods invented by American indus-
try to launch its products and sell them through-
out the world. The preface is by Walter Winchell,
and David Freedman, who collaborated with Rei-
tenbach, has edited the book and written a final
chapter.

DyK RUDENSKI, Gestologie und Filmspielerei. (The
art of gesture and the cinema. Studies on the phy-
siology and psychology of expression). With pre-
face by Franz Blei and conclusion by H. Seng
Four full page illustrations. Berlin, 1927. Ho-
boken-Presse. 69 pp.

A short treatise on the possiblity of teaching
and the necessity of practical study of the art of
gesture. Useful advice for those anxious to enter
the cinema career. The fourth chapter, which
contains a detailed scheme of a course of preparation
for cinematographic actors, is of especial interest
for directors or those thinking of starting a school
for cinema instruction.

Rudolph Kurtz. Expressionismus und Film. With
73 illustrations and 4 full page coloured drawings.
Berlin, 1926, Lichtbildbuhne, 135 pp.

After reviewing the various manifestations of
Expressionism in art, literature, sculpture, paint-
ing architecture, music, etc — music chapter by
Walter Harburger — the author discusses the pos-
sibility of applying expressionism to the theatre.
He comes to the conclusion that if, as a convention
expressionism is out of date, and therefore an entire-
ly expressionistic film cannot well be made, it
would be advisable to use it in the cinema for those
films of a psychological nature that are with difficulty
reproduced naturally, as for instance, certain states
of mind created by a landscape which ordinary
photography cannot give. According to the author,
excellent effects can be obtained with expression-
ism which can usefully be employed in film work
to give effects of novelty and greater vitality.

The author discusses the architecture, tech-
nique, actual photographing, and illumination re-
quired in the production of expressionistic films.
He also examines some of the most important films
(such as Calagaris, etc) and dedicates several chap-
ters to stage and film directors who employed this
convention (Viking, Eggeling, Hans Richter, Wal-
ter Ruttmann, Fernand Leger, Francis Picabia),
He treats also of the style of these artists in their
scenic directions and manuscripts and in con-
nection with the actors and decorators.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Roma — « (-"Universale » Tipografta Poliglotta.

-580-

PARAMOUNT

SHATTERS ALL PAST RECORDS WITH
SURGE OF GOLDEN PICTURES

- 581 -

HBAD OI^I^IOK®

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REVIEW

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EDUCATIONAL ONEMTOGRAPBY

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AUGUST
19 3 2

LEAGUEofMOO

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CINEMATOGRAPHY

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EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW,

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YEAR IV. AUGUST 1932 N. 8.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

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INDEX

Page

C. Renner — The Educational Cinema in the Technical Schools . . 585

ISMAIL Hakki ... — The Reform of the Technical Schools in Turkey . . . 590

F. L. Herron .... — Block Booking 597

Eva Elie — Open Letter to the Director of the I. I. E. C 604

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Students and the Didactic Film (end) 607

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

History of Visual Education 615

THE DOCUMENTARY FILM

" Tumgu " (In the country of the Kariakis) 625

LEGISLATION

Mercedes Gallagher de Parks : The cinema censorship in Peru (With Edi-
torial note) 631

NATIONAL COMMITTEES OF THE 1. 1. E. C.

Chile 637

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The " Urania " Films in Austria — The Cinema in Turkey — Cinema Pro-
duction — The " Saxony " Cinema Teaching Office 639

TECHNICAL NOTES

WlLLIAM F. Kruse : The motion Picture and the American School 645

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 655

BIBLIOGRAPHY 667

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN THE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

By Carl Renner

" All the ink we authors of travel books spill does not represent the char-
acter of a country as well as a few metres of film. " This is the recent opinion
of Arnold Hoellriegel in connection with a film on Angola which he chanced
to see at Lisbon during a brief stay of some hours.

There is nothing superior to the film for showing in teaching, and espec-
ially in technical training, how work is done. The other means utilized
for this purpose, such as models, drawings, slides, have not been rendered
superfluous by the film and need not be eliminated. The fact remains though
that an action can only be properly represented by an action. Verbal explan-
ation, without the use of any illustrative process, may be adapted to indi-
viduals who have reached a certain intellectual maturity and the possibility
of receiving an abstract impression in the scientific field, but for young peo-
ple, who for the most part have only elementary intellectual conceptions, a
concrete representation of the object being taught is advisable. A drawing,
if made before the student's eyes, can show the form of a machine, or a piece
of the machine, but it will not be sufficient to show it working. The same
thing is true of lantern slides. The value of models for teaching is about
equal with that of the film and may be superior to it when they can be made
to work. Rarely, however, is the model of the same size as the machine itself,
and it is often considered as more or less of a toy. The model too is never
surrounded with all the objects, fittings and sense of reality of the machine
itself. It can only be considered as a simple means for demonstrating and
an invitation to go and see the machines themselves from which the models are
copied, which may be a useful experience, showing as it will, the operation
and purposes of the machines. It must also be remembered that visits by
small groups of students are often the cause of annoyance to the workers
who are sometimes inclined to resent them, whence teaching by visits of
this kind becomes a complicated affair, as the teacher, as a rule, has but little

— 586 —

time as his disposal. Moreover, the students are easily distracted by the
other machines near to that or those which are being shown them, also by the
whole surroundings and the various accessories. The possibility of danger
to the health or life of the onlookers also helps to increase the teacher's res-
ponsibility.

The teaching film is free from all these disadvantages, and has as well
some notable merits. The pictures appear clearly on the screen in the dark
hall where they are shown, and there is no danger whatever from the film
if a good projection apparatus is used. The film, however, should be a real
educational film. Today, apart from a few exceptions, very few of the tech-
nical educational films can really be called such in the strict sense of the word.
An educational film should clearly show the development of the technical
work being taught and every action in the picture should form a complete
visual whole. The illustrations of work movements that are difficult to fol-
low should be given with the slow motion or speeded up camera. The var-
ious scenes should be projected on the screen for a sufficient time, and should
not end brusquely as happens to-day when there is often something interest-
ing to demonstrate. It is not advisable to devote a few metres of film only
to the essential motions in a certain piece of work, and then give dozens of
metres to something merely secondary. On the other hand, the various parts
of a film should not be too long. As a rule, about 100 or 200 metres can
be considered a sufficient length, and sometimes even 50 metres will suffice.
To cite one example, the film « Graphic Arts », produced by the " Institut
fur Kulturforschung " of Berlin perfectly satisfied these conditions. The
film shows the technique of wood-cutting, engraving on copper, steel and
stone, and was produced with pedagogic principles, such as very few films
are, so that the separate parts can be used by themselves for teaching.

How is it that we possess so few good educational films ? The idea of
making them is not new, but it is not at all widely spread, although applica-
tions of the idea are attempted in many places. This depends on the fact
that the cinema firms often make their films without consulting educational
authorities. But the principal reason for the scarcity of educational films
depends more than anything else on the financial conditions of the cinema
industry. Money is required, and money must in its turn work and produce
more money, while the educational film is not a money-making proposition.
When the industry takes up educational films, it cannot ingore this fact, it
cannot forego all idea of profit, or at any the hope of covering its expenses.
As a consequence, the film as a means of education suffers damage. Many

- 587 -

films of a supposedly educational character have to be shown in public
halls, which implies concessions to the taste and tendencies of the general
public. We are not speaking here of advertising films, which are made for
the purposes of a definite firm or business, but which nevertheless often pass
as educational films. Such films ought not to be allowed to be projected in
the schools which ought to be free from all advertising. Indeed the greater
part of such films have nothing educational or cultural to offer, and it is doubt-
ful if it was ever intended that they should. They show, for example, the
workings of certain machines, and to do this, the camera has been carried
around the whole factory, showing us the finished product, but no illustration
of the actual process of manufacture.

Without state aid, the cinema industry cannot make educational films,
and today every state can barely find the means to carry out its social obli-
gations, rendering it still more difficult for it to fulfill its cultural duties. Even
if 50 copies alone were sufficient to assure a film paying its way, it would
have to be taken for granted that it is impossible to sell 50 copies of an edu-
cational film made for technical schools. For example, Berlin possessess
61 arts and handicrafts schools and 12 specialized superiors chools, but it
has only one professional school for graphic arts such as engraving etc., which
school comprises 90 daily classes, with 1 779 students and a superior technic-
al school frequented by workers in the engraving arts. Apprentices and
students from all parts of Berlin frequent the school, but in Berlin a film on
engraving could not be sold in more than two or three places, even ad-
mitting that a film made for apprentices would be suitable for specialized
workmen. In all Germany, despite the specialization of handicraft teaching,
there are only 30 schools capable of using a film of this kind.

Borrowing films is not a system adapted for educational films. Films
for teaching arts and crafts should be the schools property and remain in its
possession. Moreover, to start a loaning system, a fee would have to be de-
manded from the pupils, and as this is not possible, recourse would have
to had to the state again.

What then is to be done in order to obtain in one way or another ser-
viceable educational films ?

Teachers should make themselves the films they need. If that is not
for the moment possible for financial considerations, the fact that this system
would cost least of all should not be lost sight of. With respect to the unex-
posed films and the technical apparatus, for these things the assistance of the
state will be always necessary.

- 588 -

We can therefore say that in Germany we are not on the eve of having
real educational films because their use would be rendered problematical by
the lack of projecting machines. In America, on the other hand, 60 per cent
of the schools use the educational film in their courses.

It is a point whether it is better to use normal or reduced size film.

In my opinion, the normal sized film is more suitable, for the size of the
picture has an important function in visual education. The normal size,
moreover, is clearer and sharper, which fact adds to the film's value. On
the other hand.it is certain that normal size film has several disadvantages,
among which is the risk of fire, while in the reduced size the danger is prac-
tically non-existent and, moreover, reduced size film costs less. For nor-
mal size film there is only one projection apparatus in existence furnished
with incandescent lamps that prevents the film catching fire, even if exposed
for a long time to the luminous rays.

The educational film is a means of teaching and nothing more. It is
an instrument which the educationist should know how to use, and a certain
talent and preparation are required for handling it. It should never be used
as a form of amusement for the students. Every teacher must know how
utilize the film, and be aware of its dangers. In Germany, the authorization
to give cinema spectacles, even with apparatuses of the safety type mentioned
is only granted after the successful passing of an examination. The prepar-
ation of the teachers in technical schools should therefore be specialized
also in this branch of teaching. It is not necessary for all the classes to be
equipped for cinema spectacles, but each school should have a properly
fitted up hall which can be used in turn by all the teachers and all the classes.
Normal size films, on account of the danger of fire, must be excluded from
schools. The safety type projector referred to is so built that still slides can
be used with it, but this is not advisable, for isolated slides generally produce
a grotesque effect. In order to show utensils, parts of machines, or frag-
ments of architecture, cinema pictures are best. It is important that the
projector should allow the film to be reversed and run over again, for it often
necessary to pass a picture across the screen several times for the points to
be thoroughly understood by the pupils. A good projection apparatus of
this type is the " Monopol C " of the Zeiss- Ikon firm of Dresden.

It is in the foregoing manner that film instruction should be given in the
technical and handicrafts schools, but unfortunately the early difficulties do
not seem to have ever been properly overcome, and the complications of cur
time only render the work of diffusion and propaganda more arduous.

- 589 -

In general, the educational situation has notably improved, and the
cinematographic industry is in a position to supply the needs of the various
branches of educational film work, though the latter have indeed not yet
reached an ideal situation. It should not, however, be forgotten that the
educational film is of the greatest importance for arts and crafts training.
It should be able to show in a clear, natural and expressive manner every
craft in its entirety without hiding or belittling its less agreeable sides, the
hard work involved, the disadvantages and dangers, so that the students will
not nourish illusions on the matter or cherish false or exaggerated hopes.

(Translated from the German).

THE REFORM OF THE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN TURKEY

By Ismail Hakki,

Professor of Literature of the University of Stambul.

1 . What must be understood by technical teaching ?

The term is a wide one. It may mean not only the activity of the Schools of Com-
merce and Agriculture, but may include also the Normal Schools and the specialized
schools for employees, mechanics and so on.

In any case, in this article, we must understand by the expression technical teaching
all forms of economic instruction, whether connected with agriculture, commerce or
industry. The distinctive character of economic teaching is production. Therefore,
it would perhaps be more opportune to speak of " production teaching " instead of
technical teaching ' and schools of production " instead of ' technical schools ".
In fact, the objects of technical teaching are to be found in the methods of arriving
at this production, which is so much its essential element that every technical organism
and every conception of this system which does not take it into consideration is out
of place. In other words, the conceptual criterion, the value and the very working
of the schools and indeed of every kind of technical education are in direct relation
with production.

(Editors Note). — The readers of our review, after having perused and examined with the
interest it deserves the article by the eminent professor of the university of Stambul, Ismail HakkU
on the reform of the technical schools in Turkey may be tempted to inquire of us : how comes it
that the article should appear in a publication concerned only with cinematographic questions?

It would be easy for us to reply that the Institute of Educational Cinematography, and, as a
corollary, the review which is the living expression of its contact with the big world of producers
and consumers interested in our movement must of necessity treat problems of a scholastic nature
intimately connected with all forms of teaching because of the fact that it is a scientific and cultural
institute.

But the chief reason for which we are delighted to extend the hospitality of our pages to the
article of our illustrious collaborator is another : Mr Hakki has treated with great precision, per-
fect understanding and psychological grasp an argument which on other occasions has engaged our
attention either directly, or through the articles of eminent personalities. In our opinion, the psy-
chological plan on which Mr Hakki bases his remarks and the proposals which he outlines as being
necessary for his nation in the vast movement of technical and professional organization should
find their instrument, means and best assistance in the cinema.

When the author very rightly says that the old principle of l'atelier dans 1'ecole should to-
day be substituted by 1'ecole dans l'atelier, he states a basic truth in the regards of visual educa-
tion and on the other hand of showing the boy apprentice and the adolescent workman what ought
and what can be done, within the limits of each particular craft.

— 591 —

II. What are the objects of the schools of production ?

Two forms of universally known production exists today, that of the large industries
and that of the small. The term industry must be understood in the widest sense of the
word, and, to be more exact, one might say that rather than two types of industry, there
exist two forms of production, the large and the small. The first comprises machine-
made products, while the second consist of the manufacturing industries. Machine
Working which is the demonstration of a scientific application requires operatives who have
a certain knowledge, or intelligent workmen, while manufacture requires workmen hav-
ing special knowledge, that is specialized workmen. In general, manufactured articles
may be considered as the original work of the workman, being the result of thought and
manual labour. As a result of this, the apprenticeship of manufacturing workers has a
different value and importance from that of machine workers. In this latter field, the
work processes can become complicated according to the quantity of intelligence required
and, as a consequence, the labour of the machine operative requires the initiative and the
control of foremen and engineers. What are then the distinguishing characteristics of
the big and little industries respectively ? What are the characteristics and the require-
ments which these industries demand from young men who propose to enter these branch-
es of activity? These are questions which deserve to be examined and stated in detail.

III. In the apprenticeship of future production workers, we must necessarily consider
all the characteristics of big production.

Among the features of big scale production there are some which closely concern our
theme. One of these is that big industry must not derive its support from empirical
knowledge only, but rather from scientific experience. The results of big industry depend
essentially on science because industrial and agricultural production are only a practical
application of scientific and technical principles. It is for this reason that every activity
of a big production before becoming practical must necessarily consist of theoretical

According to our way of thinking, the problem is vaster still. It is not always possible,
and especially in apprenticeship, to bring the boys to the school-rooms or to the school existing in
the workshop. This fact as well as the inherent difficulties of teaching and the necessity of allow-
ing the boy a free choice in the handicraft he wishes to adopt are all facets of the same problem.
Here the cinema can offer- especially for those nations where industry is very widely developed
or is concentrated in certain districts — a formidable aid that stands in no fear of rivals.

Not only this. It is our belief that the cinema is capable of arousing a new sentiment in boys
who are taking up a handicraft or trade, a sentiment, that is, of pride on the one part, and on the
other of understanding of the social importance of the work he is called to do. Pride in as much
as he will be able, through the complete organization of a factory or a system of labour, to perceive
how his small force and the fruit of his intelligence form part of a united complex represented by the
definite industrial product. This understanding he will gain through the screen which will illus-
trate to him the importance of his share of the work in the social and economic life of his country
and therefore of humanity in general. But apart from such considerations, we think that Mr Hak-
ki s article, taking consideration of its clarity and the form given to the themes traced, satisfies
the demands of our work, that is the new scholastic system which finds aid and integral support
in the film.

— 592 —

activity, just as physics, chemistry, designing, draughtmanship and geometry are a prac-
tical derivation of theoretical principles. The knowledge possessed by big producers
must therefore have its scientific, that is to say, its theoretical and practical sides at the
same time.

The second characteristic of big production is that it must constantly evolve. A ma-
chine, or an agricultural process, once they have been made or established, cannot continue
to be employed indefinitely, but must be renewed as the times change and fresh inventions
come to the front. In the formation of the products of big industry the reasoning and
personal judgment of the men who must adapt a machine to a certain process is of equal
importance with the creative fancy of the scientist.

IV. Characteristics of small production.

The characteristics of small production are exactly opposite and unlike from those
of big production. The work, instead of requiring a common united labour as in big
production, needs on the contrary individual effort. The carpenter who works with his
hands cannot be considered in the same category with a worker in a factory. The for-
mer, as a specialized worker, is master of his activity as carpenter, turner, varnisher, seller
etc.

In the second place, one of the characteristics of the small industries is that the ele-
ments in the work are less exposed to change and are slower in their transformations,
because small industry is not so closely dependent as big industry on science and techni-
que.

The essential qualities necessary for the producer are experience and mechanical
ability. And precisely on account of the diversity, the fundamental education of these
two types of workers must vary substantially The common saying that conscience must
become a habit applies to this type of productivity, while the other saying that every habit
should lead to a conscious fact, contrary to the first remark, applies only to technical ins-
truction in the field of big industry.

V. History shows that literary education preceeded by a long way scientific and tech-
nical education, while general knowledge schools were founded much earlier than tech-
nical and professional schools. For this very reason there exists in the minds of many a
tendency hostile to the very principle of the technical school. Certain writers and
experts who are not in favour of the reform of the technical schools state indeed that a
school of commerce, agriculture, or industry should be founded on the lines of a primary
or secondary school ". Moreover, everywhere and in all countries, it is a known fact
that the technical or professional school has been modelled by men acting under the in-
fluence of written teaching, and who therefore have remained completely extraneous
to anything of a technical nature. For this same reason a state of affairs unfavourable to
the future life of the technical schools has come about. The men who were anxious to
start the reform of such schools were not capable of understanding the real benefits of
such reform and therefore failed to grasp the necessities of the case. The result is that
today the technical schools of nearly every country remain under the ideal control of a
literary mentality or a state of mind derived from books.

— 593 -

VI. The nature and limits of the sections of the technical schools must be defined.
All those who up to now have directed technical schools have seen in the various sections
only the scholastic side of the question. Rightly or wrongly, these schools and their
sections have seemed to them primary or secondary schools, like some sort of lycee.
According to this view, the sole thing which differentiates a technical school from other
types of school is the existence of a laboratory, or workshop. The technical school may
therefore be defined as a workshop school. This workshop or laboratory on the contrary,
is only an addition to the ordinary school, because in the technical school the
sections existing apart from the workshopt differ in nowise from the ordinary
school in matters of theoretical courses, manner of teaching or discipline. The
theoreticians by adding workshops to already existing schools thought they had accomplish-
ed an intelligent piece of work and an original creation. The fact is that the technical
school is neither a primary school, the object of which is to impart to children some no-
tions and general outlines of knowledge, nor a lycee suitable for a classical education, but
on the contraty, a place solely and simply adapted for the formation of workers. Those
who are educated in these surroundings are destined to become not thinkers or scientists
in the strict sense of the term, but workmen capable of producing. As a result, the fun-
damental concept to be kept in mind in founding a technical school should be the creation
of a technical locality tending as much as possible to favour every kind of creative and in-
ventive aptitudes. There are handicrafts and trades, the exponents of which have not
derived the requisite education from their technical schools. They only possess a prac-
tical and empirical education, but in compensation they are endowed with superior ta-
lents. Among such may be mentioned the best fishermen, the best carpenters and marble-
workers. Two essential conditions, two fundamental elements are necessary for the for-
mation of these types : a natural element like the sea, a carpenter's workshop, a building
to construct, and real but personal activities, such as ability in casting nets, finding fa-
vourable winds, in making objects of wood, in cutting stone, etc. In my opinion, there
are two especially important points to examine in the psychology of technical instruction.
The first is that real intelligence, adaptability and will cannot develop save in real surround-
ings as opposed to artificial ones. The second point is that the only activity capable
of creating this intelligence, sensitive adaptability and will is that which in real sur-
roundings and in well defined conditions works with a definite aim. We can affirm with
certainty that wherever a real technical atmosphere exists, there and there alone is possi-
ble a technical education. On the other hand, where this condition of a genuine techni-
cal atmosphere is lacking, then technical education becomes a vague and vain illusion.
As a consequence, the first rule to follow and to conform to is this department of technical
education, for the founding, that is, of schools of commerce, industry and agriculture
is to determine the surroundings which are best adapted for the development of commerce,
industry or agriculture.

VII. How can these technical surroundings be created ?

Let us begin by defining what is meant by " atmosphere of reality and genuine tech-
nical surroundings ". Let us suppose that we desire to found a technical agricultural
school and that we are in an agricultural section of the country. Let us remember that
an agricultural centre is one which produces wheat, beet-roots and the products of the

- 594-

earth in general. The centre in question may be a farm, or any kind of land used for
cultivation, or a garden, but at any rate land which needs real activity to become fruitful.
It is true that the notion of ' real surroundings " existed also among the old scholastic
systems, but it had only a fictitious value and was only included for form's sake. There
existed a garden in the old time school and land too, but even had it been possible to ob-
tain machines and show specialized forms of work, from a psychological point of view,
all this would not really have created the agricultural or industrial setting that was sought
for, owing to the insufficiency or the impossibility of drawing proper advantage from the
means which were theoretically available. According to the concept of the old school,
the garden, the shop, the bank are things of secondary importance, only useful for illus-
trating or showing facts arising from theoretical or book teaching, and then from the book
teachers' point of view. From our point of view, on the contrary, the point of departure
of all technical education must be quite different. The old school, apart from its fields,
its surrounding land and its equipment had no connection with life, while the new school
must seek this connection and if necessary create it.

Here are some of the differences which characterize these two types or institution :

a) The old school Worked the earth, but the work was an end to itself. The new
school works the earth because it desires to draw therefrom the elements of life and en-
joyment.

b) The old school worked a piece of land, without considering its nature or its
degree of fertility. The new school only works fertile and arable land such as allows
a reward for labour.

c) The old school had not the feeling for the beauty of the products it created.
The new school seeks to obtain its products in the best conditions possible, both from the
economic and aesthetic points of view, so as make the best provision for its needs.

d) In the old school, the pupil was a simple dependent on government orders.
In the new school the student becomes a producer himself.

In a word, the new technical school, more than a school, must be a real centre of
work. Thus from the point of view of big industry the new technical schools function
as authentic workshops, and their principal task is the production of finished products.
From the agricultural educational point of view, the new technical schools are colonies
the principal function of which is colonization. From the small manufacturer s
point of view, the new technical schools are workshops which produce, sell,and in turn
buy. The connections with work and competition in the field of work are necessary to
give to the new type of school its exact position in the economic field.

VIII. What is the value in the formula " the school in the workshop " ?

The slogan of the old school was " the workshop in the school ". The slogan of the
new school is " the school in the workshop. " It is true that the pupils of the new school
follow theoretical courses as did the students of the old schools, bat there is a substantial
difference between the two methods. The theories which the students of the new schools
must learn are not theories taught with discrimination or chosen haphazard, as are more
or less all the theories which derive from the old fashioned didactic methods but rather
theories which are especially concerned with the work and occupations of the pupils. We
must in fact remember that in the new scholastic systems theory must not aim at an ab-

-595-

stract education of a young man's mentality, but must be directed towards definite pro-
ductive objects.

In the old school, work was represented as an application or practical demonstration
of ideas. Ideas and facts were in other words, considered as distinct things, whereas
in the new school all teaching derives from facts and workshop activity, and therefore
goes back of necessity to ideas. We see as a result technical schools which must be
established in the form of workshops, laboratories, agricultural gardens or factories and
the courses must be homogenous with the technical school at which they are held.

The way followed by the old teaching method was different. Partisans of the old
system began with building the school, and only afterwards provided technical instruction.
It was in this manner that agricultural, commercial and industrial schools were created
in the part.

IX. How can a school of production put itself into relation with the social realties
of life?

One of the most important necessities in the management of a technical school is
to maintain a regular and direct contact between the systems of productions and social
reality. By this we mean first of all the act of providing the technical schools with work-
shops, laboratories, instruments, machines and all the equipment that it may require at an
given moment. It is in this way that the real educational atmosphere is created for the
students who have thus the opportunity to invent, experiment and manufacture, creating
in this manner a practical educative method. But this is not enough, because production
cannot be considered in itself and for itself as an abstract phenomenon. All production
is a social phenomenon, and consequently we are faced with the necessity of creating
what may be called " The Office of Technical Instruction ".

X. What should the organization of an Office of Technical Education be ?

First of all, it is necessary to create the Central Office of Technical Teaching, which,
though constituting one of the branches of Public Education, concerns itself particularly
with this activity.

In any case, the objects of this organization must not be confused with those of
primary or secondary teaching, for technical teaching, far from being a type of classical
teaching, is a special branch of teaching of its own kind.

The central group of technical teaching must be independent, and have at its disposal
sufficient scientific authority to allow it to deal with all problems within its scope. It
should therefore be only called upon to answer to the Public Education authorities. At
the head of every group of technical teaching, there should be e pedagogue well versed in
the objects of the particular curriculum. The group in question ought to be composed
of three different branches or specialities, concerned with commerce, agriculture or in-
dustry.

XI. Conclusion : Turkey's interests.

We have hinted at the necessity of a reform that should be as extensive as possible
but it is not easy to forsee and enumerate the advantages which Turkey might derive from

— 596 —

a similar organization. At any rate, it is certain that this reform should not be abandoned
or left to chance. The task, difficult and arduous as it may be, does not present insur-
mountable difficulties. The principles of the reform in themselves are simple, and it is
especially from the principles that I have attempted to draw the material of this report.
The importance of this does not lie in saying things of which others have not thought up
to now, but only in recalling and stressing the importance of ideas which must interest
us for the problem which is the object of our studies.

A proof of this lies in the fact that all attempts at a reform of technical education ba-
sed so far on principles exactly opposed to those indicated by me have regularly failed,
as can easily be shown by reading the history of these attempts.

Since the future does not resemble the past, and in order that it may be illumined
with success, it is our duty to aid it as far as we can, and to prepare the way to such
success, leaving nothing to chance.

(Translated from the French).

/

BLOCK BOOKING

By F. L. Herron.

" Block-booking " is the wholesaling of motion pictures in groups of two or more
as distinguished from the retail selling of separate pictures. " Blind-booking and
" block-booking " are terms which are most misleading and have been used extensively
by people hostile to the motion picture industry because they sound vicious to those not
familiar with their meaning. The unfortunate term " block-booking " has frightened
many people into the belief that the distribution of motion pictures is accomplished by
the use of force, and that this force is used to thrust upon defenceless exhibitors and a
helpless public, pictures of an objectionable nature. Actually the facts are quite the
reverse. Blind-booking refers to advance selection of playing dates, or the setting
aside of exhibition time for pictures that have not been placed in general release.

Block-booking is similar to the sale by a newspaper syndicate of six months' or a
year's service et a time. It is also similar to what the individual does when he subscribes
to a magazine ; be knows the current type of article and story, the past reputation of
the magazine, and on that faith he subscribes for the publication. A backward step
such as prohibiting by law yearly subscriptions in connection with magazines is incon-
ceivable. It might not be though if some one had inadvertently given to the magazine
subscription some unfortunate name like " block-reading ".

The question of " block booking " has for some time assumed a special interest, and has given
rise to press polemics and lively discussions. We remember how on the occasion of the Cinema
Congress, so ably organized in our Institute last October by the cinema commission of the Inter-
national Council of Women, the problem was debated by some of the delegates and aforded an
opportunity for clearing up some of the controversial points.

We have thought it our duty — before assuming a definite position in the matter — to open
our columns to the opinions of producers, distributors and artists.

We begin today with publishing a very interesting article from the pen of a man, who, on
account of his eminent, position and the passion he has put into the cause of film production in
America, may be considered more than competent to set forth the problem according to a deter-
mined point of view.

In the numbers to follow there will appear polemical articles disagreeing either wholly or
in part with Mr Herron s ideas. In any case, we believe it our duty to examine such questions
in this review. From their examination and consideration may come forth those intermediate
evaluations which, taking account of business men's needs, can at the same time prevent the con-
tinuance of systems not always beneficial to the principal object the cinema industry should have
in view : that is, the improvement of the spirit and intellect of all those who frequent the cinema
halls of the world.

- 598 —

No one argues sensibly that any one brand of pictures is necessary to an exhibitor.
No company produces enough pictures to meet the demands of any one theatre. The
exhibitor in the United States, therefore, buys from various companies. Most exhibitors
have contracts with from five to fifteen companies for part of the product of each com-
pany. It is the general practice of exhibitors to contract for the exhibition of pictures
sufficiently far in advance so that they may be assured of a continuous flow of product
for six months or a year ahead and thus avoid having the theatre dark at any time for
lack of an attraction.

One of the leading executives of the industry has stated publicy (S.R.Kent, General
Manager of Paramount-Publix Corporation) " For each sound picture that our company
makes we have a possibility of 10,000 sales in the United States. The picture that is
popular at the box-office may sell as many as 7,000 accounts out of a possible 10,000.
The picture that is not popular will go to only, 1 ,200 or 1 ,400 theatres. If block -booking
operates, as its opponents claim, to force every exhibitor to take every one of our pictures,
how in the world could we make so many sales on one picture and so few on the next?

"In every account that we sell we meet the competition of from ten to fifteen other
companies with a total of hundreds of pictures on their schedule. Competition is very
keen. In no industry is it keener. Under these circumstances is it conceivable that
we could do anything which would force undesirable pictures upon an exhibitor or in
any way interfere with his prosperity or his good-will in his community ?

" Wholesale buying and selling of pictures was not initiated by the producers. It
began more than twenty years ago as the result of the need of exhibitors to establish con-
tacts with producers on whom they could depend for a constant supply of satisfactory
motion pictures.

" Can you imagine a man buying a lot, getting together brick and mortar and other
material, hiring labour and then erecting an automobile sales and service building without
first making a definite contract which would give him the agency for Buicks or Nashs or
Fords or some other car ? ".

Sales for future delivery and group selling of motion pictures protect the man who
builds a theatre against lack of attractions. It keeps the theatre in constant operation
after he has invested his money and constructed the theatre or acquired an existing theatre
by purchase.

One of the principal reasons for the popularity among the theatre owners of whole-
sale buying of pictures is, of course, that it enables them to purchase their pictures in
lots at a lower price and thereby show a larger profit on their exhibition.

The marketing of motion pictures involves certain peculiarities inherent to the
business that are difficult for anyone not actively engaged in the industry to understand.
One of them is that it is not possible to compute a unit cost on which to base the sale
price. In the ordinary manufacturing business, modern cost accounting gives completely
and rather accurately the manufacturing cost of each article or unit on which to base a
sale price by adding a certain amount for gross profit. In motion pictures, the manufac-
turing cost or negative cost amounting to thousands of dollars is of no value in arriving
at the unit cost at a particular theatre, as the same manufactured article is leased to several
thousands of theatres of varying size and locations, yet the manufacturer must get back
the manufacturing and distribution cost before any profit can be shown on the article.

— 599 —

The general principle on which the business operates is that each theatre should
pay for tits motion picture attraction a fair share of the probable gross receipts. Even
this ideal varies with every theatre on a given picture, and with every picture at a given
theatre. Actually the price to be paid by the theatre for the use of the picture is arrived
at by a trading process. The exhibitor has a sound economic reason to buy each picture
as cheaply as possible in order that his profit on its exhibition will be as large as possible.
The distributor ordinarily tries to get as high a price as possible to offset the exhibitor's
tendency to buy cheaply, but he must make his offer as attractive to the exhibitor as he
can in order to win out over the competition of other distributors who are at the same
time offering the exhibitor their product.

To forbid the distributor from allowing more than an arbitrarily fixed discount or
differential in price, to induce the exhibitor to contract for more than one picture at a
time was probably intended to force the distributor into a position where he would be
required to offer separate pictures to the exhibitor at a lower price than he would be
inclined to make in the ordinary course of competitive buying and selling.

Actually the effect of this prohibition by law would be quite the reverse. It would
undoubtedly operate to force the distributor to fix a higher price for the entire group and
would destroy the economic advantage that theatres and particularly the smaller theatres
now have in securing motion picture attractions at a very low price by buying them whole-
sale. The advantage is peculiarly important to the smaller theatres where economic
conditions and limited receipts require the exhibitor to be careful of his expense if the
theatre is to be successful and thereby continue to operate.

To do away with wholesale and advance selling would be highly damaging to the
smaller exhibitor in other ways. As quickly as a certain star or type of picture became
popular, the larger theatres with a bigger capacity and the possibility of playing to a
larger audience could easily outbid the small exhibitor for that company's pictures and
reap the benefit of the popularity built up by previous exhibitions in the smaller theatre.

Theatres are constantly faced with the problem of establishing motion picture stars
and personalities as attractions in their communities. There is a sort of public good
will in this that is carefully built up by intelligent exhibitors which stabilizes their busi-
ness to a marked extent. The only possible way that they can protect their investment
in such good will is by contracting for the exhibition of all the pictures of a given star as
far in advance as possible.

Just as in subscribing for a magazine in order to get each issue at a lower price than
the newstand charges, you may get a few issues in which there is nothing of interest to
you personally, but you still feel that you have made an advantageous purchase by sub-
cribing a year in advance; so too in buying a group of pictures the exhibitor is in a pos-
ition to pay for and refuse to exhibit any or more of the subjects which he personally
feels is unsuitable and still has the advantage of the wholesale price. Generaly the exhib-
ition contracts permit an exhibitor to cancel 1 0 per cent of the pictures bought in group,
and also permit him to cancel any picture which might offend local taste.

Wholesale buying does not eliminate the rejection of any picture by an exhibitor
who honestly tries to avoid playing a picture that the thinks will offend his audience.

The very pictures which certain public groups believe should have a wider audience
are more often than not pictures which an exhibitor would hesitate to book for fear they

i- — lee ingl.

— 600 —

would play to half empty houses. The producer, however, has confidence that pictures
which are somewhat above the average box-office taste will benefit the exhibitor as well
as his community in the long run. He therefore includes a certain number of such
pictures in the same groups with pictures of wide popular appeal.

The type of pictures that are most frequently cancelled out of group contracts by
exhibitors under the provisions for arbitrary cancellation without payment of the film
rental, such as Disraeli », " Old Ironsides ", " The Silent Enemy, " " Abraham Lin-
coln, " " Peter Pan, " etc., indicates that the social, moral and artistic values of pictures
are ignored by some exhibitors and that the primary motive in cancelling such pictures
is to avoid the ones that may have doubtful " box-office appeal. "

The exhibitor all too frequently uses the stock alibi to a complaining patron that
' he was forced to play the picture by the block-booking system " when as a matter of
fact rarely, if ever, is this true.

The straightforward fact is that if it were not for this block-booking and the selling
of pictures for future delivery, most of these " better pictures " would not get enough
first chances so that any producer could afford to make them.

Under the block-booking system there has been a steady improvement in the quality,
of motion pictures, just as for many years there has been a steady improvement in the
quality of the best magazines under the prevailing system of advance yearly subscriptions

The ideal of every sales manager of a motion picture company, of course, is to have
as many of his pictures as possible exhibited in as many theatres as possible ; in other
words, the widest possible distribution. Theatres of the same type that are in direct
competition with each other ordinarily will not exhibit the same pictures, therefore, a
choice must be made between two or more theatres as to what theatre will be used as
an agency for displaying the product of any company. Inasmuch as practically every
theatre in the United States is offered more products than they can possibly exhibit
competition in buying and selling motion pictures is very keen and naturally every
distributing company endeavors to make as attractive a proposition to the exhibitor as
it possibly can in order that he will rent and exhibit their pictures.

In order to maintain this active competition the distributors should be allowed to
use their best efforts and ingenuity in arranging attractive offers of their product to the
exhibitors with whom they desire to do business.

Nothing would put the small exhibitor in the United States out of business so quickly
as the enforcement of the prohibition against the renting of pictures until they have been
actually produced and are available for exhibition. This, of course, would prevent gener-
ally wholesale or group selling as well as sales for future delivery of motion picture film.

Economically and physically such a prohibition is impossible. The exhibitors
themselves would not and could not make numerous trips to the distribution centers,
as pictures are released, to view all of the pictures in advance of purchase. Sometimes the
small exhibitors view pictures on their exhibition in the metropolitan or key centers
before they actually designate play dates, but the custom of spending the necessary time
and money in screening pictures personally prior to the purchase or the booking of the
picture is gradually being abandoned and was never generally done in the motion picture
industry in other than the key city first run theatres because of the practical difficulties
of such a practice.

— 601 —

There are on an average about seven hundred feature pictures produced and released
in this country each year. For the exhibitor to select the best by this method of selection
it would be necessary for him to view in advance of exhibition all these pictures. That
would require over seven hundred hours actually seeing pictures to take care of the feature
pictures only, and again as much time seeing short subjects. The average working day
is eight hours, therefore he would have to spend one hundred and seventy-five days,
over seven months — in projection rooms doing nothing else but seeing pictures.

There are over 10,500,000 pieces of film delivered to the 22,000 theatres in this
country annually. To show each film to each exhibitor would require traveling on the
part of the exhibitor to exchange centers sometimes hundreds of miles away to view the
pictures. This, of course, is wholly impractical. Not only would his cost of traveling
be added to his overhead, but his loss in time away from his theatre and attention to
other duties in connection which the management of the theatre would result in ser-
ious loss.

The large first run theatre using the same attraction for a week or more invariably
screens its attractions in advance of exhibition. The smaller theatres using a new pro-
gramme every day would require many times the screenings necessary for the larger
theatre. These exhibitors are now guided by reviews in the trade publications, news-
papers and magazines and when sufficiently interested, view the picture on its initial
or first run showing.

No production company could afford to produce pictures with the huge investment
necessary for the production of the modern type of talking picture far enough in advance
so that a substantial group of pictures would be completed and available for screening
at a given time. The covering of the sales teritory by their representatives to market
one or two pictures as they are available would increase the cost of distribution tremen-
dously, and inevitably the price of all pictures to the exhibitors would be higher.

In no other line of commerce is the manufacturer prohibited from making sales
for the future delivery of his product. The United States Steel Corporation conducts
its business almost entirely on orders for future delivery. All automobile manufactures
are now and have been for years doing business on contracts for future deliveries. Such
a prohibition would work an unreasonable hardship on the producer, distributor and
exhibitor of motion pictures.

Many producers to some extent finance their operations on the credit derived from
contracts for future deliveries. This is the only means of some of the smaller producers
to obtain credit. It would be an unfair discrimination against them, unjustified by any
known precedent of either law or business custom.

Pictures must move rapidly as the advertising campaigns have to start long before
the completion of the picture and reach their climax on release dates. Elimination of
• - block-booking " and " blind-booking " would be to slow down the whole course of the
business and compel the producers and distributors to carry films representing millions
of dollars as " frozen capital " idle on their shelves for months. This would be ruinous
to the smaller producers, as they would have neither the capital nor the credit to carry
such a load.

The effect upon the exhibitor would be equally unfair because he would have no
means of contracting for his supply of pictures in advance. Exhibitors must be assured

— 602 —

long in advance of their supply of attractions so that they can arrange their programs and
publicity matter accordingly.

In the fall of 1923, Paramount tried to initiate a separate picture sales system, but
found the trade unwilling to accept it. The exhibitors wanted to buy and book wholesale
and in advance. After a few weeks trial with the resulting loss of over a million dollars,
Paramount was forced to abandon it and return to the established system of group and
wholesale selling.

Abandonment of " block-booking " and " blind-booking " would absolutely abolish
the newsreels. They constitute a prompt new service similar to the daily newspapers.
From their very nature they cannot be screened for the exhibitor in advance of their
sale any more than a newspaper can be similarly previewed.

Every producer necessarily from the very nature of the industry desires to have
his pictures exhibited in the best theatres. This is specially true with respect to the
initial or first run exhibition in the larger cities which in effect is the show window of
the territory, establishes the picture as an attraction in that community and usually
determines whether the picture is to be a success or failure in public appeal. The char-
acter of the theatre, its loction, policy, prices of admission, seating capacity, manner of
presentation, class of patrons, general reputation, etc., are matters of vital importance
to the producer and distributor and often they are equally as important if not more so
than the rental paid by the theatre.

The agitation against these two methods of distribution ignores all of these important
considerations, and make the price of the picture the one controlling factor in the industry
and denies to producers and distributors in this industry the same right of contract,
granted to manufacturers and wholesalers in other industries, i. e., the freedom to choose
their own customers. This is in direct opposition to the legal rights of producers and
distributors to choose their own customers entirely on their own business judgement.
The courts have repeatedly held that " it is the right of a merchant engaged in private
business freely to execute his own independent dicretion as to the parties with whom
he will deal ".

The intent and purpose of abandoning these methods of selling is to prevent the
producers and distributors from selling to circuit theatres on better terms than they
do to unaffiliated theatres. This question has been litigated in the Federal Courts of the
United States in other industries, and it has been repeatedly decided that a manufac-
turer may sell to a group or chain of stores on better terms than to an individual
store, and having the right to choose the customer may refuse to sell an individual store
who is competitor of the group of stores. These cases arose from attempts of the Fed-
eral Trade Commission to compel manufacturers to recognize the independent stores
as against their former customers, the chain stores, but the Courts refused to sustain the
Commission's orders. One of the leading cases is the National Biscuit Company vs.
Federal Trade Commission.

The strongest argument against the ' ' blind-booking " auction block-feature,
is that although it would seriously embarrass the producer-distributor-exhibitor-corpo-
ration, it works worse hardships on the exhibitors. If the provision for the sale to the
highest bidder is effective, then the publicity owned producers-distributor-exhibitor-
corporation, which has invested enormous sums in the highest class motion picture thea-

— 603 —

tres, has no assurance of a continouous supply of suitable attractions for its theatre. It
could not be effective, because the affiliated theatre could bid larger sums for pictures
as long as it was buying them from its own subsidiary or for the corporation which owns
the producing and distributing company. It would thus seem that the unaffiliated thea-
tre would be the one hit since it would have no assurance whatever of attractions.

This prohibition would also destroy the present system under which a theatre builds
up its patronage by establishng good-will in the minds of its customers by advertising
a certain brand of pictures or certain stars. If Will Rogers' pictures, for instance, could
only be offered separately at auction, no theatre would care to try to build up a Will
Rogers following on its own expense and efforts. The box-office in a particular thea-
tre frequently thrives in proportion to the general following which has been built up
for the stars exhibited in that theatre. It would be difficult for any theatre to capitalize
on the popularity of a star if the pictures featuring that star are to be suddenly shunted
from one theatre to ananother.

The sale by a producer or distributor to circuit theatres in preference to an unaffil-
iated theatre in many cases is merely the reflection of the economic factor both as to
safety and outlet and the lesser cost of selling that goes with a circuit sale. It is much
cheaper to sell one hundred theatres of a circuit than to travel around and negotiate the
same number of separate contracts. Furthermore, each circuit having a much larger
investment to protect has a greater appreciation of a tie-in with a quality producer than
an mividual that uses one brand of pictures this year and changes next year.

It is a common practice to rent motion pictures for exhibition on a percentage bas-
is with the receipts at the theatre during the exhibition period divided between the dis-
tributor and the exhibitor on an agreed percentage basis. This has always been recog-
nized as a fair and equitable system and has been growing in popularely and use, par-
ticularly among exhibitors operating the larger and more important theatres.

OPEN LETTER TO THE DIRECTOR OF THE 1. 1. E. C.

Dear Sir,

Your inquiry on " The impressions of children on war films " has doubtless pro-
cured for you numerous letters of congratulation on a work which was as important
in the classification of the data as it was interesting for the purposes it set out to fulfill.
The classical " know thyself ", this form of introspection on the part of the young scho-
lars of Italy, was carried out thanks to a precise questionnaire and a series of queries
suitable for gathering without any outside influence the children's reactions to the vision
of recent war films.

It was a laborious task, but a useful one, providing a rich harvest of information.
To begin with, I must confess, the children's opinions pronounced in their great major-
ity in favour of war films as being instructive, surprised me, not because I disapproved
this opinion, which confirmed an already existing certainty of mine, but because I
believed that a sight of the horrors and tragedies of war projected on the screen would
inspire in children above all else a strong terror of warlike phenomena.

This terror is to be observed from certain symptoms. In any case, stronger than
personal fear, stronger indeed than the idea of death or any possible suffering there
prevails a sentiment, that namely of abnegation or self-consecration when it becomes
necessary to defend the fatherland rather than attack other peoples, to succour the weak
and procure the triumph of right and justice, as opposed to combatting for the old for-
mula that might is right.

Our esteemed contributor Eva Elie seends us an open letter which we have great pleasure
in publishing, not because it contains remarks flattering to our work., but because it defines very
clearly certain points of our inquiry on war films and their real value.

Eva Elie recognizes that our inquiry had no other result save to demonstrate to children and
adolescents that war is a sad and tragic phenomenon to be deprecated by all. The answers to
our questionnaire prove it abundantly, even in expressions and cases that may appear and are
in fact heroic.

To recognize that a conflict between peoples is a source of patriotism, and creates the desire
to defend one's country to the last coincides with the conception of Madame Elie, distinguish-
ing between a war of defence and a war of conquest or aggression. It is not a necessity of this
that war as war is a phenomenon to be idealized and approved. We are on a ground here where
one cannot admit the possibility of discussions owing to the various and opposed points of view.

Our contributor also recognizes a fact, to which we have referred, though merely in a vague
way at the beginning and conclusion of our inquiry. This is that the war film as seen on the
screen has a remarkable effect on the formation of the spirits and minds of young people. To be
a pacifist cannot and ought not to mean either today or tomorrow that one is a coward. It means
understanding the atrocious suffering caused by war, it means banning it with all human means
up to a certain limit, a limit dictated by conscience, the sense of duty and sacrifice, not for oneself

— 605 —

That war films should have inspired phrases like the following : " He who dies
young for his country has lived a long time " ; " All my will is bent towards aiding and
comforting the fighters " demonstrates the existence of a high degree of nobility of
thought and generosity of soul among the thousands of children of Italy who in various
forms have subscribed to such sentiments.

Doubtless they do not yet know all the value of the existence which they offer so
serenely, nor the trouble which life casts upon us, perhaps to make us love it still more,
but it is a splendid sign in this after-war period of exaggerated individualisms and
craving for material enjoyments, to find a generation ready to die for the nobility of
an ideal.

No unrighteous thoughts should be sought for among these replies. The heroic
sentiment stirring in the souls of thousands of young folks should not be condemned

but for race, and language one's own country, where are the home and the family from which
we have drawn our primordial sense of life.

The war film has therefore lost or given up a great part of the objectives which it started
out to achieve. The opinions of writers we have cited at the beginning of our inquiry, which
receive another confirmation from Eva Elie, have shown that the ultra-pacifist attitude brought
to a fanatical conclusion evokes no sympathy with the masses. The people understand the tragic-
alness of the phenomenon. They can also understand that the hundred per cent renoun-
cement, even if it is worthy of the sanctity of Christ, is not human, lacking as it does the flesh
and blood appeal of the human body.

It is along these simple lines that We read the consensus of opinion of our contributor, an
agreement which comes from the experiences of life lived, and not from abstract and unreal
theories and dangerous philosophies.

In connection with war films and incidentally apropos of the inquiry thereon made by
the 1. 1. E. C, the authoritative agreement of Jules Destree with our conclusions in an article
" Une illusion pacifiste ", published April 16 last may be noted. The article appeared in Le Soir
of Brussels, and fits in perfectly with the conclusions of Eva Elie and our own.

Jules Destree points out that if theory upheld the view that war films would inspire a hor-
ror for and awake in the human will an inflexible determination not to take part in other wars,
experience has proved the contrary to be the case.

" The public that goes to the cinema goes in search of amusement. There are therefore
fixed limits of horror and a degree of the same which must not be passed, unless it is desired to
inspire a feeling of disgust in the spectator. Wounds, mutilations and surgical operations are
among the most horrible consequences of war. Can we bring a procession of mutilated men across
the screen ? And how are we to give the full terrible impression of hunger, thirst, sleeplessness
in the trenches, the moments of doubt and uncertainty, the disappointments, the mud, the rain,
the frost, the suffocating heat . . . ? "

In making a war film, one can produce a living document of actual sufferings, in which case,
the mass of the public will desert the hall, leaving only a few spectators. Or otherwise, one has
recourse to extraneous elements, to a plot of some kind, and one attenuates the nature of the tra-
gedies, in which case the film does not fulfill the object its authors set out to accomplish. Jules
Destree remarks that the 1. 1. E. C. inquiry has a singular character both on account of the num-
ber and the importance of the answers sent in as well as for the conclusions drawn which he calls
decisive. He quotes the magnificent replies given by the children of from 10 to T2 years ", Bet-
ter to live one day like a lion than a hundred years like a sheep " and adds :

— 606 —

on pacifist grounds. The offer of limitless and conditionless peace must not signify
the creation of cowards capable only of trembling for their own safety. The Italy of
tomorrow shows itself strong in the strength of its children, for it is certainly not by
hiding one's head in a sack, forbidding patriotic hymns for the love of peace, banning
war and cancelling the Word from questionnaires that the conflicts of mankind can be
avoided.

Knowing what war is, for having seen it in its most tragic pictures on the screen,
having heard the death rattle of the dying, the cries of those who have gone mad on
the battlefields, and the hideous lamenting of wounded horses, no child will desire
war, and the war film may thus do good. But if the film exalts on the other hand the
sense of heroism in defence against an aggressor, why not rejoice in such a proof of
vitality ? To do otherwise would be to confess onself a degenerate, and indicate a
return to that Sybaritism that destroyed nations vanquished by laziness or excessive
sentimentalism. To the honour of the white race it may be said that civilization has
not yet brought us to this, and the children of Italy are the living proof of it.

Eva Elie.

" Such replies are certainly not to be considered bellicose. They imply the understanding
of the idea that war is necessary when the country demands it. Without doubt, any film you
like which has the most pacifist intentions possible will be unable not to show acts of courage, devo-
tion and sacrifice which excite, extraordinarily the noblest human virtues. Such heroic acts
particularly strike childrens' and young folks' minds who are apt to see the worst horrors pre-
sented in a splendid and fascinating frame.

" The Italian inquiry is, in my opinion, decisive. It will be interesting to learn the results
of the inquiry which the I. I. E. C. has opened in Belgium .

In noting M. Jules Destree's agreement with the work illustrated in the review, we have
pleasure in stating that the results of the Belgian inquiry on childrens impressions of war films
will be published very shortly.

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

STUDENTS AND THE DIDACTIC FILM

(continued).

Replies to the third Question.

The third question set out in the scholastic questionnaire was as follows :

" Do you think teaching by moving pictures more efficacious than still photographs ? "
There were 12,755 answers to this question, whereof 8801 came from boys and
3954 from girls.

The numerical results can be summed up in the following figures :

10,980 answers were to the effect that the cinema was more efficacious than still
photographs for teaching purposes. There were 1739 replies in favour of still project-
ions and against the cinema, while 36 answers were equally favourable to either method.
The percentages were as follows :

86,13 % in favour of the cinema ;
13,59 » in favour of the still photographs ;
0,28 » for either method.

Classification by sex shows the following result :

Favourable to :

The Cinema Still Photographs Both

Boys 87.23% 12.33% 0.41%

Girls 83.46 » 16.54 » —

Age :

10-12 years 86.51% 13.05% 0.44%

13-16 years 82.84 » 17.16 » —

17 upwards 89.04» 10.96 » —

Centres :

Large 88.69% 10.97% 0.34%

Small 72.93 » 27.07 »

Occupations :

Workmen 86.58% 13.15% 0.27%

Agriculturists 91.65 » 8.35 >' —

Pvte Means 82.73 » 16.88 » 0.39 «

Employees 82.92 » 16.50 » 0.58 »

Professional 84.65 » 15.35 » —

Shop-keepers 84.69 » 14.90 » 0.41 »

- 608 -

From the foregoing percentages we see that :

the boys prefer the cinema to still projections as an auxiliary element in teaching •

that in the division by age, while in the middle period, that is in the years between
1 3 and 1 6 there is a marked preference for still projections, in the other periods, the
preference is for the cinema.

that in the large centres the preferences run for cinematographic projections,
while the small centres show more favourable percentages for fixed projections ;

that in the matter of occupations, the workmen and the agriculturists show higher
percentages in favour of the cinema than the children in other categories, while the
sons of persons of private means and employees, that is those belonging to the more
sedentary classes give the highest proportions in favour of fixed projections.,

Answers favourable to the cinema or to fixed projections.

In the following tables the answers favourable or contrary to the use of the cinema
are given with the usual divisions in the matter of sex, age, centres and parents'
occupations.

The difference of opinion between the votes in favour of cinema projections and
against derives on the one hand from a recognition of the efficacy of movement which
allows the representation of life in its reality and on the another hand from the possib-
ility of reproducing the details and of bringing forward a picture of the minor particulars
which can easily escape the spectator in his vision of the complete picture.

The essential point of the divergence of opinions depends, as a numerous group
of students believe, in the rapidity of the vision of the film compared with still pro-
jections. In other words, it is believed that the cinema can only be considered the ideal
way of teaching when it is possible to stop the running of the film at any given moment
so as to impart to the scholars the necessary explanations. As a matter of fact, this is
being done to-day with the most recent types of educational films.

The results of the teachers' symposium may be referred to advantageously here.
They were published in this review in the number, for August 1931. The percentage
of teachers favourable to still projections was 13,76% which corresponds pretty well
with that given by the students. — 13.59%. The opinions favourable to the use of
the cinema were based in this referendum also on the efficacy of movement showing the
real phenomena of actual life as well as on the possibility inherent in the cinema,
as opposed to the still projection, of analysing the facts being taught by the master. The
fixed projection was considered as being more useful for certain subject matters, as art,
science and history where it is not necessary to give the students a series of generic
cognitions which can, as elements of general culture, be better supplied by the cinema,
or where a detailed study is necessary.

The unquestionable and real value of the cinema as an auxiliary teaching method
opposed to fixed projections has been amply vouched for by both teachers and students.

- 609 -

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- 613 -

The results of the scholastic inquiry organized by the 1. 1. E. C. among a large number
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vantages.

A deduction may be allowed. The cinema has ceased to be considered as a simple
means of amusement and a more or less useful pastime in the public entertainment halls >
and has entered as a fully qualified means of education into the severe sites of learning '
there to assist the master and bring him its valuable collaboration, to show once again
that teaching can not rely only on the vord, but must avail itself of all the means de-
vised by modern progress in or^der to conquer and flourish.

G. d. F.

— 614 —

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/. /. E. C. Studies

HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

{continued)

Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), disciple of Pestalozzi, lived at Yverdun for two years,
but left at the end of that time to work out a system of his own, founded on intuition,
which attained its highest development in the Kindergarten of Blankenburg, near
Keilhan.

The theories on which the methods used at his Kindergarten were based, he ex-
plained, in rather mystic and nebulous fashion, in his " Education of Man ", in which,
however, the mysticism is coupled with a naturalistic attitude giving rise to reflections
of the highest pedagogic value.

With the aim of stimulating infantine spontaneity and activity, and thus making
of education a labour of love, which is not merely a preparation for the future, but
even more, for the life of the present, Froebel takes his stand on the Gospels, quoting
the words of Christ, who, when He shows us the only true ideal " Be perfect as your
Father in Heaven is perfect", seems to require man to imitate the source of life
and disdain all earthly models.

Placing the pure and holy life, in which God is made manifest in man, as the
aim of education, Froebel insists that the teacher must adapt himself to nature instead
of imposing his will upon it, and that he must be firm and yielding at the same time,
because the ideal of Good must stand before master and pupil and to that ideal each
must, submit. For nature herself is good, "and her qualities and inclinations are
good, unless we call bad that which is finite, subject to change, corporeal ".
Educational responsibility, when the education is based on a pedagogic optimism even
more absolute, in its way, than that of Rousseau, since it affects not merely the indi-
vidual but the whole of society, is great ; it is education that depraves the child and
teaches it evil, whenever an evil intention is unjustly attributed to it. Thus the
teacher, keeping the reality of life in mind, must not quote maxims of this sort :
" All will go well with him who is good ", or " Good deeds will be rewarded in the
next world in the same proportion as they are despised in this, " because, in the
former case, the child will be troubled when he sees injustice triumph, and in the
latter case, he will forget that the real reward of a pure life (and here Froebel takes
Kant's ethics for his own) lies in the life itself in the consciousness that " in God
we live and move and have our being ", which is sufficient for our happiness.

Froebel deduces the necessity of working out interesting didactic methods from teh
premeses that the development of a child's mind and the completion of its education is
made possible only through an autonomous activity induced by its own interests and
motives, thus overcoming all hiatus between theory and practice. The Froebel method,

3 Ice ingl.

- 616 -

making clear the importance of games, in which the boy sees " mirrored the struggle
that awaits him in life ", does not hesitate to affirm that a boy who is not afraid of tir-
ing himself over his play is of the right fibre to be a hard worker.

If games are to be looked upon as a kind of work, it is perfectly logical that the teach-
er should supervise and direct them, and endeavour to profit by games to assist the
harmonious development of the boy's senses. The master must teach the boy to see,
that is to say, to note what similarities or differences or relations there may be in the
things he is studying. Education based on such a system inevitably tends towards
the visual method, for it realises that the eye, only too accustomed to the printed page,
needs exercise before it can get back the strength and activity and readiness necessary
to observation, on the power of which, according to Spencer, success in any field of
human endeavour depends.

Rqffaello Lambruschini (1788-1873), considers education to be a " communion of
minds, a continuous communication of love and confidence (discentum oportet cre-
dere) a work of love ". Considered in this lofty and intimate sense, Lambruschini 's
educational science, although naturally avoiding any didactic methods that might inter-
fere with its spontaneity, is built on the " foundation laid by nature ", and aims at the
formation of the complete man, an aim to be brought about by recourse to the visual
method, which, placing examples of good before the child's eyes, gently and naturally
starts it on the road it is to travel.

The necessity of educating a boy's senses, not as such, but as manifestations of the
activity of the mind making use of them, seems very clear to Lambruschini :

" The senses are invigorated and refined by moderate and constant exercise. Exercise, not diver-
sion nor fatigue. To allow the gaze to wander here and there without fixing it on anything, is not to
exercise the sense of sight but to ruin it by misuse. A good pedagogy chiefly upholds a proper use of
the senses, since it serves for the acquisition of knowledge.

" And a proper use of the senses means to apply them attentively to the distinguishing of every
part of the object observed, and to keep the attention fixed long enough to get a clear and complete
perception of it. Of one sense is not enough, add another to it, such as touch to sight, taste to smell,
for one sense may be more impressed than the others by some properties of [the object under consid-
eration.

" That is to say, do what is necessary to make the sensations reproduce the precise form of the
object observed. The senses will be invigorated by an exercise thus suited to them, and will render
the intelligence the service required.

" This is the beginning of real knowledge , and we cannot be too careful in preventing children
from accustoming themselves to a careless use of the senses, or being satisfied with ^formless impres-
sions, which are necessarily the fathers of mistaken judgements " (1).

Lambruschini considers that it is as important to keep the scholar's attention aroused
and interested as to educate the senses :

" If your attention is listless, you gain but a vague understanding of the object , if you do not give
your whole attention to the object, the knowledge you gain is incomplete and fallacious. The chief re-
quisite of the art of teaching, therefore, is to arouse, carefully guide and hold the scholar's attention. It

(1) Raffaello Lambruschini .- Delia Istruzione. Ed. G. B. Paravia.

— 617 -

may frankly be asserted that the greater number of the errors we fall into, and that half-knowledge that is
more harmful than ignorance, are the result of hasty judgement and of lack of patience in observing-
minutely and attentively ".

That is a statement, pure and simple, of a regrettable state of things. In a lesson
on Attention, given in 1869, the remedy, based on the visual method, is made clear :

" Attention is the necessary condition for obtaining a maximum yield from the powers , it is the
most important quality to cultivate in young people, from their earliest years. No exact sensations can
be felt, no distinct perceptions nor correct operations of the inner powers can be attained if the mind is
hurried and does not stop to observe intensely. Now, the attention is ordered and held by the will ;
but it is aroused and invigorated by the senses, whose represenations attract the mind, and it is influenced
by a liking.

"... The will must be stimulated by pleasant, or unpleasant impressions made through the senses
or the inner feelings. Which, in teaching, is of the highest value.

" If you are narrating the actions of illustratious personages to children, and you show them the per-
son's portrait, the picture will be imprinted on their minds and becomes, with the memory of the man him-
self, an enduring memory of high qualities. And, likewise, the great facts of history are never forgotten
when they are presented together with a picture illustrating them. This valuable stimulus to the atten-
tion has been, and is, of great assistance in infant'schools and first elementary schools.

" The celebrated Pestalozzi believed so firmly in the virtue of these aids to the senses, that he placed
them as the foundation of his intuitive methods . . . He wanted to make ideas visible, and he sue
ceeded.

"... Of what use is it, for instance, for children to read in school and learn by memory books on
geography, unless you show them pictures of the earth and its parts as drawn in [maps ? The scholar
commits the words to memory, but they do not leave on his mind a picture of the countries dealt
with.

" And what sort of notion of natural history can you give, unless you put plants and stones and ani-
mals, at least in effigy, before the child ? And yet, books have been and are written and used, and said
to be suitable for children, in which mineralogy, botany and zoology are scientifically explained, and
families, tribes, genera and species are minutely described, and all without a single illuminating picture.
They are not books for children, nor even for learned men, but merely indexes to the memory. They
cannot be considered as treatises teaching scientific facts. And then again, in technical schools, and even
in the higher elementary schools, there is talk of squares, of archipensile, of levels, but are any of them ever
shown ? ".

This continual calling of the attention to things, which, in another form, is to be
found in many pages of Lambruschini's two principal works " On Education " and
" On Instruction ", necessarily recalls Rousseau's exclamation of " Things ! Things ! ",
just as the Geneva philosopher recalls our philospher's worship of and belief in Na-
ture, for which, as he realises with sorrow, man is trying to substitute his own fictitious
and mendacious procedure : " A subtle pride leads to the substitution of the art of man
for the work of nature, the child of God, and renders everything sterile and confused ".

He has a word of reproof, also, for the misplaced zeal of the teacher, in his vain
pretence of maintaining intense and continuous action on the scholar's mind, with
the result that the mind is, in most cases, ' crammed " with incomplete and di-
sorderly notions, which give it nothing that can be called real instruction; a system
that is tiringly harmful to the tender minds of the few who struggle to respond to
the stimulus proffered by their importunate teacher.

" Pedagogy must be made over again, and it must be done by working out its me-
thods anew. We must undermine the existing faith in the minute and boring nature

— 618 -

of the schoolmaster method ; we must turn to nature and put our trust in her, who
teaches with such gradual, tacit stimulus, by the light of facts, by experience of life.
And nature will not fail us ".

Lambruschini's whole pedagogy may therefore be summed up, as far as we are
concerned, in a few words : spontaneous education according to nature, and therefore
fundamentally visual.

This being admitted, it will perhaps not be out of place, as a close to this brief and
partial explanation of his pedagogic doctrines, to quote an extract from Mme. Necker
de Sausssure, which he himself quotes in his volume " On Instruction ", and in which
the imaginative powers of children are once more affirmed, and the implicit necessity
of controlling and guiding them by the presentation of pictures which, by giving a'rea-
listic impression of facts, prevent the children from losing themselves in vain and fan-
tastically puerile fancies.

" Man, according to the Hebrews, is a speaking soul ; the thread of his inner discourse is never inter-
rupted. It is quite otherwise with children and animals ; it is the things themselves that are presented
to their minds, and not the words that describe them. For them, to think is to see ; it is to feel the sen-
sation that would be produced by the actual object. In their fancy, piclure follows picture, or, in
other words their thoughts are a series of moving pictures, partial reproductions of life " (1).

Madame Pape-Carpentier (1815-1878). During her life as schoolmistress and inno-
vator, Mme. Pape-Carpentier, despite her scanty pedagogic culture, was one of those
who spread the idea of experimental and visual teaching, the teaching of " things ".
Together with Rousseau and Pestalozzi, she was the promoter of the natural, objective
method and the education of the senses. " To collaborate in the work of nature ",
she writes, " to extend it, correct it where necessary, this is the teacher's task ; at every
stage of education, nature must be respected ".

Her maxim : " A visible sign for everything visible " shows how concrete was her
teaching. She never spoke to children, in fact, without showing them the thing which
was the subject of her lesson, or, if it was a thing impossible to bring into the school,
she showed them its picture.

Numerous collections of prints, drawings and pictures, richly illustrated books,
instruments and apparatus suitable for making the teaching concrete : such were the
didactic auxiliaries to which this teacher had daily recourse and, in order to keep her
scholars' interest alive, she simply called their attention, by pleasing means, to this or
that thing, with flattering results.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) is the best known exponent of modern English utili-
tarianism which, being extended to the pedagogic field, puts the preparation of man for
a full life as the aim of education.

Rousseau had already laid down, as the motive force of each educational act, a prin-
ciple of inquiry which is expressed by the " To what end ? " of Emilo. Spencer accepts
this principle and makes it his own, going even farther than Rousseau, since the answer,
which Rousseau insisted [should be direct, Spencer claims should be dependent, and

(1) Madame Necker DE SAUSSURE : L'iducation progressive.

- 619 -

fears not to carry it forward to a more or less near future prepared beforehand by edu-
cation.

The educational process, which for Froebel and Rousseau was vital and an end
in itself, becomes an amorphous thing once more in the hands of the English philoso-
pher, a thing that would lose all its value if the presumption of the morrow should fail.
In fact, in " Intellectual, Moral and Physical Education ", Spencer clears up this point,
when he affirms : " The only rational way to judge an educational system is to see whe-
ther it has attained its end ". And as this end is the preparation for a full life, it is
obvious that the judgement on each method must be remanded until the first scholars
have reached the age of maturity. Howsver, Spencer accepts another criterion for judg-
ing the value of a method : " Does it arouse a pleasurable excitement in the scholar ? "
Only if the answer is in the affirmative can the method be considered as suited to the
educational aim. A pre-eminently and rational and discriminating criterion, which
refuses to admit that strong sound fruit can be grown from rotten seed, and still less
that a method which restrains and depresses the child can generate knowledge and
virtue.

This is the theory, which, however, it is not our task to discuss.

What is to the point on the contrary, is to show that the importance of observation,
on which the promoters of the intuitive method insist so much, did not escape Spencer
either : " Among the new methods that have sprung up as the old were declining, the
most important is the rational cultivation of the faculty of observation. After years
of blindness, man has at last seen that the spontaneous activity of observation in the
child " is of real meaning and utility ".

Observation, thus understood, opens the way to objective teaching ; not, howe-
ver, as Pestalozzi conceived it, but as it was advocated by the Herbartian, Ziller, in
the epoch theory of civilisation, according to which it is held that the several stages
of civilisation through which humanity has passed are represented again, in the same
order, in the mental development of the individual. It is obvious, however, that Ziller
did not take sufficiently into account the question of heredity, which unconsciously
transmits to the child, with the blood, also the degree of civilisation reached by the
father.

However this principle may be considered, in any case, Spencer refers to it in pass-
ing : " Objective teaching leads the mind of the child along the road already travelled
by the mind of humanity. The truths of number, form, relation, position, have been
deduced from objects ; and to present these truths to the child concretely is the same as
making it learn them as mankind has learnt them ". Just as nature, by exciting cu-
riosity, makes her teaching attractive, so education must be made interesting, since the
acquisition of knowledge must be rendered pleasing instead of painful : " The method
of enforced culture has long been abandoned.

"... The opinion is beginning to gain ground, that when a mind that is unfolding feels a certain
curiosity, it is a sign that it is able to assimilate the object of its curiosity, an object that is necessary to its
development ; while, on the other hand, the dislike felt by a child for an object is a sign that the
latter has been presented to it before the time was ripe, or presented in an indigestible way. Whence
the effort to make primary education entertaining, and all education interesting, whence also the
various lectures on the importance of games in education ".

- 620 -

Spencer recognises that the new direction taken by modern education gets its inspir-
ation in the tendency of the Pestalozzi and Froebel methods, which at bottom are only
imitating nature when they call for an objective and attractive lesson:

" What is the common characteristic of these various changes ? Is it not a tendency to conform ever-
more closely to the methods of nature ? We have a proof of this in the abolition of enforced educa-
tion, which is contrary to the laws of nature, and in the method of limiting the first years to the
exercise of limbs and senses ; it is proved by the substitution of oral and experimental lessons in field
arid garden for lessons learnt by heart , it is proved by the abandonment of teaching by rule and the
adoption of teaching by principle, that is to say, leaving general ideas alone until they can be founded
on particular ideas ; and it is proved, lastly, by the object-lesson method and the teaching of scien"
tific principles concretely instead of abstractly. This tendency is evidenced, above all, in the various
attempts to present knowledge in an attractive form and thus make its acquisition pleasurable. Since
it is in the order of nature that the pleasure accompanying the accomplishment of necessary functions,
in every creature, serves as stimulus to the accomplishment itself, and since the pleasure felt by the
child, during its self-education, in biting or breaking its toys, is the moving force of other actions that
teach him the properties of matter, it follows that, in choosing the series of objects and the methods
of teaching most interesting to children, we obey the dictates of nature, and our methods are in har-
mony with the laws of life ".

' There is nothing new under the sun " might be justly said, with Ecclesiastes !
When, at the end of the XIX century, we see Spencer maintaining the necessity of pro-
ceeding from the simple to the complex, in teaching, from the indefinite to the definite,
from the concrete to the abstract, from the empirical to the rational, from analysis to
synthesis, how can we refrain from recalling the oft-repeated maxim that Seneca pro-
claimed at the beginning of the first century of our era : " Longum iter per praecepta,
breve per exempla ? " It is one of those " history repeats itself " of Vico's, which are
so evident in the history of pedagogy : each epoch must win its own truths, in the peda-
gogic as in the philosophic field, in conformity with the spirit of the times. If, in the
Middle Ages, for instance, Seneca's maxim was unknown and neglected, it got back all
its significance through Rousseau, to the point that, as we have said, Spencer, at the
end of the XIX century, was not afraid of developing it, explaining it and promoting
its application.

From considerations of a general nature, he was impelled to insist once more on the
necessity of a cheerful and attractive education : " With regard to the understanding
faculties, we can keep to the general law that, under normal conditions, useful action
gives pleasure, whereas action that is painful is not beneficial ; " hence the need that
' The method of culture to be followed should produce an intrinsically pleasurable
activity, that is to say, it should be pleasurable, not on account of any reward that it
will bring, but in and for itself ".

" A tranquil mind assists intellectual activity much more than an indifferent and bored mind ; and
everybody knows that things read, heard and seen with interest are much more easily remembered than
those read, heard and seen with indifference. In the former case, the faculties are actively occupied with
the object presented, whereas in the latter, they are but feebly occupied, and the attention is contin-
ually distracted by more pleasing things. It is clear, therefore, that, all else being equal, the efficiency
of teaching is in proportion to the pleasure taken by the scholar in his work ".

The more or less friendly relations between master and pupil depend on the pleas-
urable or boring nature of the method adopted, just as liking or dislike for study depends

- 621 -

on whether it is presented in the form of entertainment or is a thing of fatigue and effort.

From the above, it is clear that Spencer also may be numbered among the followers
and upholders of attractive teaching, which, if it is to be successful, must have recourse
to all those didactic auxiliaries, especially visual, that contribute so greatly to the form-
ation of that new type of bright and active school toward which all the efforts of mo-
dern pedagogy are tending.

Alexander Bain (1818-1903). In A. Bain's " Science of Education ", we have not
only an accurate presentation of the Spencerian theories, but also their development.

Interesting and attractive education is solidly upheld in his book, even though the
arguments he brings forward are not new to us, who have carefully studied the forma-
tion and development of these principles in the doctrines of the most valiant pedagogues
of all times.

Following in Spencer's tracks, Bain expresses himself in the following terms :

" An honest pleasure that satisfies us is the best inducement to the effort of learning ; and espe-
cially is this the case if it is a pleasure that goes on increasing, a constant principle and a constant increase
that does not become too absorbing, for then it is the best of stimuli to our mental forces.

And still more clearly :

" It is impossible to escape the influence of pain and pleasure as moving forces. It is a dull busi-
ness trying to like things that are neither painful nor pleasant, and to continue trying to like them is
a contradiction in terms ; a thing which is indifferent in itself can compel attention only as a means
to an end ".

Pictures, figures and images contribute to make education cheerful and pleasurable,
as Bain declares :

" In virtue of their moving quality, certain pictures or images or descriptions, first make an impres-
sion on the mind and then become part of the permanent conceptions of the mind, useful in themselves
and also as material for building up other conceptions ".

In order to show that geography is one of the subjects to which the visual method
can be applied with more real and obvious benefit, Bain quotes what Currie wrote on
the subject :

The geography of the infant school must be picturesque and descriptive , it must begin with
the natural elements that come under the child's observation, which must be diligently noted with
regard to their distance, their relative direction to the school and their relation to one another.

" We must also show the child, whenever possible, examples and pictures of foreign products and scenes,
and for the rest, we must appeal to its imagination, so that from the vividness of our description*
it may seize the idea ".

Appeal to the imagination ? But is not this an expedient of times gone by, an
archaic resource for the XX century, when we have the cinematograph to illustrate
the realities of life, the manners and customs of all the earth's inhabitants, in all their
detail ?

After the use of images, we come to the object-lesson, which most of all necessitates
a bility and experience, to avoid its becoming a mere seductive formality on the part
of the teacher and a sterile bore to the pupil. The proper object-lesson must not allow

- 622 -

words to be connected with things until a sure idea of the thing itself has been acquired,
thus promoting the education of the senses and of observation, since " the interest
aroused by concrete details is very great, it . . . is jthe easiest of all forms of scientific
interest ", and since the child's senses, new and fresh, need such exercise, to which
they lend themselves with pleasure . . .

Bain would extend the object-lesson, therefore, to every subject, in order that all
subjects may benefit by its innumerable advantages :

" The object-lesson extends to all the utilities of existence, all the processes of nature, beginning
with things familiar to children, enlarging their conception of them and endowing it with qualities
hitherto unknown , it proceeds by description and by diagram, from things which have to be learnt
the from very beginning and end in ths most abstruss actions of natural forces.

The visual method has its application, therefore, not only to every subject but
also at every stage of education. Once the principle is admitted (and how can
it be denied, in face of the imposing evidence in its favour) it is logical that it should
continue all through the educational period. Why deprive yonetis of those facilities they
enjoyed as boys ? why exact a disproportionate effort of attention from adolescence
and youth, when by a smaller expenditure of energy better results can be obtained ?

The beautiful and persuasive idea is gaining ground ; what has been done is the
best guarantee of what can be done, for it is not merely the few privileged children who
live in a metropolis who ought to grow up in a bright and cheerful school atmosphere,
but every child in the world, whether of town or country, has a right to that pleasant
and fruitful method of study that the visual method, rationally applied, ensures, puri-
fying the atmosphere, so to speak, and enriching it with the spiritual oxygen indispen-
sable to man, who lives not by bread alone.

(to be continued)

M. L. Rossi Longhi.

— 623 -

Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up
General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121-52-122
= 52-123 - 52-124 =

c@^^:>

== Telegrams : =^=
AN ONI MA PITTAt,VGA

Works

ROME: « Cities », (Sound,Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S. Giovanni)
TURIN: « Pontiva » — Cinematographic" Printing 'Works — " Via'Luisa- del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : S3, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
PARIS : Rue de la Chaussee d'Antin, 12. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

10 — Film Renting Agencies

10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel.: 72-8

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel. :
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef . :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Ugo Foscolo, 4 — Tel. : 51-174

— Telegrams : Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via Galliera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

7 — Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 — Tel. : 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta
Telegrams : Pilmbordo.

Tel. : 52-793 —

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Pilmbordo.

-624-

PARAMOUNT

SHATTERS ALL PAST RECORDS WITH
SURGE OF GOLDEN PICTURES

The documentary Film

" TUMGU „

(In the country of the Kariakis)

This film was taken by N. Merchin under
the direction of Alexander Litvinov in the
sub-polar region formed by the North-East
angle of the Sea of Okhotsk, in the district
of Penjino.

" Tumgu " gives an excellent idea of the
Kariakis, their life, habits and the conditions
under which they live in the savage and incle-
ment tundra of Kamckatska. In our time,
there still live 7434 Kariakis divided into two
groups ; those of the littoral consisting of a
fixed population of hunters and fishermen,
and the nomad Kariakis of the interior who
breed reindeer. The latter live in transport-
able tents of reindeer hide, and pass the winter
in the mountains where the North wind pre-
vents them being buried under great strata
of snow. In the summer, they come down
to the river mouths for fishing, but the chief
occupation of the nomads is the rearing and
hunting of reindeer. This animal supplies
the Kariakis with all they need : skins for
the tents, clothing and food. Even the rein-
deers veins are utilized and take the place of
thread for sewing garments. The reindeer,
moreover, can be broken to drawing sleighs,
thus serving as a rapid and most useful means
of locomotion for the nomads. The non-
nomad Kariakis living along the sea-board are
hunters and fishermen. They use dogs for
their sleighs instead of reindeer, like the
nomads.

The inhabitants of the village of Parenne
of the Poitolu group possess smithies, and
can work iron. They obtain all that is nec-
essary for hunting, for getting their liv-
ing, and the objects necessary for their prim-
itive existence in the State factories and the
cooperatives that for some time have been dis-

tributed throughout Kamckatska. They sell
their produce and game to these cooperatives.

The wholly original type of existence and
the costumes of the Kariakis are of the great-
est interest. The spectator of the film
sees the catching of the reindeer with the
" ciait ", a kind of lasso, hunts for wild
reindeer and sea-calves and fishing of the
strangest and most interesting kind. The
whole families of the Kariakis take part in the
chase and in fishing expeditions, and even
the dogs take their share in catching the big
salmon and the enormous turbots.

The Kariakis, barely touched by civiliza-
tion, have maintained intact their superstit-
ions and their religious customs. When they
celebrate the arrival of winter, they offer
sacrifices of their dogs to God and they hang
the bodies of the victims outside their tents so
that He can see them. The old folk still
believe in the miraculous and supernatural
powers of the " schamans ", who are sup-
posed to cure the sick by means of magic
and spells, driving away the evil spirits with
desperate contortions of the body and fan-
tastic dances, beating drums the meanwhile.
Naturally the number of sick people who
succumb to this treatment is considerably
elevated.

The Kariakis have maintained the customs
of cremation according to the primitive sys-
tems of burning the dead. According to
local custom, the widow remains indoors
waiting to see the smoke arising from the
funeral pyre. Those who have taken part
in the funeral procession, when they return
homewards, seek to destroy all traces of
their footsteps, or to disguise their trails,
so that the dead man cannot find his way

626-

A Kariak hunting

Building a boat

- 627-

Reindeer in the " Tundra '

Cremation of^a Dead Kariak

- 628 -

Native striking the flint

back, or ever return to his village. The Ka-
riakis have no written language, but possess
a sort of sign-writing, through which, by
means of primitive drawings of ancient type,
they seek to translate their thoughts.

The final part of the film is consecrated
to the annual fair which assembles the greater
part of the population. The festival is
begun with reindeer races, with games and
wrestling. A great crowd gathers before a
loud-speaker to listen to the word of a com-
patriot who has pursued his studies at the
Normal School of Khabarovsh. The fair
only lasts three days, after which the natives
sell the skins they have gathered in their
hunting expeditions to the representatives of
the ANO who have come to the fair for this

purpose. They then spend their money on
necessities for themselves and their families.
The inhabitants of the " tundra " who
visit the annual fair have not only medical
and veterinary stations at their disposal, but
there is also a government registrar for re-
ceiving notices of births deaths and marriages.
In the evening, in the darkness of the polar
night, when the burning logs are casting
their reflections, one may hear the crisp rattle
of a portable cinema projector, and pictures
are cast on a rude screen which delight and
amaze the simple natives. When the Ka-
riakis see themselves on the screen, it is
likely that thy will better understand in the
darkness of their tents the marvel which has
been brought to their doors.

— 629 —

NEW CLASSROOM FILMS

THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS HAVE RECENTLY BEEN ADDED

- TO THE LIST OF EASTMAN CLASSROOM FILMS -

[iiBDiaBiBiaiBMiiiiaBiBaiBBiiiaiiiiDDBBSBHaaaaaiaiEaBBaBiiBiQiBsaBBEBaBBOsaaiiiBiiiaaiBBaBBoaaaaBOBiEiaaaiBaBBEBBianflfiflBa iiiaaiiBBDBDaaaaDOQBiDiiDaiaiBBBiiflDiBiiiBaQii

First Hid Series

Care of Minor Wounds

Carrying the Injured

Control of Bleeding

Life Saving & Resuscitation

:o:

Cleanliness Series

Bathing

Clean Clothes

Clean Face and Hands

Keeping the Hair Clean

Home Nursing Series

The Bed Bath ~ ~ ~
~ ~ Routine Procedures
Special Procedures ~ ~

Miscellaneous : Under-Sea Life ; Oysters ; Development of a
Bird Embryo ; Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders ; Peasant Life in

Hungary; Peru

mnniHimiiaimiiiiiramauiiininmiiiiiimiiiiniiiiiiiiiH

For fall information and prices, address

liUSSSllllUUIIIIIIMIIUHl

EASTMAN TEACHING FILMS, INC.

SUBSIDIARY OF EASTMAN KODAK Co. - ROCHESTER, N.Y., U.S.A.

630

Legislation

CINEMA CENSORSHIP IN PERU

The national giunta for censoring cinema
films was established by the Government
following a suggestion from a minister of
Justice and Education who had already
several excellent initiatives to his credit in
the matter of improving child morality.
The actual creation of the censorship, ho-
wever, depended on a proposal of the Na-
tional Council of Women, federated to si-
milar institutions in other civilized countries.
The central organization of these councils
is, of course, the Women's International
Council with head offices in London, the
president of which is the Marchioness of
Aberdenn and Temair.

In 1925, the position of the cinema in
Lima and the whole republic was far from
satisfactory. Films were shown without
any consideration of their moral content,
and there was no change in the programmes
of the films shown on Saturdays and Sun-
days for the so called children's hours
which were regularly frequented by students
from the colleges. Even the most conscien-
tious mothers had no chance of inquiring
into the morality of the films about to be
shown, apart from what they could learn
from the titles which are often rather mis-
leading. Seeing, moreover, that all the
college students were able to attend the
shows, it was far from easy to deprive a
boy of this particular amusement which he
could not easily find elsewhere.

At this point, the delegate of an associa-
tion for Sunday catechism raised the point
in a general meeting of the Women's Na-
tional Council of the desirability of request-
ing the Inspector of public spectacles in
Lima to introduce a form of censorship for
films destined for children. The sugges-

tion was welcomed and approved by the
Council. The inspector of shows attached
to the municipality of Lima, Senor San-
tiago Poppe received the idea with enthu-
siasm, and undertook to organize a wo-
men's committee which should meet every
week and examine the films about to be
shown at the trade views, afterwards giving
a certificate of " nulla ostat " for those films
which they approved for children's vision.
The municipality allowed it to be known
that it would not allow films to be seen by
children without such certificates.

This embryonic organization awoke such
enthusiasm in public opinion that the Peru-
vian government decided to establish wi-
thout further delay a regular official form
of cinema censorship for the entire territory
of the republic. The following decree
contained the details of the measure :
" The President of the Republic,

In view of the fact that :
in order to assure the cultural value of
cinematographic spectacles, and in order
to avoid the pernicious effects of immoral
films, it is necessary that films be examined
through previous exhibition before they are
shown to the public on the screen,

that it is the first duty of government
to adopt all necessary measures for the pro-
tection of public morality,

decrees ;

1) the creation of a giunta of censors
of cinematographic films with head office
in Lima to be charged with exercising a
control over the films shown in the entire
territory of the republic ;

2) the giunta will consist of seven mem-
bers chosen by the government, two of such

4 let ingl.

- 632 -

members belonging to the Women's Na-
tional Council ;

3) no films of any description may be
shown in public halls unless they have
previously been passed by the censors'
giunta. Municipalities must not grant li-
cences for projections except of films unless
furnished with the foregoing certificate of
nulla ostat from the censors.

4) The Giunta in examining films must
divide them into two cztegories, namely
those suitable for adults only and those con-
sidered adapted for children and young
people. The giunta must also require
that the titles and running comment are in
correct form and in the Spanish languge,
or translated into that language ;

5) the admission of minors into cinema
halls showing films of the first category
will not be permitted ;

6) the fees to which the giunta is entitled
are made up as follows :

a) a payment of 5 soles for each film
examined ;

b) the amount of the fines which may
be imposed for infractions of the law. For
the first offence, the fine is fixed at Lp 5
and for successive infractions it will be
doubled.

7) The Minister of Instruction in charg-
ed with the revision of the budget of the
giunta of censors, and any surplus will be
set aside to increase the funds of Maternal
Assistance Works ;

8) the members of the giunta of censors
will have free entry into public cinema
shows ;

9) the censor's giunta will draw up its
own regulations, submitting them later for
approval to the Education Ministry.

Given at Lima, June 11, 1926.

The President of the Republic

Maguina ».

Three days afterwards, by order of the
Ministry of Education, the members of the
giunta were nominated. Two fo the mem-
bers belonged to the Women's National

Council, and of the five men, one was a
functionary of the Education ministry,
another one of the most noted psychiatrists
of Peru, besides two lawyers. The giunta
proceeded without delay to the drawing up
of its regulations, taking as model the re-
gulations in force in Germany, with the
changes and modifications required by the
special conditions of life obtaining in Peru.
The giunta began work at once without
losing any time, and its first duties were
somewhat laborious for it turned out that
one of the principal firms in the city was
engaged in arranging the renting of a film
that was plainly of an immoral character
and has been preceeded by a scandal. The
film in question was not passed by the cen-
sors, and both public and renters understood
that the giunta intended to carry out the
task with which, it had been entrusted
with the greatest energy and severity.

Since this time, the censors giunta has
altered its organization and its original
regulations as the result of experience in
its work. The alterations have been, how-
ever, modifications in the matter of de-
tails, which have not introduced substantial
novelties into the general principles esta-
blished by the decree of 1926. A third
members of the Women's National Council
was added to represent an important phi-
lanthropic institution. Four men complete
the composition of the giunta, which is
presided over by a magistrate.

The present regulations of the giunta,
dating from May 6, 1 927 are as follows : —

Art. 1 . — The censors' giunta must safe-
guard the morality of cinema spectacles
for the entire territory of Peru, forbidding
the exhibition of immoral films or films of
anti-national or anti-social, character, or
such films as may tend towards encourag-
ing vice or criminality.

Art. 2. — The giunta is composed of
seven members : the youngest judge of the
Superior Court of Lima acting as president,
two ladies representing the Women s Na-
tional Council and four other members
chosen by the Education ministry, one of

- 633 -

whom, will receive a stipend while the others
are under obligation to give permanent
service.

Art. 3. — The municipalities of the Re-
public must not grant licences for exhibit-
ing films that have not passed the censor's
giunta and received its approval.

Art. 4. — The giunta will chose the sa-
laried censor by election and will nominate
such employees as it may consider neces-
sary for the effective carrying out of its
work. It will at the same time settle the
duties of the salaried censor and those of
the employees, fixing their remuneration at
the same time.

Art. 5. — The President will preside over
the meetings of the giunta and will repre-
sent it officially.

Art. 6. — The giunta will hold its sitt-
ings every fortnight at least half the giunta
being present in order to form a quorum.

Art. 7. — The President will take part
in the ordinary meetings of the giunta
and will convoke extraordinary sessions
when such may be necessary and request
has been made for this purpose by mem-
bers of the giunta. In this case, the agenda
of the meeting being convoked must be
notified.

Art. 8. — Decisions are to arrived by a
majority of votes.

Art. 9. — The films examined by the
giunta and approved by the same are to be
classified according to their moral tone as
being suitable for exhibition before adults
of for minors and children. The term
" minors " must be held to include persons
of either sex who have not yet reached the
age of 1 8 years while the term " young
persons " must be held to include girls
even older than 18.

Art. 10. — Films imported by govern-
ment authority for scientific or educational
purposes will not be subjected to censorship.

Art. 11. — One week at least prior to the
date of expected release, the firms import-
ing films must deliver the same to the giunta
of censors in order that they may be examin-
ed and passed upon. The firm desiring

the giunta's approval of the film submitted
must supply the following information :

a) the name of the cinematographic
firm,

b) the original title of the film,

c) the length in metres of the film,

d) a copy containing the plot,

e) the number of reals.

Art. 12. — The giunta is entitled to de-
mand by way of honorarium the payment
of one centavo per metre of film with a
minimum of 5 soles for films of not more
than 500 metres length.

Art. 13. — The income that may be der-
ived from the foregoing source, after de-
tracting the expenses required for the work-
ing of the censorship, shall be set aside
to increase the funds of the Maternal As-
sistance Institute.

Art. 14. — In all advertisements, program-
me, leaflets or any other form of advertis-
ing the fact that the film advertised has
been approved by the giunta of censors
must be mentioned.

Art. 15. — No requests for modification
of the decisions of the giunta for films pass-
ed for public vision will be accepted.

Art. 16. — It is forbiddent to show frag-
ments of films for advertising purposes
that have not yet been passed by the censors.

Art. 17. — In shows approved for minors
the inclusion of variety numbers in he
programme will not be permitted without
the special permit of the censors.

Art. 18. — In shows for minors, it is
forbidden to project cuts from films declared
suitable for adults and young people.

Art. 19. — In the case of films declared
suitable for adults boys and young girls of
less than 18 years of age must not be ad-
mitted even when accompanied by their
parents or other legally responsible persons.

Art. 20. — Infraction of the foregoing
regulations and laws will be punished by
fines of from five to ten Peruvian gold
pounds according to the gravity of the
offence committed. If a film not approved
by the censors or any part of it is shown
the giunta can order the sequestering of the

— 634 -

film and the closing of the hall wher it was
exhibited for a period of from one to five
months.

Art. 21. — The municipalities and the
police authorities will offer the giunta every
assistance for the carrying out of its de-
cisions.

. Art. 22. — If the giunta forbids the exhi-
bition of a film, the party interested can
make application for a reconsideration of
the film to the giunta itself.

Art. 23. — The examination of such film
will be made by a commission nominated
by the giunta among its own members, but
will be composed of persons who did not
take part in the first decision regarding the
film. The commission will make a final
decision in the matter and will notify the
result to the interested perxon. Such de-
cision is to be final.

Art. 24. — Appeal against sequesters of
closing of public halls may be made to the
government authorities who will take such
steps as they deem fit in the matter.

The regulations are carried out with an
efficiency and rapidity not common in our
South American republics, where conditions,
and the very character of the populations
themselves allow a certain tolerance in the
application of laws and orders. Since Peru
is a country of considerable size, with diffi-
culties in the matter of communications bet-
ween the various provinces, it comes about,
as a consequence, that the possibilities of
exercising control are much greater in the
capital than elsewhere. The giunta, from
its beginning insisted most efficaciously
with the local municipal authorities that
the importance of its work should be duly
understood, and its decisions rigorously
obeyed.

The giunta's work, apart from inevitable
criticisms, has won the complete support
of public opinion, and the exhibitors and
renters have come finally, if without enthu-
siasm, to adapt themselves to its criteria.
The giunta's decisions are virtually irre-
vocable, and as they are issued after very
careful consideration, the government au-

thorities support them without further
inquiry. The gounta has offices of its
own in a section of the Ministry of Justice
and Education, but it is quite autnomous,
and recognizes no other authority except
the minister and the President of the re-
public.

The internal working of the censorship
is as follows. Films presented for censor-
ing are consigned day by day into the hands
of the paid censor, and are also examined
in the evening by a lady chosen and re-
munerated by the giunta for this delicate
task. If the film examined contains no
features capable of creating objections, and
can easily be classified in one of the three
categories referred to already, one of the
two functionaries who have seen the film
applies his or her signature of approval.

If there is any element of doubt regarding
the suitability ofthe film for exhibition pur-
poses, it is run off again before one or more
other members of the giunta, who then decide
for approval or rejection.

Sometimes suggestions are made to the
renters as to the advisability of making cuts
in the film, but as a rule the giunta refrains
from this procedure which is likely to damage
the artistic character of the film, and in any
case is in the nature of a deception on the
public. Such cuts are sometimes agreed
upon for children's adventure films, where
the danger of creating artistic damage to the
film is small, but where on the other hand it
becomes advisable to eliminate scenes of
passion or brutality.

After all that has been written about the
censorship in the whole world, there is no
need for me to go further into the matter,
but I should like to add a few words on the
concepts ruling the working of the Peruvian
censorship. The giunta does everything it
can to find in films the degree of harm or good
that may exist in it for children or uncultivated
minds, and it does this not so much by con-
sidering individual scenes which may pre-
sent immoral or criminal characteristics,
as by judging the film as a whole and con-
sidering its total effect. The censorship

635

is carried out with broadminded ideas, and
account is duly taken of the change in man-
ners and habits as well of opinions in the
world v liberty in which young folk live
to-day. The giunta endeavours to avoid
pedantry and exaggerations, and limits its
activity to combatting rigorously everything
of an immoral or criminal nature.

From the time of its creation the giunta
has only denied its approval to a limited
number of films, one of which was made in
Peru. In the case of this particular film,
following the ban, the strongest political
influences in the country were brought into
play in order to obtain the revocation of
the ban, but since it was amply justified,
the President of the republic confirmed the
opinions of the giunta of censors, after merely
hearing verbal explanations, and without
ordering a fresh vision of the film in question.
The Peruvian censors* giunta gave proofin
this occasion of notable independence of
spirit and moral courage.

If we take account of the conditions un-
der which the great majority of the inhabi-
tants of Peru live and the enormous spread of
the cinema throughout the country it will
be easier to understand the importance of a
service like film censorship. In the coast
regions, there is a cinema hall for every in-
habited centre, as well as one for every im-
portant cotton or sugar factory. In the Sier-
ras of the Andes, the difficulties of communi-
cation put a limit to the spread of the cinema,
but, nevertheless, there are several localities
where the screen reveals to the amazed eyes
of the poorest native population marvellous
visions of a far-off unknown wonderful world.

Mercedes Gallagher de Parks.

The article on the Peruvian censorship by
Madame Mercedes Gallagher Parks is com-
plete in itself, and has no need of explanations,
apart from those few we will add in view of
recent alterations in the laws and regulations
that have come into force since the article Was
written.

The modifications referred to are substan-
tially as follows :

a) A decree of July 12, 1930 issued by the
the President of the Republic amplifying the
content of the decree signed on June 11,1 926
No. 1394 which forms the basis for the censors'
work makes it obligatory on all the cinema
firms to consign in advance to the censors in
order to facilitate their work the scripts of the
films which will require censoring.

The object behind this new regulation is to
avoid cinema firms incurring heavy expenses
for producing films which the censors after-
wards find themselves obliged to ban or modify.
The examination in advance of the story of
the film makes it easier for suggestions to be
incorporated by the producers in the final ver-
sion of the film.

b) An increase of 50 per cent on the fee
due to the giunta of censors for examining sound
films. The increase is based on the major pro-
fit derived from those cinema firms dealing
in sound films. In connection with this pro-
vision, mention should be made of a lively
open letter from Senor Eduardo Rodrigo, of
the "Empresa de Teatros y Cinemas di Lima ".
The writer detailed a critical examination of
the financial position of the film industry in
the newspaper. ' Prensa " of Lima in the issue
of October 1 0, 1 930, and urged the revocation
of the new order.

c) A decree dated 12 June 1941 was is-
sued by the President of the Republic whereby
in view of the fact that the work of cinemato-
graphic censorship has a fundamental national
educational aspect, it became necessary, to
create a superior organ of censorship, wherein
other organizations directly interested in the
matter should have part. The creation there-
fore of a Superior College of censors for cinema
films was ordered to be composed of the follow-
ing members : 1) The Dean of the Faculty or
Letters at the University of San Marco ;

2) The Director of examinations and stu-
dies ;

3) The Inspector of theatrical spectacles
attached to the Provincial Council of Lima ;

4) The Director of the National School
of Fine Arts ;

- 636

5) The President of the Journalists'
Association.

According to the decree, the new body will
exercise its functions in a purely honorary cap-
acity, and will have at its disposal the Censors'
giunta, the members of which are to be consulted
in case of necessity. The nomination of the
members of the giunta is to lie with the
Superior Institute, and is to be made through
the Education ministry. The decree provides,
moreover, that all members of the Superior
Institute shall be entitled to a card of free
entry into all cinema halls, and that the new
body shall frame regulations and standing orders
in the same way as was done by the giunta.

Precise information is lacking regarding

these regulations. It would appear, though,
from a reading of the regulations obtained in
the decree itself that the regulations of the de-
cree of 1 927 remain as the models for further
rules and orders. The members of the giunta
remain the same in number, and are to be chos-
en according to suggestions put forward by
the Superior Institute.

d) By letter of 4 May 1932, the Inspec-
tor of theatrical spectacles attached to the Lima
Provincial Council officially communicates that
the municipal council had authorized the In-
spectorate to take only 50 per cent of the fees
fixed by the tariff for films intended for mi-
nors or shown in afternoon performances for
children.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

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OF THE

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2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
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National Committees of the /. /. C. E.

CHILE

On May 15 the first number of
" Cine-educativo ", a fortnightly bulletin
of the Institute of Educational Cinemato-
graphy of the university of Chile made its
appearance. The Chilean institute is the
organ officially recognized by the I.I.E.C.
for that country.

The Rome Institute is glad to welcome
the publication on behalf of all interested
in the educational film as a first step taken
by Spanish America, which will doubtless
be followed by similar institutes in neigh-
bouring countries.

In an editorial note, Armando Rojas
Castro, director of the Chilean Institute
states clearly and soberly " There is only
one definite remedy for all your national ills :
the school in the widest sense of its noble act'
ivity ". These words do not need comment,
for they are fully effective and charged with

meaning themselves. The more so because
the bulletin gives us statistical information
of the highest value regarding the activity
of the Santiago institute and the scholastic
film in Chile.

In 1931, there were 79 projection machines
in use. The school classes using the film
as an auxiliary teaching method numbered
6207, of which 4891 were in Santiago itself.
There were moreover 60 offices, establish-
ments of associated bodies connected with
the Chilean Institute, while 346 teachers
followed the cine-didactic courses and 37
new films for teaching childen were put
into circulation.

The review wishes its distant colleague
the widest spread of activity and hopes
that the example of Chile may be followed
elsewhere in order to help on the work of
social education.

— 638 -

" PANKINE „
" SPECIAL „
" EXTRA-RAPID „
" KINECHROM „
" AEROGHROM „
" TROPICAL „
" SUPERPAN „

" R-FILM „

Sound RecordinD Stock Tf. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound RecordinD Slock TL 4

for Variable Area Process

Information and Comment

THE "URANIA,, FILMS IN AUSTRIA

The Viennese " Urania ", a national
institution of an educational character was
founded in 1897 on the model of the " Ura-
nia " of Berlin, which, in its turn, was
created by Meyer and known as the " Ura-
nia-Meyer ". In imitation of the latter,
the Vienna " Urania " also initiated its
activity with conferences and spectacles on
subjects of natural science, a form of repre-
sentation now out of date, but one which
had at the time an educational-social value
that was not be despised.

With the aid of photographs and a great
scenic display, natural science, technical and
geographical themes were dealt with at
such conferences, as for example, a trip to
the moon, struggles at the North Pole and
suchlike subjects. The first conference of
a technological character given by the Vienna
" Urania " was on the subject of " iron ",
and illustrated the extraction of the ore
its smelting, working, etc. It was in 1898
that in order better to illustrate a technical
conference the educational film found a
place in the spectacle.

Enriched with photographs and so called
living cinematograms, such conferences on
natural science were, as far back as the year
1898, accessible to young people, and stu-
dents who lived an hour's journey in a train
from the capital attended with their teachers
projections which were considered precious
aids to their education.

From that time on, the cinema has consti-
tuted for the Vienna " Urania " an integral
element of its national educational activity.
Its lending library of cultural and educational
films, which today comprises about 450,000
metres of film, already existed in 1901,
when recourse was had to the cinema to

illustrate conferences both for the general
public and for students. Later, in 1910,
special cinema performances were given
from time to time, at which short educational
films of every kind were shown. In 1921,
these " shorts " were substituted by long
metrage films of a documentary nature.
The projection of educational films as part
of the programme of the Urania of Vienna,
and especially conference films for scholars
have continued up to the present time.

The work carried out today in six months
by the Vienna Urania includes hundreds of
elementary and superior courses in all
branches of science and work, popular
conferences, scholastic trips and excur-
sions, meteorological observations and stu-
dies in a national observatory, as well as
the study of the arts in their various mani-
festations. To this body of productions
must be added the daily work in the cultural
film studios, the renting of films, as well
as the courses and special projections for
the unemployed given in the morning.

The Vienna " Urania " possesses a large
building of its own with eight conference
halls holding from 100 to 600 persons.
The superior and elementary courses are
not only held here, but also in the various
evening schools of Vienna.

The big cultural films have as a rule an
educative character and deal with sport,
travel, expeditions, geography and world
ethnology, natural science and astronomy,
the marvellous products of human activity
and the art of the cinema. The cinemato-
graphic exhibitions are completed with
educational films of every kind, and some-
times with fable-films for the young.

With few exceptions, the films projected

640 -

at the " Urania " of Vienna are the pro-
perty of the association itself, which has
acquired the rights for the whole of Austria.

A renting department offers the schools,
cultural associations and cinemas of Austria
the films of which they may have need.
The meterage rented runs from about 4000
to 5000 kilometres of film per year, which
is about 2000 metres for each evening pro-
gramme.

In June 1928, the Vienna "Urania"
organized in Austria the first sound cinema

spectacles, giving performances in provin-
cial cinemas with portable apparatus.

The Vienna " Urania " is an association
of public utility, which, with its 50,000
or so members at Vienna, finds indepen-
dently the means to carry on its work.

In the various Austrian federal towns
over 60 cultural associations have been
created on the model of the Urania. These
associations bear the name " Urania ", and
develop throughout the country a work of
general utility.

THE CINEMA IN TURKEY

The cinema has always interested Turkey.
I remember vaguely that in 1896 a hall
was opened for moving pictures at Pera,
but the absolute regime of the Sultanate
never tolerated anything which looked like
a scientific innovation. Up to the time
of the proclamation of the Turkish consti-
tution, that is until July 25 1908, neither
cinematography, electric light, electric trams
or automobiles were known at Istambul.
Only a few cities like Salonicca, Smyrne
and Beyrouth enjoyed some of these invent-
ions. The cinema existed at Salonicca
during the seven years that I lived there,
that is between 1905 and 1912.

A certain Weinberg, a photographer had
made great efforts to open a cinema palace
at Istambul, but only succeeded in doing
so after the proclamation of the constitution.

Many others have been opened since.
Before the world war, not only Istambul,
but almost all the big cities of the Empire
had their public places of amusement, and
the French and American productions were
those most in favour with the public.

Towards 1914, a Turkish cinematograph
company was formed at Istambul with the
title " Ipekci kardesler-freres Ipekci ". It
opened two large halls at Pera, the " Alham-
bra " and the " Melek ". From that time
on, cinema companies and houses multi-
plied. The original company also projected
a silent Turkish films, " Atesten Gomlek ",

based on the heroic romance of the celebrated
Turkish novelist Halid Edip Hanin. It
was a beginning which deserved encoura-
gement, and was in fact excellently and
enthusiastically received by the public.

Especially after the war of independence,
the cinema enjoyed a great development in
Turkey, and it has been only the present
economic crisis which has to some extent
arrested its advance.

Last year the Ipekci Company launched
two big Turkish films : " Istanbul soka-
klarinda " (In the streets of Istambul) "
and " Kacakcilar " (Smugglers). These
films were partly silent and partly spoken.
The necessary artists were recruited from
the Municipal Theatre ; " Darriilbedayi ".

A recently formed company has recently
opened a studio where a hundred per cent
Turkish talking film is in course of pre-
paration.

The Turkish public is mentally quite
ready to appreciate any type of psychological
film. Those based on frivolous stories do
not attract it ; the general preference being
for films with a romantic background.

With regard to the educational film, in
view of difficulties of an economic nature,
nothing of much importance has been done
up to the present moment. At the same
time, in almost every secondary school
there is to be found a cinema projector.
The films shown are always of an industrial

641 -

character, and as such have a certain edu-
cational value. Some scientific films have
also been imported.

Formerly films were censored by the
police administration of Istambul, but for
some time now a special office has been
entrusted with this task. Films of political
propaganda are not permitted.

The moral censorship is extremely strict,
and not only are films with erotic scenes

forbidden, but even pictures which err on
the side of being rather daring.

Existing laws forbid children under 7 fre-
quenting cinemas during the daytime, and
children under 12 during the evening per-
formances. Municipal regulations deal with
preventing overcrowded or unhealthy cin-
ema halls.

Kazim Nami.

CINEMA PRODUCTION

Herr Arthur von Klein-Ehrenwalten of
Berlin publishes under the title of " Zeit-
film " in the weekly " Schonere Zukunft "
of Vienna and Ratisbon, (Nos. 38 and 40 of
June 19 and July 3, 1932) two articles in
which he sets forth his opinion on the cur-
rent cinematography production from the
Catholic point of view. As a consequence,
the purely aesthetic side of the film does
not seem to him of decisive importance, and
the content of a film interests him just as
much as the form.

He reproves the producers of theatrical
films with disassociating themselves at any
cost from the big problems which agitate
the world to-day. He attacks the American
output strongly, as well as the American type
of film, which shows an easy and luxurious
life. He attacks it for its falsity and hypo-
crisy and for the suggestive and demoralizing
influence it has on the public. He protests
against the importance given to certain in-
cidents of an erotic character and to sex
appeal films. He, moreover, shows himself
a severe critic of all film output in general
which appears to him to have a rather low
level. A list of films empty of content comes
under his strictures, and many military films
dealing with the old Austria of the Haps-
burgs are included in it. The public does in-
deed seem to be becoming tired of such films,
turning its interest towards other pictures of
a different nature.

Herr von Klein-Ehrenwalten discusses

comic films, for which he displays a marked
partiality, He says a good word also for de-
tective films. In the matter of Russian films
Herr Klein-Ehrenwalten thinks them too
full of political propaganda. Here we can-
not altogether agree with him, especially
as regards his somewhat summary criticism
of the two Pudowking films " The Mechan-
ism of the Brain " and the " Suchrum Mon-
key ". The writer, on the other hand, re-
cognizes the technical value of the Soviet
films, especially the Soviet silent films, which
the author declares to be models in the tech-
nical and propaganda fields. For such films
as Pabst's " Kameradschaft " and war films
in general the German writer recognizes
their efficacy as peace propaganda.

The writer's views on films of voyages and
expeditions are particularly interesting. He
urges producers to stick to the truth, to sim-
plicity and persuasive methods, without
which cinematographic art is impossible.
Sensational and terrifying scenes ought, ac-
cording to the writer, to be banned entirely.
The best travelogues and films of expeditions
are those where the action is reduced to the
smallest proportions.

The visible progress occurring at present
in cinema technique is commented on by the
writer, who also notes improvement in the
choice of subjects.

The articles are interesting in so much as
they give an idea of the film of to-day from
a Catholic point of view.

- 642

THE "SAXONY,, CINEMA TEACHING OFFICE

Despite the financial difficulties due to
the economic situation of Germany, the
" Saxony " Cinema Teaching Bureau has
succeeded during the eighth year of its
existence to make remarkable progress. In
view of the general depression which has
spread over the educational field this year,
the bureau has thought it its urgent duty
not to abandon its propaganda by means
of films and luminous projections. Dur-
ing the winter, eleven conferences were
organized under its auspices, some accom-
panied by films or still projections. These
conferences were given gratis to the public.
During the month of February of this year,
a propaganda exhibition was arranged in
its offices showing pictures taken from an
aeroplane flying at considerable height.
Both private and public organizations saw
these films. The bulletin issued by the
Office was published five times during
1931-32. Unfortunately, after the financial
catastrophe of July 1931, it became neces-
sary to effect considerable reductions in
the programme of the Office, which never-
theless, thanks to public and private help,
succeeded in increasing its cinema library
which now contains 19,214 negatives, espec-
ially of Saxon and German subjects.

The collection of positives which compris-
es series and single pictures was increased

to 42,050 examples, which can be borrowed
on payment of sums varying from the most
modest figure upwards. During 1931-32,
the loans included 55,060 positives. The
Office's contribution to free popular edu-
cation and to conferences for the unem-
ployed was remarkable. The cinema li-
brary, thanks to the work of artists and
gifts from outside was increased by 6620
metres, reaching a total of 151,489 metres.
During the year the Office lent 2,764,475
metres of film, including film coming from
other cinema archives asked for by the
" Saxony " bureau. The figure showed a
slight drop in comparison with the previous
year, due to the crisis in the silent film.
Scholastic cinemas are not all of them wired
for sound owing to reasons of economy.
Notwithstanding this, 277 scholastic cine-
mas did business with the " Saxony "
Teaching Office. It was possible as a
result of the year's activities, to make a
report to the Bildspielbund on reduced
size film experiments, and to recommend
the adoption of 1 6 mm. film for scholastic use.
This summarizes the activity of the
" Saxony " Office during its eighth year
of existence, and suggests that this activity
will gradually increase both in the interests
of German cinematography and the educat-
ional film in general.

Eva Elie, our esteemed and brilliant collaborator has just joined the staff, as chief sub-ed-
itor, of the "Effort Cinegraphique Suisse ", the official organ of the" Association Cinematogra-
phique Suisse Allemande, edited by Jean Hennard.

Our readers already know the lively activity and tenacious will which M.de Eva Elie has
displayed for cinema interests, sometimes in our own pages.

We are glad to recall her name again, and wish her every success in asserting the value and
rights of the cinema in Switzerland.

643 —

, he>ai> offices ==

51, Via Sallustiana :: ROME :: 38, Via S. Basilio

ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DELLE ASSICURAZIONI

takes into thorough consideration the corporative constitution of the Fascist State, and in consequence, has made provision
that the public shall have the opportunity of enjoying the advantages of insurance not only in connection with private and
family interests, but for all syndical cases.

The Institute has therefore for some time now made arrangements to undertake collective or individual forms of
insurance which may be called :

ASSURANCE OF CLASSES

such assurances take account of the particular conditions and necessities of the classes or categories being assured.

Such contracts, though of a voluntary nature for the individual members of each class or category, offer at the
same time

ESPECIALLY FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS

among these conditions may be mentioned :

Suspension, up to a year, of payment of premiums in case of unemployment, while the policy remains in full force, provided
that at least two years' full premiums have already been paid.

Larger surrender value than for ordinary policies, payable normally [after the premiums for two instead of three years
have been regularly paid.

Smaller duties on contracts.

Facilitations for sickness risks if required.

Dispensation, generally, from medical examination for supplementary policies.

Faculty accorded to the policy holder to convert the totality or a part of the capital assured in a life pension, at the lapse
of the policy.

The development reached in these new forms of insurance is remarkable because the Istituto Nazionale delle Assi-
curazioni taking into full consideration the

ORGANIC OBJECTS OF THE FASCIST CORPORATIVE STATE

has already made a number of special policies, among which it is interesting to note the following:

Members of the National Providential Institute of Italian Journalists entitled " Arnaldo Mussolini*' ;

Members of the National Fascist Association of Directors of Industrial firms ;

Pilots, instructors and controllers of trials and tests of firms belonging to the National Fascist Federation of the Mechan-
ical and Metallurgic Industries ;

Technicians and Employees of the Sardinian Mines;

National Fascist Confederation of Agriculturists ;

National Federation of Beet-growers;

Sickness Institute for Commercial Employees ;

Institute for Fascist Commercial Syndicates ;

Institute for Fascist Industrial Syndicates ;

Various Port and Harbour Bodies and Associations, etc.

Several, other conventions and policies are awaiting approval and as a result it can be forseen that shortly all the
classes and categories included in the Italian Corporative system will be able to enjoy, in the matter of life insurance
whether in; the ordinary form, or the popular form without obligation of medical examination, a form of assurance
based on technical criteria in full sympathy with the various professional, trade or other requirements of today.

PARTICPIATION IN PROFITS IS ALLOWED TO THOSE WHO TAKE ADVAN-
TAGE OF THE FOREGOING SYNDICAL OR COLLECTIVE FORM OF INSURANCE

For information and plans of policies, apply to the General Management of the Institute in Rome of the various
sub-offices.

644

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

Technical Notes

THE MOTION PICTURE AND THE AMERICAN SCHOOL

A quarter-century ago in America, the
pioneer automobilist found himself seriously
handicapped by absence of suitable roads.
And the highway authorities, when approach-
ed, replied that they saw no reason to build
wider, straighter, and smoother roads for
automobiles, when practically no automobiles
existed.

No roads — no automobiles. No aut-
mobiles — no roads. It seemed like a
vicious circle, from which there could be
no escape. Yet an escape was found. To-
day automobiles are numbered in the mil-
lions, and good roads have multiplied be-
yond the fondest dreams.

A similar situation has prevailed with
respect to the educational motion picture.
Some educators have demanded that the
commercial film producers guarantee an
ample and perfectly correlated supply of
teaching films before equipment and film
is bought by the school. The film producers
have maintained that their production must
be for a profitable market, otherwise there
could be no production. The argument
has also been put forward that the educators
themselves do not know what they really
want in the line of educational films. Equip-
ment manufacturers have tried to find a
way out of this dilemma, in order that the
school market might be opened up for
equipment sales.

The solution is being sought very much
as in the case of the automobile and its roads
— in a gradual process of adaptation.
Film producers have gone into education ;
schools have gone into film production ;
equipment manufacturers have gone into
both film production and education ; and,
finally a common meeting ground has been

found in such clearing house organizations
as the National Academy of Visual Instruc-
tion Section of the National Education As-
sociation. The final unification of all organiz-
ed visual instruction forces in the United
States into a single well-knit organization
promises an auspicious future for this organ-
ization.

Especially in the American schools co-
ordination is extremely necessary. Where-
as in most European countries the visual
instructionist looks for his material to a
few rather well-organized official or semi-
official centers, in the United States one of
the main difficulties is the very multiplicity
of sources, none of them really adequate
or complete in themselves.

Many Sources of Motion picture Ma-
terial.

An American teacher, desiring to obtain
an educational motion picture film, finds
it necessary to turn to any or all of the fol-
lowing sources :

I. Visual Instruction Department of the
municipal school system. An excellent and
comprehensive survey recently completed
by Dr. F. Dean McClusky speaks of 205
such city departments, the equipment of
which varies all the way from a few dozen
slides to such splendidly administered re-
sources as we find in the City of Philadel-
phia. There 2,000,000 feet of 16 mm. film
and several hundred projectors are available.
Expenditures for visual instruction in 14
major cities, Dr. McClusky informs us,
totalled 3 % million dollars during the
last eight years, increasing steadily from
$370,000 in 1923 to $830,000 in 1931.

- 646

Twenty smaller cities would add another
$ 600,000 to the eight year total. The
value of equipment owned by these 34
cities and by 19 state universities adds
up to $ 3,598,073. This includes 2579
motion picture projectors, of which 417
were bought in 1931, the bulk of the new
additions being 16mm. machines.

2. State visual instruction centers, usually
an activity of the extension division of the
state university, but are sometimes directly
administered by the State Department of
Education. There are 28 of these centers ;
23 of them are known to have spent in 1930
the sum of $270,000 for visual aids and
service, as against $ 190,000 in 1923.

While these sums are not so great as those
expended by the largest municipal visual
instruction centers, they represent invest-
ments in service and in film, chiefly 16 mm
upon which hundreds of schools in smaller
cities and in rural areas are wholly depend-
ent. Unknown five years ago, the 16 mm.
educational film now outranks the older
35 mm. material in all the more advanced
state centers. The " Handbook of Visual
Instruction ", published by the University
of Kansas under the direction of Ellsworth C.
Dent, devotes 37 pages to 1 6 mm. films
and only 15 to the 35 mm. It is definitely
stated that " the increase in the use of 16mm.
motion pictures for educational purposes
is causing a decrease in the use of 35 mm.
films ". The trend of development is
clearly shown also in a report by J. E. Han-
sen, Chief of the Visual Instruction Bureau,
at the University of Wisconsin, which en-
tered the field of 16mm. service at a relatively
late date. Yet in October 1931 he wrote:
" Last year the proportion of standard width
films to the narrower 16 mm. width, was
about three to one, as used in our state,
while this year we are sending out more of
the narrow width than we are of the standard
width ".

3. Museums, both state and city, frequent-
ly maintain extensive film service. Twenty-
two such museums are listed by the National
Academy of Visual Instruction. The larg-

est among them, the New York Museum
of Natural History, for many years carried
on the bulk of visual instruction work for
the New York schools, both as a film deposit-
ory and as a teacher training center. Two
regular weekly courses with about 75 teacher
pupils are given here in principles and prac-
tise of visual instruction conference drew
an attendance of 1600 teachers. The educa-
tional museums of Cleveland and of St. Louis
embody the visual instruction departments
of the schools of those two cities.

4. Individual School Film Libraries are
being built up in a number of centers, on
the correct theory that a necessary motion
picture film should be just as instantly
accessible as a necessary map or reference
book. In some rural areas a group of
schools pool their resources to form a co-
operative film library on a county scale.

5. Federal Government Departments offer
films free to schools. The Bureau of Mines
has several scores of films relating to mining
the production, cost of which was paid by
commercial interests. The Department of
Agriculture has a fine list of more than 250
of its own productions, totalling over
3,000,000 feet, which are loaned out free
or sold at extremely low rates. The Child-
ren's Bureau and the Women's Bureau,
each have a short list of films sent free to
schools. The Navy Department offers free
16 mm. talking pictures. Some government
departments in the several states likewise
have free films, among them the New York,
Rhode Island, and Illinois Health Depart-
ments, Michigan Conservation Department,
Maine Publicity Department, etc. Such
government departments offer their newer
subjects in 16 mm. width, and some report
that demand in this width far exceeds
supply.

6. Commercial producers of teaching films
do not as a rule rent or loan their films to
schools, but offer their product for outright
sale. The various types of educational
centers listed above purchase these films
and loan or rent them to the schools. A
realization of the size of the potential school

— 647 —

market, hastened by the reduction in theatric-
al profits resulting from the protracted econ-
omic depression, has focused the attention
of the big theatrical film producers upon
the educational film. It is significant that
Dr. McClusky's report was prepared at the
request and expense of the Motion Picture
Producers and Distributors of America, the
so-called " Hays organization ". The in-
vestment in non-theatrical projectors (not
all in schools, however) in the United States
today is estimated at about seventy million
dollars. A survey of 1463 school authorities
listed as identified with visual instruction,
indicates an average annual expenditure of
$ 1,352.26, of which $ 179.38 went for films,
165.83 for slides and $208.82 for projection
apparatus. It is pointed out that if the
Pennsylvania " Minimum Standards of
Equip-ment " were carried out throughout the
country (16 mm. projector in every school,
35 mm. portable only in largest) it would
represent a potential market of 150 million
dollars. There is no wonder, then, that
the educational market now attracts more
commercial attention than ever before.

Among the chief commercial producers
of teaching films we find Eastman, with
200 reels (exclusively 16 mm.) completed,
75 in production and 50 more planned.
Erpi has 60 pictures completed (talkies,
both 16 mm. and 35 mm), 20 ready for pro-
duction, and about 360 planned. Fox has
52 pictures now finished, 1 5 almost complete,
and 200 more planned. At present the
latter company produces only 35 mm. talkies
based on its extensive library of news-reel
negatives.

While commercial producers embark upon
the making of school films, some of the
biggest universities, such as Yale, Harvard,
are also engaged in educational film pro-
duction. The " Chronicles of America "
series produced by the Yale University
Press are about one-half completed, 15
episodes of from one to three reels each
being in extensive use, 18 remaining to be
filmed. The cost of preparing the script
alone on the unfinished episodes is estim-

ated at $180,000. These films, used in
an exhaustive test during an entire year in
the New Haven Junior High Schools, showed
added gains of about 19 % in educational
returns, directly attributable to the films.
Pathe has co-operated with Harvard Univ-
ersity in the production of geography films.
Harvard professors are collaborating in
evaluating eight educational talkies sponsored
by the Carnegie Foundation. Other Har-
vard educators participated actively in the
making of five silent films on art, sponsored
by the University Film Foundation.

7. Equipment manufacturers have built
up libraries of informational films, generally
with the collaboration of educational author-
ities. Bell & Howell thus offer the famous
Raymond Lee Ditmars " Living Natural
History Series," Dr. Ditmars being the
curator of the Bronx Zoological Gardens.
Other series deal with plant life, birds,
insects, travel, and the like. Outstanding
European productions, such as those of
Ufa and Amkino, have likewise been offered
upon the American market by this manufact-
urer of motion picture equipment. This type
of film is generally in 100 foot lengths and
is often re-edited by school authorities in
the various centers to fit their own courses
and methods. Lists of films available on
specified subjects are prepared for free cir-
culation, and educators are helped in finding
or making exactly the type of film material
their work demands.

The tendency on the part of the school
to take a larger hand in the re-editing and
even original production of its own films
is encouraged. The Philadelphia schools
made over twenty reels of topical films deal-
ing with school life, while a single great
vocational school in Milwaukee has four
instructors and an assistant, assigned solely
to the task of producing 1 6 mm. teaching
films on science, safety, and similar subjects
for use in that one school alone. In the course
of a year over 100 fine films have been
produced in that school, with two 16 mm.
Filmo cameras and the necessary accessories,
these films being shown daily at noon in

Ice ingl.

-648 -

the 2,200 seat auditorium of the school.
The University of Kansas has made original
16mm. films for the teaching of such widely
differing subjects as agriculture, athletics,
and Latin ! The hundreds of different uses
to which the 16mm. camera is being put
as a research instrument in universities
constitute a chapter in themselves — puzzle
solving studies at Michigan, infant behavior
at Yale, measurement of reading skill at
Chicago, are just a few random examples.
There is a distinct and commendable tend-
ency on the part of the educator towards
using the motion picture camera as an every-
day tool.

8. Commercial Sources of " Free " Films
and other visual aids are exceedingly nu-
merous. By way of example, the General
Electric Company offers a 32 page illustrated
free catalog listing 33 elementary educational
films, 35 advanced technical films, and 55
technical lectures with slides or film strips,
all obtainable by schools, at no other cost
than for transportation. Another firm, the
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, offers
a list of 23 fine films. These films contain
little or no direct advertising, and the in-
direct reference is in no sense objectionable.
Scores of state and municipal centers are
glad to place such films in their own libra-
ries, unchanged, and the demand, if anything,
exceeds the supply. Some concerns, e. §.
Colgate, Petrolagar, Caterpillar Tractor, etc.,
send an operator and Filmo projector,
without cost, to proper school applicants
for the use of their films. The U. S. Dept.
of Commerce in 1 929 published a " Compos-
ite List of Non-Theatrical Film Sources ",
giving names of 387 commercial concerns
using motion pictures in some way, gen-
erally for the building of " good- will "
through educational films of semi-advert-
ising character.

9. Distributors of Commercial Films fre-
quently relieve the sponsor of such a film
from the task of circulating, generally as
part of the production contract. The com-
mercial sponsor may pay the distributor
an annual service charge and receive in

return " free " circulation to schools and
social organizations, or he may pay the
distributor a flat rate per showing. The
most successful of these organizations, the
"YMCA National Council Motion Picture
Bureau ", reports in 1930 that it distributed
37,290 reels of film for showing before 3000
different organizations. Where education-
al centers take over such distribution, the
only cost to the commercial sponsor is the
cost of the film.

10. Local dealers catering to the motion
picture needs of the schools of a limited
territory, frequently build up a capacity
for service that exceeds the resources of
some official centers. Such dealers build up
an educational film rental library of their
own, print extensive finding lists at their
own expense, attend to the detail of procuring

free " films desired by their local schools,
organize the inter-school film and slide de-
livery service and in general make themselves
an almost indispensable adjunct to the visual
instruction program of the schools. Their
profit comes through increased projection
jobs, equipment sales and film rental business
which the prestige built up by their work,
helps them to obtain. One such dealer
reported $ 1 ,200 collected for shows of a
timely historical film, within three months,
using a 16mm. talkie outfit, the Filmophone,
in addition to the opportunity to demonstrate
the equipment in several scores of schools.

1 1 . Film negative libraries constitute still
another source of material with which the
visual instructionist should be familiar.
Some of these " morgues " contain inval-
uable educational negatives (Bray, Pathe),
and schools that make their own material
are giving them serious consideration.

Multiple Source — Common Concept.

With such extreme multiplicity of sources
it is really surprising how little rivalry or
disputation is encountered. True, in a
state where there exist both city and state
university film centers there may be an oc-
casional argument at state teachers' meetings

— 649

over the respective role of each. Or, the
handling of privately sponsored film by
government departments is sometimes look-
ed upon with disfavor by private enterprises
engaged in the same work. The desire of
the individual school to keep ready to hand
the films and machines needed for its own
work sometimes seems to clash with the
tendency to build up extensive central de-
partments or museums — but this, too, is
leadily composed.

The relative contribution of silent and
talkie school films remains to be scientifically
evaluated, the consensus among American
visual instructionists being entirely in har-
mony with the findings of the Vienna Edu-
cational Film Congress. One producer seems
insistent on the concept of the talking film
as a fundamentally separate instructional en-
tity co-equal with teacher and textbook,
rather than an adjunct or tool ; the great
weight of opinion holds the contrary. An-
other producer at the present time of
writing still holds out in favor of the
35 mm. film only: in every other quarter
the 16 mm. is considered the school standard.
The extent to which this is evident can be
seen from the rapid growth of the 1 6 mm.
educational film sources. Even as recently
as 1928, the two most comprehensive edu-
cational film directories available, those pub-
lished annually by " The Educational Screen '
and by the " YMCA Motion Picture Bureau "
made no special mention of 16 mm. films.
The narrow safety film has come to the
front in this short time. In the two 1931
directories we see that within three years
practically half of all the educational film
listed, even including the material that is
old and hardly worth dumping, can be had in
1 6 mm. As to silent films, the Educational
Screen Directory lists 2023 available in
16 mm. and 2404 available in 35 mm. of the
16 mm. films, 921 are to be had in " 16 mm.
only " and these represent the newer and
more strictly teaching type of material.
The story is practically the same with sound
subjects listed there, 219 subjects available
in 1 6 mm. and 235 in 35 mm. many of the

latter really being entertainment. The
YMCA catalog, comprising mainly, though
not entirely, free industrial films, gives the
same picture ; 272 out of a total of slightly
more than 400 can be had in 16 mm. width.

Reasons for 16 mm. Acceptance.

Since this question is perhaps not so
clearly settled in other countries as it is in
the United States, a discussion of this point
here may not be amiss.

The motion picture has been used in the
school ever since film existed ; in fact, the
motion picture owes its birth to educational-
scientific research rather than to the theatre.
However, the theatre's claim to the film
proved so much more profitable than that
of the school, that it very soon eclipsed the
educational market.

Prior to the advent of 1 6 mm. film the
attempts of the educator to use the motion
picture ran into three principal obstacles :

1) Fire hazard.

2) Inadequate equipment.

3) Improper material.

The Fire Hazard.

Fire hazard is eliminated by the use of
acetate cellulose film, regardless of width.
However, theatrical projection demands and
receives the more inflammable nitrate film,
because it is cheaper, tougher, more pliant,
and less liable to deterioration with careless
handling. Fire hazard is checked in the
theatre by elaborate police-enforced safety
provisions in the building code, licensing of
experienced operators, etc. When, very
properly, these regulations were enforced
in the schools they almost put an end to
the school use of motion pictures, at least
in the class-room.

A solution was sought in forbidding the
use of any 35 mm. films other than acetate,
yet a rule so easily violated obviously could
not be enforced. The school still depend-
ed for its films upon the theatrical cast-offs,
the great bulk of these were nitrate film, so

-650-

the school used nitrate film without any of
the precautions enjoined upon the theatre.

The idea was then put forward for a
new standard film to be made exclusively
in acetate. The first development of the
notion was to make an acetate film half
standard size. But the fear that this
method might lend itself to producing films
by cutting normal film in half and the fact
moreover, that such films would be inflam-
mable, decided that this solution of the
matter would not offer such guarantees.
It was consequently decided to make a film
of completely different format (1).

A film of a completely new standard width,
produced exclusively in acetate, was the
only answer. The first solution suggested
was to rip 35 mm. film down the center,
making two out of one. But nitrate film
could be split in half just as easily as acetate,
so this recourse would not have been suffi-
cient.

At the same time the development of a
practicable reversal process opened up tre-
mendous possibilities for low-cost amateur
and educational motion picture production.
So the adoption of the 1 6mm . standard, ap-
proximately one-fourth the area of the 35mm.
afforded a happy solution. The adherence
to the 1 6mm. dimension for non-inflammable
film by manufacturers' convention, its adop-
tion as standard by the Society of Motion
Picture Engineers, and finally its endorse-
ment by the National Academy of Visual

Instruction for classroom use, has fortunate-
ly resulted in the universal acceptance of
16 mm. films as the non-theatrical standard
in the United States, and in most other
countries as well.

Gloomy predictions as to loss of quality in
comparison with 35 mm. results have not been
borne out. Most of the 1 6 mm. projections
do not exceed the 350 to 400 times diamet-
ric magnification of the 35 mm. film in the
theatre, owing to the smaller rooms and
shorter projection distance. Yet even where
with modern 1 6 mm. equipment, pictures of
theatre size are projected, there is no more
apparent graininess than with the 35 mm.
contact print, due to the reduction of nega-
tive defects in the process of the 4 : 1 re-
duction printing on slow-speed (and there-
fore extremely fine grained) 1 6 mm. positive
film. Even the 16 mm. reversal films do
not sin heavily with respect to grain, in
view of their slower original emulsion
(250-300 H & D) in comparison to the faster
emulsion used on the 35 mm. negative (750
H & D) to obtain the same results. This
difference is made up by the so-to-say
resensitization incident to the second light
exposure in the laboratory's reversal process.

In short, the use of non-inflammable film
exclusively in the 16 mm. field gave an absol-
utely sure remedy against the fire hazard,
while its drastic reduction in size made
for the lowest possible cost compatible with
good photography and projection.

TREND OF DEVELOPMENT IN EQUIPMENT.

Prior to the advent of 1 6 mm. film, much
of the schools' projection equipment had
been bought up " second-hand " from thea-
trical equipment exchanges. It was com-
paratively heavy and cumbersome, and the

(I) The author evidently refers here to the
possibility of utilizing with a format of 17.5 the
residuum of normal 35 mm films. In fact, the
unperforated fragments of standard film could
perfectly well be cut in half and then perforated
according to the system used for 17.5 mm film.

more earnest the attempt to introduce a safe-
ty factor against fire hazard, the heavier
the projectors became. This equipment, like
its film material, was the natural child of
the theatre.

Quite otherwise is the situation with the
16 mm. projector. It is not a mere adapta-
tion or reduced version of the theatrical
projector, it is a fundamentally new machine,
having many points not at all in common
with its predecessor. For instance, it needs

651 -

to make no provision whatever against
fire hazard, because it is automatically con-
fined to the use of non-inflammable film.
In order to raise their effectiveness as a
teaching tool, a factor that never entered
into the design of a theatrical machine, the
better 1 6 mm. projectors provide for stopping
the film on a single frame for the showing
of a " still ", and the reversing of the direc-
tion of the film to facilitate ready comparison
and review.

Just because 16mm. film is referred to as
" amateur " film, it does not mean that the
16 mm. projector can be made with any less
care and precision. To demand that a
school projector be above all things " cheap "
is to lose sight of the fact that exact registra-
tion and rock-like steadiness are more es-
sential where the eyes of young pupils are
involved than under any other conditions.
An error of registration of even only one-
thousandth part of an inch at the aperture
means the quivering of the screen image by
about one-half inch at ordinary distance.
That thousandth part of an inch play in a
poorly made projector may wreck the eyes
of a thousand children.

American schools have found that it is
not even good account-book economy to
place heaviest emphasis on first cost. There
are many cases where schools that bought
the best 16 mm. equipment obtainable eight
years ago are still getting perfect service
from it every day in the school year, whereas
" economy " purchases proved unsatisfac-
tory from the start and had to be quickly
replaced. The careful school administra-
tor buys a projector for the long years of
quality service obtainable from the instru-
ment, rather than for its first cost.

As a matter of fact the better modern
16 mm. projectors are at least as finely built
as the best of their theatrical predecessors.
Tolerances held to within one-half of one-
thousandth part of an inch assure absolute
steadiness ; a nine-to-one ratio on occultation
is used on at least one 16 mm. projector, in
comparison to the four-to-one customarily
found in large machines.

The modern 16 mm. projector weighs but
from 10 to 20 pounds. Its direct illumina-
tion, from 300 to 500 watt Mazda bulbs, is
equal to every demand, including that of
the large school auditorium. Projection
distances of over 100 feet and pictures 12
feet wide are not all uncommon with the
best type of 16 mm. projectors. For example,
Northwestern University has reported the
showing of 1 6 mm. foo of football films at 160
ft. distance. The 16 mm. projector is adapta-
ble for color and sound. It has already solved
all the more serious difficulties that stood
in the way of the general use of film in the
school.

This does not mean that every problem of
projector construction has already been
solved — once and for all. Present projector
development is a response to school re-
quirements worked out by visual instruc-
tionists on the basis of their experience, and
as these requirements change or clarify,
projector development keeps pace. There
are two principal trends of school demand
today with respect to projector specifica-
tions. The first is for a machine just as
fine, as powerful, as versatile as is possible
to be made. The other is a demand for
most estreme simplicity coupled with lower
costs.

This latter demand was formulated most
commendably, for example, by Dr. Ernst
Ruest in Kinotechnik January 1931. His
specifications were in the main echoed
from an entirely unrelated source, viz.,
by Mr. Paul G. Edwards, head of the Vis-
ual Instruction Department cf the Chicago
Schools. In the main we can subscribe
whole-heartedly to Dr. Ruest's specificat-
ions, although on minor points we may
disagree. For example, there is opposition
to the " still " feature because it is believed
that it cannot be efficiently cooled. But it
is properly cooled on a properly designed
16 mm. projector. No one would dispute
that a glass stereopticon slide affords a su-
perior projected still picture, but when the
" still „ is held wherever desired in a reel of
film it instantly relates dynamic to static con-

652 -

cepts in a way that can hardly be duplicated in
any other manner. If the laboratory, when
making the print, exercises ordinary care,
then framing on 1 6 mm. film is fully automat-
ic and a framing device unnecessary. The
limiting of projection lenses to a maximum of
F 1 .9 leaves out of consideration the im-
provements introduced, for example, with
the new 2 " Cooke F 1 .65. And the need
for a splicing outfit should be apparent only
where a film is taken constantly from school
to school, instead of following the usual
practice of going back to the center, unre-
wound, for inspection. However, in the
main, Dr. Ruest's specifications are entirely
acceptable and indicative of serious and
well-informed consideration.

The comparative strength of the two
tendencies, of versatility against simplicity
power against cost, was tested at the recent
meeting of the National Education Associa-
tion. Visiting superintendents, principals
and visual instructionists were asked to
express preference as between two projector
models, designated JL and M respectively
each worked out in direct response to edu-
cational demand. The Model JL was the
latest all-gear-driven machine, eliminat-
ing belts entirely, powered with 400 watt
100 volt biplane filament lamp, Cooke F 1 .65
oversize 2" projection lens, micrometer focus
mirror, automatic rewind, reverse and still
features, integral pilot light, radio interfer-
ence eliminator and other advanced features.
The Model M was a single-control class-
room machine, with excellent illumination
from a 300 watt 1 1 5 volt lamp film move-
ment and cooling system identical to other
Bell & Howell models, but without reverse
or " still " features, and priced at one
half the Model JL.

The test was purposely designed to be
between extremes. When the results were
tabulated, they showed that two out of every
three preferred the more versatile, more
expensive machine. Some of the reasons
assigned are interesting as showing the trend
of thought among American schoolmen on
projector design. About the Model JL

the comments included : " Can get larger
pictures ", " Will not have to darken the
classroom completely ", " Can use it in au-
ditorium ", ' One machine for every school
purpose ", " Really need the still feature ".
About the Model M the comments included :
" The simpler the better ", " We can equip
twice as many schools ", " Just the thing
for the untrained teacher ; all she does is
press the switch ". It was to be observed
that those selecting a machine for their
own use, or for a single machine to be per-
manently placed in a single school, or for an
auditorium situation, invariably chose the
heavier machine. Those buying for large
school systems with hundreds of untrained
elementary teachers, or those influenced by
financial stringency, cast their votes for the
lower priced model. A personal survey
among members of the National Academy
present at the Washington meeting disclos-
ed substantially the same ratio of preference.

Film Material for School Projectors.

When the school had to depend on the
theatre almost entirely for its film material,
it was to be expected that much of the use
to which film was put in the school bore a
distinct theatrical " tinge ". A consider-
able part of the " work " with motion pic-
tures consisted of " shows " given in the
auditorium, and the strictly educational
benefits derived were limited and difficult
to measure.

Today, thanks to the availability of 1 6 mm.
projectors, there is unanimous recognition
that the place where the film contributes the
most to the school is in the classroom. And
the bulk of the films now available to schools
are made with the requirements of the class-
room distinctly in mind. These classroom
films bear an increasingly close relationship
to the textbook and the study outline. More
and more the educator is demanding factual
film material that will fit his courses, not
in a highly edited or pre-digested form, but
in short lengths of authentic " documentary "
topical material that shows actual pictures

653 -

of the thing studied in natural motion and
in relationship to its milieu.

Where sound is essential to a complete
understanding there is no doubt but that a
similar demand will develop for authentic
sound film of the same character. Most
educators are not yet ready to grant that
the sound film will substitute an entirely
new technique and methodology. One hears
much suspicion directed against " canned
lectures as a step backward toward a re-
vival of methods banned by the more pro-
gressive schools of pedagogy. On the other
hand, one of our most noted authorities on
visual education, Dr. Joseph J. Weber, of
Valparaiso University, suggested, already
in 1929, that the " talkie " might very well
check the rising cost of formal education,
by syndicating master teachers, to instruct
pupils more quickly and interestingly. Dr.
Weber pointed out specifically, however,
that this would not eliminate the human
teacher, but on the contrary, by freeing her
from the task of cramming facts into her
pupils, and by giving her master teachers
of the screen as models, she would be better
able to exercise personal direction of the
class.

Every reason that led to the adoption of
the 16mm. standard for silent film in the
school applies with equal force to the talkie.
Theatrical producers who enter the talkie
school field find themselves practically forc-
ed to furnish 16 mm. films, and all but
one of these producers now offer 1 6 mm.
as well as 25 mm. prints.

The argument that only sound-on-disc
is available for 16 mm. prints, while in ad-
dition sound-on-film can be had for 35 mm.
subjects, is not of basic importance, and
indications are that the argument itself
will be eliminated shortly.

The sharp divorce between school films
and those designed for theatrical exploita-
tion does not mean that the educator now
turns his back entirely on the theatre. It
merely means that the entertainment film
is recognized as such and its qualities ap-
praised accordingly. Quite a number of

feature productions are looked upon as
having distinct historical and literary back-
ground values for school children. Attend-
ance at such pictures is encouraged. Public
libraries distribute bookmarkers which give
dates when such approved pictures are
played at local theatres, and also include
booklists dealing with subject matter related
to the pictures. Sometimes these pictures
are discussed in the classroom, and occasion-
ally they are run in the school auditorium
Periodicals devoted to the special interests
of teachers, of parents, of visual instruction-
ists, etc., publish motion picture reviews,
and treat the screen as a powerful educational
force, helpful or harmful as the case may
be. Notable are the " Film Estimates "
of Mr. Nelson L. Greene, editor of " Educa-
tional Screen ", and the bulletins of the
National Committee for Better Films.

Recent experiments at the University of
Chicago indicate that motion pictures have a
direct and lasting effect upon social attitudes,
according to Miss Ruth Peterson, in a report
to the Chicago Association for Child Study
and Parent Education. " All's Quiet on
the Western Front " was found to exert a
distinct anti-war effect, while two widely
different films dealing with China, shown
in two different towns, were found to arouse
favor in one case and antipathy in the other.
The importance of the theatrical screen as
a propaganda force cannot be overestimated.
Teachers' organizations, parents' organiza-
tions, and similar bodies with enrolled
memberships running into the millions are
directing more and more searching attention
toward the theatrical screen. At the same
time, such organizations are awakening to the
tremendous possibilities of the classroom
screen as a teaching tool. Producers of
films, and of equipment for talking and show-
ing film, now pay serious heed to these ten-
dencies, because there is promise here of a
vast market at present almost untouched.

Interest in the educational possibilities
of the motion picure film transcends all
national borders. The International Jour-
nal of Educational Cinematography, as well

- 654

as other cinema periodicals published in
Europe, is carefully read and favorably
reviewed in American educational journals.
No series of articles was followed with closer
attention than the reports on European visual
instruction work written for " Educational
Screen ", by W. M. Gregory, head of the
Cleveland Educational Museum. Dr. Mc
Cluskey devotes a considerable section of
his report to visual instruction developments
in Europe, stating that " Russia is un-
doubtedly the foremost country in the
world in the use of educational motion
pictures ", and mentioning the Five Year
Plan quotas for 1027 educational films,
16,500 cinema outfits for schools, 3,500 in
workers clubs and over 20,000 in rural
traveling cinemas. The excellent work done
in Chile, the recent beginnings noted in

Japan and in Brazil, are all matters of great-
est interest to American educators.

Conditions confronting visual education-
ists in the various countries differ widely.
Yet some of our problems are common to
all, and much of our experience can be made
mutually beneficial. The purpose of this
rather lengthy article has been to outline
the conditions under which dynamic visual
education is making its way in the schools
of the United States of America. Some of
our problems, differences, and prospects
have been touched upon, in the hope that
this might contribute to a better understand-
ing among our colleagues in other lands, as
to just what confronts the American visual
instructionist.

William F. Kruse.

Banca Nazionale del Lavoro

Institute of Public Credit.
Established by Royal Decree No. 1140, 15tb August 1913, No. 416: 18th March 1929.

Paid-up Capital: 160.000.000 Lire - Reserve: 5.200.000 Lire

Savings and Current Accounts. — Correspondence

Current Accounts in Lire and foreign currencies. —

Cheques issued on Italy and Foreign Countries.

Purchase and Sale of securities

ALL BANKING OPERATIONS

Branches and correspondents throughout Italy

HEAD OFFICE: ROME - 117, Via Vittorio Veneto

Review of periodicals and newspapers

Social Film Problems.

During a speech to the Women's Asso-
ciation of New York, the Reverend J. Harry
Cotton, recently returned from China,
stated that the American cinema is exer-
cising a greater influence on the populations
of the Far East than the missionary's word.
(The Film Daily, New York, 13-VI-1932).

In an article on the question of contin-
genting, Pierre Malo examines the matter
from the social point of view, and maintains
that every film is an act of propaganda, and
that every sound projector has the value
of a public orator. (L'Homme Libre,
Paris, 14-VI-1932).

About 10,000 children have been invited
every week in the afternoons to see educa-
tional films in the London theatres. The
shows are specially planned for minors.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 16-
VI-1932).

At a banquet offered by the House of
Gaumont to the newly elected deputy Louis
Aubert, Monsieur Delac, president of the
French Syndical Chamber delivered a speech
in the course of which he b tressed the great
social importance of the cinema. The spea-
ker referred to the important position occu-
pied by the cinema in many countries, and
mentioned the work of the I. I. E. C. He
declared that it was no longer possible for
politicians to take no interest in film prob-
lems. After the banquet, a parliamentary
cinema group was formed, to which no fewer
than 180 deputies gave their support. The
group is subdivided into three commissions.
The first will deal with French films, the
second with the commerce of films, and the

third with education and propaganda films.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris,
18-VI-1932).

ClNEMA of Paris of June 1932 carries
the results of the inquiry organized by the
London schools for the purpose of learning
the impressions produced in the scholars'
minds by cinema pictures. The result
showed that only war films, scenes of terror
and of a lugubrious character are likely to
have a pernicious effect of the minds of
children.

Documentary Films.

Eastman Teaching Films has put into
circulation the following documentary and
educational films, " Virginia, the Old Domi-
nion ", " Peru ", " Oysters " (on Atlantic
oysters and pearl oyster fishing) and " Un-
der-Sea Life " dealing with deep sea fauna.
(Educational Screen, Chicago, No. 5 of
May 1932).

Mr. Waterstraat, Dutch minister for Pub-
lic Works has explained through a talking
film made by the Polygoon Company, the
importance of the works in course for drying
up the Zuyderzee. The film shows the
progress of the works. (Nieuw Weekblad
VOOR DE ClNEMATOGRAFlE, The Hague,
3-VI-1932).

Engineer Guido Ucelli held a conference
in Paris on the works that were carried out
for the recuperation of the famous Roman
galleys in Lake Nemi. The conference was
illustrated with slides and film pictures.

The making of the first Yugo-slav sound
film has been begun. It deals with popular

— 656 —

Serbian traditions. (The ClNEMA, London, third on the natural beauties of South Tunis.
15-VI-1932). (Le Nouvelliste, Lyons, 25-VI-1932).

Continuing its programme of a series of
artistic documentary films entited " Italic
Pictures ", the Cines Co. has just finished
two films on Roman mausoleums and the
Imperial Forums. (Agenzia Film, Rome,
17-VI-1932).

It has also completed a film on Assisi.
(Scenario, Rome, No. 5 of June, 1932).

According to replies received by the Hays
organization, in response to an issue of ques-
tionnaires, it seems that that preference of
the public is turning distinctly towards do-
cumentary films, travelogues and ad-
venture films. (The Film Daily, New
York, 20-VI-1932).

The Film Guild has in preparation a doc-
umentary film of 1000 feet on the city of
Edinburgh. (The ClNEMA, London, 22-
VI-1932).

An exceptional novelty is announced in
the film " Igloo " made among the Eskimos
at an average temperature of 60° below
zero. (The Cinema, London, 22-VI-1932).

At the Midland Institute of Mining En-
gineers of Sheffield, a real life film on the
hard and heroic life of the miners has been
shown under the title of Black Diamond.
The film was made by Charles Hanmer, a
South Yorkshire miner. (The Daily Film
Renter, London, 23-VI-1932).

Monsieur d'Orgeval, chief of the Tourist
and Propaganda Service for the Regency of
Tunis gave a conference at Lyons on the
economic resources and the tourist attrac-
tions of the territories of the Regency. The
conference was accompanied by the pro-
jection of several films, among which was
one on the olive cultivation of Sfax, another
on the development of means of travel
and the hotel industry in Tunis, and a

At a recent meeting of the municipal coun-
cil of Paris, a councillor, M. Leon Riotor
proposed the making of a sound and talk-
ing film to be called " Twenty-four hours
in Paris ", which would show the monu-
ments and features of the capital in connec-
tion with the daily life of the people. This
human geography of Paris was to be destined
for propaganda, both in the French prov-
inces and abroad. (L'Ami DU Peuple, Paris,
29-VI-1932).

The Emelka has in hand a film on the life
and work of the monks of St. Bernard and
on the raising of the famous breed of dogs
which has made the Alpine valley famous.
(Le ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 154, of June 1932).

Jean de Crozefon has made a documentary
film " La Naissance des Ondes ' showing
a big radio station in all its workings. (Le
ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 154 of June 1932).

An expedition of the M. G. M. has de-
parted for the Arctic regions to make a
film entitled " Eskimo ", the scenario for
which is based on the novel of the same
name by Peter Franchen. The film will
be interpreted by genuine Eskimas. (Il
Cinema Italiano, Rome, l-VII-1932).

Religion and the Film.

The Reverend R. V. Leisher had made a
film of a religious character called " A Mich-
igan Miracle ", dealing with the Carey
mission in the Nile region. (EDUCATIONAL
Screen, Chicago, No. 5 of May, 1932).

By a decree of June 1 1 , the Lithuanian
government doubled the tax on imported
foreign films in Lithuania. (LlCHT-BlLD-
Bohne, Berlin, 29-VI-I932).

A new Evangelical Cinema Chamber
(Evangelische Bildzimmer) has been formed

- 657 -

in East Prussia, its headquarters being at
Konigsberg. The new Chamber, which is
associated with the Evangelical Community
of the Cinematograph (Evangelische Bilds-
spielgemeinde) will act in close collaboration
with the latter in a practical utilisation of
the cinema for the propaganda of Evangelical
Church tenets. The possibility of gather-
ing public cinemas together under the reli-
gious propaganda auspices of the " Bild-
kammer " and utilising small-sized films for
rural communes will be made the subject
of special study. (LlCHT-BlLD-BiJHNE, Ber-
lin, 6-VI-1932).

In an article entitled " The Corruptive
Influence of the Cinema and Catholic Iner-
tia ", Mr. Leon Degrelle, starting from the
principle that the cinema is a formidable
medium for the propaganda of ideas, main-
tained that no institution has a greater int-
erest than the Catholic Church in getting
its principles accepted, not only from the
point of view of film control, but also, and
more especially, from the point of view of
production. Degrelle insists on the necessity
of Catholics taking an active part in the cin-
ema, in view of the continually increasing
attendance of the public at these theatres
all over the world. (Le XXe SlECLE,
Brussels, 9-VI-1932).

The RlVISTA DEL ClNEMATOGRAFO of Mi-
lan (N° 6, VI- 1932) publishes a note by the
Rev. A. Perretti on religious teaching and
the teaching of the Catechism by means of
the cinema. The writer points out that
the Company " Le Film catholique ", which
was formed in France under the patronage
of the Cardinal Archbishop of Paris, has up
to the present issued 12 films on the Seven
Sacraments and the Sacrifice of the Mass.
In these films, the purely religious and dog-
matic part is bound up with scenes of daily
life, so that these cinematograph works, to
some extent, represent a kind of catechism
in action. The liturgical part is strictly
orthodox. The films are carried out under
the direction of a Special Committee which

controls the scenarios and the execution.
The Rev. Perretti emphasizes the importance
of these films and their great utility in reli-
gious instruction and in the spread of a
practical knowledge of religion.

Educational Films.

Professor K. F. Mater gives us a detailed
explanation of a new project for experiments
to determine the utility of the film in teach-
ing. (National Board of Review Maga-
zine, New York, N° 4, 1932).

The Cinema Education, of Paris (N° 8,
1932) publishes the results of an experiment
organised by Mme. B. M. Knieger and Mr.
V. C. Amspiger, under the auspices of the
" Western Electric ", at the Normal School
of Teachers of the University of Columbia.
This experiment has once more demonstrated
the utility and importance of the talking
film as a means of instruction.

The Institute of Adult Education is
conducting an interesting campaign for the
adoption of certain types of apparatus in
education by means of the cinema. (The
Bioscope, London, N° 1333, 1932).

The Pedagogic Commission of the Cine-
document, in France, has decided to give
a series of lectures, on the resumption of
its sessions in the autumn, which will be
especially dedicated to the study of scena-
rios of educational films. (ClNEMAGAZINE,
Paris, V-1932).

The IMPRIMERIE A l'Ecole (Saint-Paul,
Alpes Maritimes, N° 52, V-1932) publishes
an article by Mr. R. Boyan on the film
groups of the Cooperative Society of French
Teachers for the production and utilisation
of teaching films ; and an article by Mr.
Briard on the necessity of making a more
extensive use of the cinema in schools.

The Scottish Educational Journal
(Edinburgh, 13-VI-1932) publishes an inte-

- 658 -

resting article by Mr. D. M. Fraser on the
teaching methods followed in Russia and
the part taken in them by the cinema.

Visual teaching courses are being held
during the summer months this year in the
University of Austin (Texas), in the College
of Terra Alta (Indiana) and in the Univer-
sity of Arizona. (Educational Screen, Chi-
cago, N° 6, VI- 1932).

The Report of the Empire Marketing
Board contains some interesting information
on the films produced last year and on the
activities of the Film Library of this Insti-
tution, which, during the three years it
has been in existence, has distributed more
than 2000 educational films to schools.
Announcement is made of a new film on
the reorganisation of the schools of Ches-
terfield, which has been produced by Stuart
Legg under the patronage of the Empire
Marketing Board. (The Daily Film Ren-
ter, London, 2-VII-1932).

The cultural Cinematograph.

The Rivista Pedagogica, of Rome, (5-VI I-
1932) publishes a notable article by Raniero
Grifoni on the educational and instructive
film. Grifoni considers that before fixing
scholastic cinematograph programmes, it is
advisable to make a careful study of the
psychology of children. When making use
of the cinema in teaching, the chief diffi-
culty to be overcome is the cerebral passivity
of the pupil as long as the projection lasts.
Literary matter must be excluded from the
cinema when used as auxiliary aid, and the
screen should not be used for the teaching
of history except with the greatest precau-
tion and discernment. The usefulness of
the cinema is more practically demonstrated
in the teaching of geography, natural history,
physics, hygiene and languages. Grifoni
deals also with the influence of the cinema
on the masses. The cinema frequently
modifies habits and feelings, and before
starting a vast scheme of co-ordination for

a greater development of the educational
cinema, we must learn to distinguish be-
tween what is good and bad in the cinema,
or even what is simply useless, and keep a
close watch on the effect all this may have
on the intellectual and social reactions of
the people.

The Bell and Howell Films Library has
produced a number of instructive and edu-
ational films, among the latter being a bio-
logical film, two literary films, Nature and
the Poet and An Indian Legend, and three
other films that form part of the collection
Morals from Ancient Fables (EDUCATIONAL
Screen, Chicago, N° 5, V-1932).

By a Decree of the Spanish Government,
of November 4, 1931, published on May 29,
1932, the " Patronato de Missiones de Pe-
dagogicas " has been formed, with the three-
fold object of spreading culture to the most
remote villages and hamlets, making known
the most modern teaching methods and
assisting in the civil and political education
of the people. The Missione are formed
of teaching members, who travel by motor
car in groups of six or seven to the various
provincial centres. They take with them a
number of books, good copies of pictures
and works of art, cinematograph apparatus,
a wireless transmitter, gramophones and
some musical instruments. In each village
the Mission organises lectures, illustrated by
means of the machinery they carry with
them, and thus spread culture in all its
forms, -artistic, intellectual, scientific and
social, as well as the laws of hygiene and ele-
mentary medicine. (L'Ecole LlBERATRlCE,
Paris, 4-VI-1932).

Die Film Korrespondenz, of Berlin, of
the 1 5-VI- 1932, publishes a note, under
the title " Wissenschaft am Film " (Science
in the Film) on the progress and activity
of the Institute of Cinematographic Re-
search of Berlin in the cultural, political,
economic and historical field.

- 659 -

In an article entitled " Was ist die Wo-
chenschau wert ? " (What is the value of
" Topical Events ? " Dr. R. Volz, of Berlin,
gives his opinion of the qualities that should
distinguish events of the day as shown
in films, and enumerates the defects from
which they must be freed if they are to be
really cultural and educational. (Die Film
Korrespondenz, Berlin, 22-VI-1932).

At the International Conference on the
teaching of history, which was recently
held in Paris, it was decided to make use
of the cinema as auxiliary aid in the teaching
of historical subjects. (BULLETIN DE LA
SOCIETE DES PROFESSEURS D'HlSTOIRE ET DE

Geographie, Paris, N° 72, VI-1932).

In a very interesting article on " The
Cinema and the Education of Adults ",
Thomas L. MacDonald cites an experiment
carried out recently in working class circles
in Glasgow, and draws from it certain con-
clusions showing the usefulness of the film
in general, and especially in the education
of adults. (The Scottish Educational
Journal, Edinburgh, I -VI I- 1932).

The Secretary of the Italian Fascist Party
has addressed a circular to the Provincial
Secretaries of the Party, asking them to
assist as much as possible the projection of
scientific and educational films. It seems
that his intention is to entrust this task to
the Fascist University Groupes. (Il Cl-
nema Italiano, Rome, 1-VII-1932).

Scientific Films.

The Extension Division of the University
of Kansas has produced some new films,
one of which, on the mentally deficient, is
extremely interesting. Several sections of
this film were shot in the school for the
mentally deficient at Winfield, in Kansas,
and show a great difference of degree in
this pathological phenomenon, from chil-

dren who are almost normal to those show-
ing a great degree of deficiency. (Educa-
tional Screen, N° 5, V-1932).

In a lecture given at the Paris Faculty
of Medicine, Professor L. Spillman made
a close study of the means of propaganda
most suitable for spreading the necessary
knowledge in regard to the prevention of
venereal diseases. Professor Spillman point-
ed out that slides and animated projections
especially can be utilised in this propa-
ganda ; and he mentioned certain films that
are already in use, indicating their merits
and defects. (Revue d'HygIENE ET DE
Medecine sociale, Nancy, V-1932).

The LlCHT-BlLD-BlJHNE, of Berlin, June
1, 1932, publishes an article on the Breus-
ing patents for the use of Braun tubes in
sound-photo-acoustic registration.

In an article entitled " Geography and
Cinema ", Mr. Grandidier, after noting
what a precious auxiliary the cinema is to
science and geography in particular, gives
the highest praise to Mr. Chaumel, who
has produced some first class colonial films ;
and points out that, contrary to what hap-
pens in Germany and Italy, the documentary
film is not exempt from taxation in France.
Mr. Grandidier calls upon the French
State to encourage the creation of colonial
and grographical films libraries. (Journal
des Debats, Paris, 7-VI-1932).

In an article entitled " The Cinemato-
graph in Trackless Paths ", V. Romagnoli
speaks of the instruments that have been
designed and built to put the cinema and
the airplane at the service of photomap-
making by means of which a rapid relief
of the ground may be taken, with all its
planimetric and altimetrical characteristics,
and the men and other things in movement.
(Eco del Cinema, Florence, N° 106, VII-
1932).

- 660 —

A film has been shot in the studios of the
Ukrainfilm, under the direction of Lupo-
tinsky, which is entitled The Fifth Dimension,
and is an illustration of Einsten's theory of
relativity. (SCENARIO, Rome, N° 2, 1932).

Le Cineopse (Paris, N° 153, 1932) gives
an account of the experiments that have
been made in the United States to determine
the efficacy of the film on the intelligence,
phantasy, reflection etc.

Social hygiene.

Mr. Eugene Dauriat, delegate of the Office
National d'Hygiene sociale, has just deliv-
ered a lecture at Lyons on hygiene and the
social diseases, using films in illustration
of his lecture. (Le NouVELLISTE, Lyons,
19-VI-1932).

A medical man having asserted that the
profession of cameraman for cinema pro-
jections exposes these following it to the
danger of contracting tuberculosis, the Guild
of British Projectionists decided, at a recent
meeting, to appoint a Committee to study
the possibility of forming a provident fund for
sickness and unemployment. (To Day's
Cinema, London, 21-VI-1932).

Fiscal and Film Legislation.

By a Decree of February 2, 1932, the
Governor General of Algiers has promul-
gated some new measures regulating the
projection of films in Algierian territory,
with the exception of topical films. In
conformity with these measures, persons
projecting films must present to the Prefect
of their respective department (Algiers,
Orano, Costantina) : 1 . a statement contain-
ing the name of the producing firm, its
nationality and chief office , 2. a synopsis
of the scenario ; 3. a statement of the lan-
guage spoken in the case of a talking film
or written, in the case of a Silent one ; 4. the

place and date of projection. (The Film
Daily, New York, 7- IV- 1932).

In order to avoid disastrous competition,
the Government of New Zealand has au-
thorised the Ministry of Industry and Com-
merce to restrict the building of new thea-
tres. (The Film Daily, New York, 22-
V-1932). .

The Diario Official of Mexico has
published a Decree providing that all films
which can be used for the teaching of science,
arts and trades shall be exempt from Cus-
toms' duties. The Mexican Government
has requested its diplomatic and consular
agents to make this Decree widely known
abroad, especially among firms interested
in the production and commerce of teaching
films. (A. B. C, Madrid, 1 5-VI-l 932). The
Daily Film Renter (London, 17-VI-
1932) states that the Ministry of Public Edu-
cation requests producers to send the ca-
talogues of their educational and teaching
films regularly to the ministry.

The House of Commons approved with
186 votes against 168 the bill for the Sunday
opening of cinemas. Sunday shows will
require a special license, the fees for which
will go to a special fund entitled " Cinema-
graph Fund ", the object of which is to
encourage the development of the instruc-
tional and recreational film. Several amend-
ments to the measure proposed that only
cultural films should be shown on Sundays
but it was not possible to find any agree-
ment among the members of the House
for a definition of the term cultural as ap-
plied to the cinema. The control over the
Sunday shows has been entrusted to the
private council of the Cinematograph Fund
(II Corriere della Sera, Milan, 30-VI-
1932).

The Licht-Bild-Buhne of Berlin (29-
VI- 1932) published the modifications voted
by the Reichsrat to the decree of February
26, 1931 on the exhibition of foreign films

- 661 -

in Germany. The decree as modified went
force on July 1, and will remain effective
until June 30, 1933.

Censorship.

A decree has been promulgated in Swe-
den forbidding the showing in Cinema Clubs
of films prohibited by the censors for the
reason that meetings in cinema clubs must
be considered public for the fact that any
one can witness the spectacles by merely
paying his subscription as a member of the
club. (KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, 22-VI-
1932).

•X

Authors' rights.

The Austrian minister of Justice has
issued a scheme for reforming the law on
copyright for artistic and photographic
works. The plan is the result of lengthy
conservations between the ministers of Jus-
tive of the Reich and the Austrian Republic
for the unification of copyright laws in the
two states. Regulations will be inserted in
the reform to settle future cinema problems,
especially those arising in connection with
the sound film. (KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin,
23-VI-1932). The Austrian minister for
Justice has asked interested parties to for-
ward their comments on the reform plan
before September 1st. (OESTERFILM Zei-
TUNG, Vienna, 25-VI-1932).

Statistics.

According to the most recent German
statistics, the German production of educa-
tional films underwent during 1931 a drop
of 36 % as compared with the preceeding
year. (Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst, Ber-
lin, 22-VI-1932).

According to the Bulletin officiel de
la Chambre Syndicale Francaise of Pa-
ris (25-VI-1932) the receipts from the cin-
emas of Paris were 6,200,000 francs less

during the first three months of 1932, as
compared with the same period of 1921,
a difference of 6,70 per cent. The dimi-
nution of receipts for the luxury cinemas
reached 18 per cent, while the drop for the
neighbourhood cinemas was only 1 1 per cent.

Statistics of the Department of National
Revenue of Ottawa show that the imports
of American films into Canada has dropped
46 %, while the imports of British films have
increased by 18 %.

Labour - Syndical Films Problems.

At the conference of the capitalists of the
German film industry recently held at
Frankfurt, the following resolutions were
agreed to. The meterage of a normal film
must not be less than 2600 metres, nor more
than 2800 metres, and the meterage of a com-
plete programme must be about 3500 me-
tres. The swollen salaries paid to the cin-
ema actors are to be reduced, the charges
for sound films are not to exceed those for
silent films ; in the laws regulating the use
of reduced size film account must be taken
of the vital needs of the German cinema
industry. The import of reduced zize films
ought in principle to be forbidden, and the
German trade ought to refrain from making
reduced size pictures of normal size films.
The exhibition of industrial propaganda
sound films ought not to be authorized
except on payment of the renting fee, and
in this case the author should have no right
to oppose. It was further urged that the
age limit for the admittance of children to
cinemas be raised to 14 years. (INTERNA-
TIONAL FlLMSCHAU, Prague, No. 5, of 1932).

Labour - Professional Training.

In an article entitled " The City of Paris
and the Cinema ", a report is given of
part of a conference held by Andrien Bru-
neau in the cinema library of Paris on the
occasion of the general meeting of the L Art

— 662 —

a 1'ecole " Association. A technical film the transformations of the Austin automo-

" The Plastic Metal " was shown by the bile from the times of the first machines

cinema library authorities. (L'Art A L*E- huilt in 1895 to the recentest models (The

cole, Paris, No. 131, March-May of 1932). Daily Film Renter, London, 28-VI-1932).

The courses of cinema sound technique
recently started at Tokio and at Osaka have
already been frequented by about 500 peo-
ple. (Motion Picture Herald, New York,
28-V-1932).

The Regent Street Polytechnic of Lon-
don will start next September a course of
cinema technique to last two years. (The
Times, London, 20-VI-1932).

A technical school of photography and
cinematography for the creation of technical
staffs for cinema businesses has been started
at Paris. ({Cinematograph, Berlin, 21 -VI-
1932).

After a year of preparations and experi-
menting, a new institute of microphonic
studies (Institut Mikrophonforshung) had
been added to the Klindworth-Scharwenka
Conservatorium of Berlin. The teaching
programme of the new institute includes
singing and speaking before the microphone,
musical composition, instrumentation, sce-
nario writing, sound drama writing play-
producing, photographing of sound films,
technique of cinema devices and tricks, etc.
The courses will begin the 1st of Septem-
ber next and will last two years, with five
lessons per week. (REICHSFILMBLATT, Ber-
lin, 2-VI 1-1932).

Labour - Industrial Films.

Under the title " Der Film in Dienst
Wirtschaft " (The film at the service of
Economy) Onik speaks of the utility of the
propaganda film for all branches of industry
and also especially for the national economy,
(Ufa Feuilleton, Berlin, 16-VI-1932).

The Gee Film Ltd. had made a propa-
ganda film entitled " Progress " illustrating

The "GUF" Fasaist University Group of
Milan intends to make a film ou the acti-
vity of a large industrial establishment. The
subject will be treated in a popularly scien-
tific manner. (Il Cinema Italiano), Rome,
1 -VI I- 1932).

Workmen's Accidents.

The ninth official report on the safety
of the mines in Prussia points out especially
the good results obtained by cinema propa-
ganda for preventing accidents. In 1929,
291 gatherings of workers were arranged
for cinematographic spectacles of this kind.
(Chronique de la Securitie Industrielle,
Geneva, No. 1, of 1932).

Associations public bodies and Ins-
titutions.

" Information from the Academy of Mo-
tion Picture Arts and Sciences " of Holly-
wood (10-VI-1932) announces that the Acad-
emy will nominate as members several
authors, actors and technical directors who
have distinguished themselves during the
year in the cinematographic art.

All the American companies of film pro-
ducers, with the exception of the Columbia
Pictures Corporation have signed an agree-
ment called producers' agreement fixing
their reciprocal relations in the matter of
employment of actors and the salaries to be
paid to cinema stars etc. (MOTION PICTURE
Herald, New York, ll-VI-1932).

Under the title of " Techkino " a special
service has been created at Leningrad
the duty of which is to take charge of cinema
projections in the schools and technical in-
stitutes. (L'Ecran, Paris, ll-VI-1932).

- 663

The Masaryk Institute for National Edu-
cation in Prague has created a new organiz-
ation of cinema work intended to promote-
studies of film problems of every kind.

The Czecho-Slovak production will be
able henceforth to dispose of material
which will be supplied to it by the various
sections of this new organization. These
sections are divided into literary, technical,
scenic, dramatic art and experimental sec-
tions. (Kinematograph, Berlin, 21 -VI-
1932).

A new organization of cinema amateurs,
the British Association of Amateur Cine-
matographers has been created in London
under the chairmanship of Mr. Sinclair
Hill. (Today's Cinema, London, 25-VI-
1932).

Le ClNfioPSE of Paris, (No. 154 of June,
1932) communicates that at Budapest a
cinema library of historical films regarding
Hungary is being organized as well as a
cinema museum.

Technique.

Le Cin6opse of Paris (No. 5 of May,
1 932) in an interesting article on the problems
which arise from the principle of television,
deals with a report of the Society of British
Electrical Engineers.

Die Filmtechnik of Berlin (No. 5 of
1932) publishes an interesting article by
Dr. von Lolhuffel on the accessories and
devices required for unified sound projec-
tions. The description of the sound recei-
vers, the amplifiers and the loud-speakers
is especially interesting.

L' Industrie francaise Cinematogra-
PHIQUE of Paris (No. 8 of May, 1932) pub-
lishes a report of a new projector the Bo-
lax Paillard bifilm Mod. D " which per-

mits the use of film either of 16 mm
or 9 '/2

Le Cineopse of Paris (No. 153 of May,
1932) publishes an article worthy of note
on insulating materials and on the necessary
measures for completing the acoustic pro-
perties of a cinema hall.

The Cinema of London (l-VI-1932)
publishes an interesting study on screen
amplification in connection with projections
and the size of the hall where given.

At the Academy of Science in Paris com-
munication was made regarding a new dis-
covery of Monsieur Jacques de Saint-Ge-
nies, thanks to which it is possible to obtain
stereoscopic effects in the cinema. (ClNE
Journal, Paris, 10-VI-I932).

In this number there is a description of
a new device permitting direct observation
of the subject during the operation of actual
photography. The device is particularly
useful for amateurs. (Filmwelt, Berlin,
12-VI-1932).

A new development in colour cinemato-
graphy has been made by Lady Williams
of Pontyclum in New South Wales to which
the name of Morgana Colour Process has
been given. (PUBLIC INFORMATION FROM
the Bell and Howell Co., Chicago, 14-
VI-1932).

The first conference for propaganda pur-
poses for reduced size film teaching organized
by the " Bayerischer Schalfilmdienst " has
been held at Munich. An exhibition of the
principal types of apparatus used was held.
Among the exhibits was a Siemens apparatus
capable of giving good result in half-lit
rooms. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 16-VI-1932).

Mr John Davies, technical director of the
" Davies Insulating Co " has invented a new

6 — la ingl.

- 664 -

colour cinema process, based on a double
effect of light obtained by means of lenses
and prisms. (Ostf.RR Film Zeitung, Vienna,
25-VI-1932).

Hebdo Film of Paris (25-VI-1932) pub-
lishes an article by P. de Bonnat on a
new sound film reproduction process which
gives a perfect impression of the orchestra.
There is also a description of the process
by Alain Bourain.

The Baird Home will shortly put on the
market a new television apparatus for the
family. While with the other machines
only two or three persons could see the im-
ages transmitted, the new model will allow
visibility for everybody in the room where
the transmission is taking place. Moreover,

a certain amount of illumination is possible
in the room, while the older method required
complete darkness. (The Daily Tele-
graph, London, 1 -VI 1 1- 1932).

Die Photographische Industrie of Ber-
lin publishes in its numbers 7 to 1 1 of the
current year a complete study by Herr Rolf
Wigrand on sound installations in medium-
sized and small halls.

La Cinematographie francaise of Paris
(No. 704 of 1932) publishes a series of art-
icles of a technical character having a special
interest. Among them may be mentioned
" La Maquette et le Cinema " by A Bitter ;
" Qualites et defauts des objectifs in grande
ouverture " by Engineer G. Bonnerot and
" La pellicule Panchre G. " by Dr. Schilli.

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on Cinematography, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching **> ~

"Dei* Bi id wart "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The " Bildwart " Supplements :

" F1LMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);

" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);

" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses);

" MKROPROJEKTION " ;

" PATENTSCHAU " (Patents' Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

= Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =

(BILDWART VERLAGSGENOSSENSCHAFT G. m. b. H., BERLIN, N. W. 21, Bochumer Strasse 8.a)

- 665 -

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Bibliography

Das Deutsche Lichtbild, Jahresschau 1932
(German Photography in 1932) Berlin. Published
by Robert and Bruno Schultz. 68 pp. 192 illus-
trations.

A most interesting collection with perfect exam-
ples of photography as executed in Germany dur-
ing the year. Real creations and works of art.

The volume contains 180 photographs by about
as many photographers and shows how large is the
army of amateurs and masters of the camera in
Germany. There are not many professionals among
the list of photographers. In Germany as elsewhere,
economic necessities suffocate the aspirations of the
spirit.

For portraits, the head and half bust style still
predominates, while in other countries, including
Italy, this tendency is on the downward grade,
and looks like being followed by freer and more
harmonious compositions, such as the half figure
or the entire figure.

The volume includes some fine nudes with co-
loured plastic anatomy, but the sculptor-photogra-
pher's influence is perhaps too much stressed.

The studies of plants and flowers are numerous,
scientific and beautiful. The pictures of animals
are interesting and full of movement. The land-
scapes, if not particularly novel, are at any rate
pleasing.

In Germany too, the desperate desire on the part
of the photographer to impress his creations with
the mark of his own personality is becoming very
evident. But in such pictures the mind must still
dominate over sentiment. Otherwise we get the
picturesque obtained by a system of calculations on
a millemetric scale with a pantographic exaltation
which ends by offending the eye.

Le monde truque. Les mysteres du cinema by MlCHEL
Gorel. 1 Vol. 253 pp. Nillson, Paris.

The volume under review gathers together the
various indications collected at different times on
the aspects of the cinema world. There is a chap-
ter dealing with the invention of the cinema and the
author recalls the names of the early pioneers, and
the polemics that have since arisen to establish prior-
ity of inventions. He traces the history of the
industry, and sees in the arrival of the sound film

an innovation necessary for transfusing new life
into the young business.

The author treats of the " Hays code " of moral-
ity in the matter of cinema productions and the
principles which the American producers observe-
There are chapters on " Men who make life re-
turn " with personal interviews and impressions of
Melies, Griffith, Sjostrom, Lupu Pick, Murnau,
Erich von Stroheim ; King Vidor, Tourneur, Cruze
and Dupont. After tracing the broad outlines of
their careers, M. Gorel speaks of the fate of the ac-
tors, a sad or glorious fate, which makes of these
beings regular heroes or, on the other hand, pallid
figures destined to oblivion.

Education on the air. Second Year Book of the
Institute for Education by Radio. Edited by Jo-
sephine H. Maclatchy. Columbus, 1931, Ohio
State University, 301 pp.

The Institute for Education by Radio directed
by the Research Department of the College of Educ-
ation of Ohio State University publishes its second
Year Book which is written chiefly by persons at-
tached to the Institute itself. Various problems
are discussed, and reports thereon issued.

The large volume is divided into seven parts,
namely : National aspects of Radio Education ;
Organization of Radio Education ; activity of the
university stations (Universities of Chicago, Illinois,
and Ohio, State University) with a chapter on the
use of radio in teaching agriculture ; radio in the
school-room, technical aspects of radio, and special
studies on education by radio.

Mein Filmbuch. Von Tonfilm. von Filmstars and von
Kinematographie. (My Cinema Diary. Account
of the Sound Film, Cinema Stars and the Cinema).
Friedrich Forges. Vienna 1931. Pub. By Mein
Film Verlag. 472 pp.

A typical vade-mecum booklet for film fans and
students of the cinema. It contains a bit of everything :
information on the sound film and its development,
a letter from Marlene Dietrich, an article on the
birth of Hollywood, many technical and commercial
particulars of the progress of the sound film in

- 668

Europe, and especially in German-speaking coun-
tries, its progress in America, explanations of the
best known German technical systems, a brief sound
film manuscript and several other curiosities
concerning the film likely to interest the big
public.

The book's chief merit, though, which is one that
will endear it to all passionate fans is a collection
of some 400 portraits of actors, actresses, scenic
directors, with account of their ways of life and car-
eers, so that we can learn not only in which film
or films they appeared but also the date of their
birth and even their addresses.

In the middle of the booklet there are some pages
which may be used as the film-fan's note-book.
These pages are provided so that the owner or the
volume can take notes of films seen or write anything
that has to do with the cinema. Besides the list
of addresses of the stars, there is also a list of pro-
ducing firms and another list of film establishments

Robert C. Bruce and Pat Dowling. Camera Se-
crets of Hollywood. Simplified Photography for
the Home Pictures Maker. Hollywood, 1931, Ca-
mera Secrets Publishing Co. Metropolitan Studios
134 pp. Price : $ 1.25. Bound in leather : $ 1.75
With photographs.

More than a regular treatise on photography and
cinematography for the amateur, this volume which
will certainly prove most useful to all those who
without being professionals desire to produce beau-
tiful films, is a book in which the authors, with the
enthusiasm of those who love their work narrate
their adventures in photography. The reader learns
not only the practical side of photography in all its
phases from exposure to aesthetic compositions, but
also to work with love and to know just what he is
photographing, never to take photos without meaning.
" The better the motive for the photograph, the
better will the photograph be .

The chapters containing useful advice for those
who wish to make commercial photographs (Films
for profit, p. 62 and foil.) information on the latest
cinema cameras and some remarks about the in-
fluence of the weather in the United States on
cinephotography.

The authority of the authors and the handsome-
ness of the illustrations, give this elegant book a
value of its own.

Maxime Hesse and Claude Amedee. La Photogra-
phic 16mo, Armand Colin, 103 Boulevard Saint-
Michel, Paris, Fr. 10,50

The objects of this book are the following : to
explain what photography is from the lens to the
finished print, throwing light on the all the inter-
mediate operations ; to inform the reader of the
most recent advances in photographic technique ;
to teach him the properties of the sensitized plate
or film, to give him some knowledge of the chemistry
of the various processes of photography.

In a reduced form we have here a book where,
besides purely theoretical discussions, there are prac-
tical instructions regarding the times for exposures,
the pose and the degree of sensitiveness of various
emulsions.

The work is pleasant to read, though scientific
accuracy and technical knowledge are not sacrificed
to a desire for popular writing. It is specially aimed
at students of the scientific side of photography,
with a number of practical hints included.

BELA BALAZS. Der sichtbare Mensch : Eine Film-
Dramaturgie. 2nd Edn. Halle. Wilhelm Knapp.
167 pp. (Visible Man. Film Drama).

Although this work has been made out-of-date
through the advent of the talking film, it still has
a value of its own, and merits to be noticed even
now, perhaps especially now, eight years since it
first appeared. (Vienna, 1924) It has now a cer-
tain historic interest as a document in the existence
of the silent film, which it praises as an art all to
itself comparable with other arts such as those of
the theatre, painting and literature, with which it
has often been contrasted to prove that it possesses
a character, means and a technique all of its own.
The author is opposed to filmed literature. Perhaps
the best and sincerest chapter in the book is the
last one on the Danish artiste of the German film^
Asta Nielsen, who, according to the author, sums up
in herself the great expressive art of the silent film.

The book is a real film dramaturgy, as the author
calls it in the sub-title on the cover, a kind of apology
of the film written with a profond analytic spirit.
The book deserves a place in every specialized,
cinema library as a document referring to an epoch :
an epoch the value of which even the intellectuals
now to begin to appreciate for the struggle towards
self-expression which it evolved and its final self-
affirmation.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — « L'Universale * Tipografia Poliglotta.

— 669 —

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REVIEW

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

ROME

SEPTEMBER
19 3 2

LEAGIMAIIONS

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CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS 4

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome, President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Films, Inc.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MARTINEZ-SIERRA Mme Maria, Member of the International Committee for the

Protection of Infancy.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela. Doctor of Letters, ex-Director of the Girls Lycee of

Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

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The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.

Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Gimeno, Jose Maria

de Feo, Giuseppe JORDAN, H.

de LAVALLAZ, Maurice STORER, Edward

Apollonio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. SEPTEMBER 1932 N. 9.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

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EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

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INDEX

Page

P. R. WESCHER. . . — Emile Reynaud (A Forgotten Cinema Pioneer) 673

P. DE VuYST .... — Rationalization in Education, Teaching, Domestic Econ-
omy and Business Management 679

F. JiJER-MARBACH — Difficulties Encountered in Understanding Film? . . . 692

EMANUEL Horn . . — The International Problem of the Film 699

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

History of Visual Education (conclusion) 703

NATIONAL COMMITTEES OF THE 1. 1. E. C.

The Czecho-Slovak Committee — The Dutch Committee — The Chinese

Committee — The Film in National Life 715

LEGISLATION

Cinema Censorship in Guatemala and the Republic of Panama 719

INFORMATION AND COMMENT 725

TECHNICAL NOTES 737

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 739

EMILE REYNAUD
(A FORGOTTEN CINEMA PIONEER)

By P. R. Wescher.

Before the film began its triumphal march through the ways of the
world, there were a number of men in France, such as Marey and Reynaud,
forgotten today perhaps by the historians of such events, who sought to
realize the future possibilities of the cinema. A whole generation before
the world success of Micky Mouse, Reynaud designed on a strip of film a
burlesque comedy, and long before Edison and the brothers Lumiere, he
projected animated scenes on the screen.

If ever there was a case of a life of tragedy connected with mechanical
means, Reynaud's is an impressive example of such. His is the history
of a man who had, like many others, the sad fate of being misunderstood
because others had the luck to seize the propitious moment and so gain
success. A Brest lawyer, Maurice Noverre, in order to render him due
justice and to serve the cause of historical truth, wrote a book entitled " Emile

Editorial Note. — We are very pleased to publish the interesting remarks of our esteemed
collaborator, Dr Wescher. The more so because the story of the pioneers of the cinema must
inevitably be a welcome subject to all those who are enthusiastic lovers and students of the film
In Dr Wescher s note, there are some points which di0er from the classic work, on the subject, Cois-
sac's Histoire du Cinematographic a book, which we have for some time now come to consider
as the vademecum of the history of cinematography.

But discussions are always of prime interest.

There is one point, however, which we should like to correct. The author, in the beginning
of his article, states that the names of Reynaud and Marey are not recorded in any popular ency-
clopedia. This may be so, but this is not the case when we come to the serious and important
volumes dealing with the history and development of the cinema. We find, as a matter of fact,
the names of the two French scientists recalled and exalted by all those who have written the his-
tory of the cinema, and especially by Coissac. The real dictionary of the cinema, or rather the
encyclopedia of the cinema which our Institute has compiled with extreme care and enthusiasm,
and which will shortly be published, deals in a worthy manner with the names of the two pioneers
to whom the screen owes so much. These pioneers undoubtedly contributed with their work to
prepare the way that was to be traversed triumphantly by the two Lumiere brothers.

— 674 —

Reynaud, or the Invention of the animated projection ", a volume which
enjoyed a very limited circulation.

Luminous projections were discovered in 1779 by J. P. Marat, with
the aid of a microscope, while in 1 863, they were used together with photo-
graphy. Reynaud was the first to adapt to the kaleidoscope, which he
had discovered a little before, the principles of luminous projection. That
is, he prepared the way for the cinema, making the step from fixed projec-
tions to animated projections, the possibilities of which latter he studied
with the greatest tenacity for tv/elve years.

Several solutions of the problem were being put forward at that time
in France. One may even be surprised that Daguerre, inventor of photo-
graphy did not also invent cinematography. His diorama, improved in
the panorama devised by the English painter Baker at the beginning of
the XlXth century has a close resemblance to the cinema. The spectator
was seated in the dark on a platform, while on a transparent and painted
screen animated sections of landscapes, such as water-falls, dawns, sunsets,
etc. were shown with the assistance of disguised projectors. The illusion
was so complete that the light appeared to come from the screen itself. In-
tellectual and technical discoveries do not progress in a constant manner,
but rather in jerks. Often they undergo a period of delay or arrested de-
velopment at the beginning, and later on resume their progress in a dif-
ferent direction to show a new and startling advance.

Reynaud began as a photographer. He learnt in Pans how to make
instruments for optics and physics, and gathered the first notions of indus-
trial designing at the House of Artige in the Rue de Grenelle. He was
initiated into photography by Adam Salomon, who knew all the best methods
for photographic retouching, and he established for himself an excellent
clientele in the most distinguished quarters of the capital. This was in
1 864. Reynaud's father was an engraver and watchmaker at Le Puy, while
his mother, an admirer of J. J. Rousseau, painted water colours on velvet,
after the instructions of her teacher, Redoute, known as the Raphael of
flowers. This seemingly insignificant circumstance had nevertheless a
notable influence in Reynaud's life.

In 1 870, he opened a photographic studio in the Rue Poissonniere, but
orders did not flow in, and he was obliged to turn to stereoscopy and scien-
tific photography. He made photographs from nature of the most important
families of plants for the dictionary of the celebrated botanist Focillon.
This circumstance awoke in Reynaud a lively desire to gain by study a

- 675 -

knowledge of the phenomena of nature. In order to further his studies
and extend his knowledge, he frequented the conferences of Abbot Moigno,
who gave courses of lectures on all branches of science with the aid of lumin-
ous slides imported from England. These courses made a great impres-
sion on Reynaud, who frequented all the other free courses that were given
on the principle of amusing while instructing, and thus spreading the ele-
ments of scientific knowledge among the public. Such courses were to
be found in Rue Cadet, organized by the Grand Orient, and also in the
Rue de la Paix, organized by the World Academy. Among these lectures
and lessons, those given by the Abbe Moigno, a leading light in this form
of popularization of science and publisher of the review " Mondes " were
characterized by the fullness of their programme, by their excellence and
their really encyclopedic nature. The Abbe Moigno was also a collaborator
in Larousse's Universal Encyclopedia.

As a regular and enthusiastic follower of these courses of instruction,
Reynaud entered into cordial personal relations with Abbe Moigno, who
in the end engaged him as assistant and operator for his luminous projec-
tions.

Reynaud gave his first public conference on the photography of the
future in the Hall of Progress, built in 1872 by a rich friend of the Abbe
Moigno. When the Hall of Progress was closed the same year for lack of
public support, Reynaud returned to Le Puy, where with the assistance of
the local authorities, he gave a series of conferences entitled " By means
of Sight " in the industrial schools. He enjoyed the title of professor,
and more than 500 persons regularly followed his lectures, in the course
of which he illustrated with luminous slides the progress of physics, chem-
istry, technicology, industry and art.

Among the subjects described by him were molecular attraction, the
principles of telegraphy, the first notions of ballooning and so on. In order
to improve his scientific demonstrations, he set himself to work for his first
discoveries, all directed along the line of animated projections.

His first step was made with the discovery of the praxinoscope, a fore-
runner of the kaleidoscope, which is still in use in our own time. Rey-
naud's next step was to make this praxinoscope capable of projecting lum-
inous images visible to a great number of people. In this way the pro-
blem of the animated luminous projection was already solved. In 1878,
when the Universal Exhibition was drawing all France to Paris, Reynaud
wanted to produce his invention there. As is the case with all similar ideas

- 676 —

and inventions, such as the steam engine and the dynamo, Reynaud's in-
vention appeared merely a toy, an amusing joke of no importance.

Reynaud s decision to go to Paris to enter into commercial negotiations
regarding his invention encountered such difficulties that he was obliged
to give up even the safe post he had, preferring to sacrifice everything for
his idea. He put his praxinoscope on the market as a new kind of toy for
the visitors to the Universal Exhibition, after having commissioned the
manufacture of it to a workman at Nogent-sur-Marne.

Everyone admired the conjurers, the girl blowing soap bubbles, the
performing dogs, etc. Meanwhile, Reynaud was certain that from this
moment, with his praxinoscopic theatre, he had solved the problem of col-
oured animated projections, although his initial series of twelve poses could
not be considered as an altogether happy debut.

His apparatus quickly enjoyed success in the Louvre stores and at the
Bon March e, as well as also in the provinces, and Reynaud was able to go
on with his work sure of a certain modest financial independence. During
the next ten years, by means of his work and the progressive development of
his ideas, he invented and patented in 1889 the Optical Theatre after 17
years of study and researches in the field of optics and the principles of
projection.

The Optical Theatre reached its definite form thanks to the preparation
cf a strip of flexible perforated celluloid of unlimited length. In order to
increase the clearness and the luminosity, the images were projected on the
screen through a complicated system of mirrors. The perforations helped
to hold the celluloid strip in place and to prevent its slipping.

After having taken out a first patent, Reynaud, in 1889, showed all his
models in their progressive development, from the praxinoscope to the
Optical Theatre at the Exhibition of Free Arts held in the Champs de Mars
in Paris, and it was here, in all probability, that Edison saw Reynaud's
exhibition and conceived the first idea of his cinematograph.

Simultaneously with the creation of his Optical Theatre, Reynaud
produced his first film in drawings " Le Bon Bock ", a series of humourous
scenes lasting about fifteen minutes. He showed also " The Clown and
his Dogs " and " Poor Pierrot ". It was his intention to found a theatre
with these films, and he entered into negotiations with Gabriel Thomas,
director of the Grevin Museum, who displayed the keenest interest in Rey-
naud's inventions. The Grevin Museum had been founded in 1882 by
the journalist Meyer, following the lines of the plastic models shown at

— 677 —

Madame Tussaud's exhibition in London. The Grevin Museum still
exists today and belongs, like the Tour Eiffel, the Moulin Rouge and the
Buttes Chaumont in Paris to the end of the xixth century. Reynaud
undertook in 1 892 to run for the Grevin Museum a fantastic feature with
his theatre of luminous projections. The first programme included the
three short films already referred to. The composer Gaston wrote some
music for them.

The performances, which lasted from two in the afternoon until II PM
enjoyed remarkable success, and the critics consecrated sensational articles
to the feature in the press. Notwithstanding this, Reynaud perceived,
after some few weeks of performances that the films were not resisting the
strain to which they were exposed. He prepared some new ones, strength-
ening them with metal backing. The management of the theatre soon
requested him to put on some fresh films, but he had not the time to pre-
pare them, because not only was he inventor, stage manager, designer and
mounter of his films, but he was obliged also to act as operator for nine
hours a day, including Sundays. His remuneration was 500 francs a month.
In order to prepare new films, he had to pay an assistant operator out of
his own pocket. In spite of all. this, during the next six months he thought
out and prepared two new films, " Un reve au coin du feu " and " Autour
d'une cabine ", bathing scenes, lasting fifteen minutes (636 photograms),
comic or burlesque episodes suggestive of certain pictures of Mac Sennett,
and coloured animated pictures of the kind that have today become so popu-
lar in America.

Thanks to these films, the year 1895 was, from the financial point of
view, one of Reynaud's most successful periods.

Up to this point in his career, Reynaud had only enjoyed success, but
this was not to be his fate in the ensuing years. Some friends of his
had suggested to him during the first year of life of his theatre utilizing
photographs for his film strips. He had, as a matter of fact, considered
the possibility of projecting a photo-film, but he was of the opinion that
photography was not sufficiently artistic for his theatre. The supposed
inartistic character of photography was in fact one of the prejudices of the
period. His chief aim was animated pictures, and he drew upon all the
artistic talent he had inherited from his mother to further this ideal of his.
In 1896, when the competition of Edison and the Lumiere brothers menaced
his life-work, in order to obtain more lifelike pictures, and thus in his opin-
ion improve his projections, he prepared in the studio of the photographer

- 678-

Liebert, with the collaboration of the clowns Footitt and Chocolat a pho-
tographic film entitled " William Tell ", which would have been worthy
of Charlie Chaplin. But even in this film he maintained the typical idea
of the animated drawing film, and insisted on marking in handwriting on
the strip of film to be projected all the poses that had been obtained.

When the brothers Lumiere installed their first cinema in the basement
of a large cafe on the Boulevard des Capucines, Reynaud could perhaps
have taken action on the strength of his patents for a perforated film, but
fearing the expenses of a trial, he refrained.

From that day, he conducted a desperate campaign against the photo-
film. He used Demeney's chromo-photographic process, and made, with
the assistance of three clowns from the Alhambra and the actor Gallipot
a number of new pantomimes. He constructed some new apparatus, such
as the so called photographic scenario, but his one-sided understanding
of the business exhausted his powers. In 1900, while the cinema was gain-
ing ground, Reynaud was obliged to give up his performances. His Optical
Theatre closed its doors after 12,800 performances, attended by something
over half a million people, and his place was taken by the marionette theatre
of John Hiwelt. The twentieth century had no place to offer this romantic
of technique who later sold all his apparatus, in order to live, became a
workman in the Gaumont establishment, then mechanic to a firm which
sold cinema machinery, and finally secretary to an architect.

Leon Gaumont, the film producer once offered Reynaud to buy the
little films of his optical theatre which were still in his possession and to
offer them as a document on the development of cinematography to the
museum of Arts and Crafts so that his name might be remembered by pos-
terity, but it came out that a little while before this Reynaud had destroyed
them all in a moment of depression.

He died in 1918, in abject poverty, in the hospital of Ivry, while his
two sons were at the war. His widow was still living in 1924, and was
employed as cashier in a suburban cinema in Paris, while the big cinema
firms were gathering in their milliards of francs.

(Translated from German).

RATIONALIZATION IN EDUCATION, TEACHING,
DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

By P. de Vuyst.

The rational organization of human activity can prove a means to greater progress,
and it is for this reason, that after the teachings of Taylor and Fayol, numerous na-
tional and international institutions have taken up the study of the question with the
greatest interest.

If the greatest advances in the matter of rationalization have been made in the de-
partments of industrial organization, some steps have also been taken in agriculture,
but it appears to me that the authorities have paid too little attention to the possibilities
of rationalization in education, teaching, domestic economy and the management of
educative bodies and public administrations.

It is my desire, therefore, to make some reflections, as a non-expert, and merely
to raise some points that will show the importance of these problems and the absolute
necessity of accurate studies.

This may interest especially the heads of the film industry, which would provide
the most powerful instrument for spreading the idea of rationalization.

A) Rational Organization of Family Life.

Since the first principle of the supporters of rationalization should be to look at
every case from the beginning so as to obtain the maximum output of work, the initial
preparation of work must be regarded as of great importance.

It would, therefore, for example, seem logical to eliminate or modify the less satis-
factory habits acquired in neglected youth and to teach children and young people from the
very beginning habits of order and rationalization in their worl^. If this is right, then
we must commence with the rationalization of family life.

The child's early education begins with its parents. The physical and intellec-
tual education of the child and the moral and religious formation of his character have
naturally progressed to a very considerable extent when he or she is ready to leave home
and go to school. During the first 20 years of his life, the individual passes ten times
as long a period under family influence as under the influences of school and church.
Parents are from 40 to 50 times more numerous than teachers or priests, and can inflict
much sterner punishments. If they were better prepared for their educative tasks,
they would certainly commit fewer errors and would obtain much more important
results.

In a booklet entitled " The Social Reconstitution of the Family ", (Brussels, Action

— 680 —

Corrsmerciale, 79 Chaussee de Haecht) M. A. Lecensier puts forward a series of arguments
to justify his point of view and points out the best means for spreading the good prin-
ciples of family education.

It is evident that if by means of rationalized cinema instruction a good education
were from the beginning given to young people and the family, it would be possible
to obtain from humanity a better output in all fields of action.

The logical conclusion is that what is required is an Institute in which the various
practical methods of family education can be studied and learnt. A distinguished phil-
osopher, J. Melotte, who is also a businessman living at Remicourt in Belgium, has
made a first donation to such an institution, after being easily convinced of its elemen-
tary usefulness.

In this connection, the work of Signora Diaz-Gasca of Rome and M. Gollier of
Brussels are worthy of mention.

Nothing is so useful as examples for showing how, through rationalization, one
can increase the effectiveness of this kind of education.

The educational environment must be above all moral, especially in the country.
Social assistance organizations rightly enough favour the construction of cheap houses,
each with a small piece of land attached, which helps to encourage education and to
persuade the workman to pass his hours of liberty there instead of wasting them else-
where.

It is the task of the doctors to furnish the necessary advice to present and future
parents in the matter of early physical education. Infantile hygiene has made consider-
able progress as a result of the campaign undertaken in all countries in favour of this
form of scientific education.

Family games, participation in the work of the house, little occupations and garden-
ing, when all are well directed, constitute exercises capable of developing physical ability
and giving excellent results. Such should therefore be considered of the same import-
ance as productive sports.

In the matter of the intellectual education of children, parents should also be made
acquainted with the latest and most efficacious methods.

If one says to a child " you must learn music ", without providing him with a ra-
tional method for learning it, no results can be expected unless the child should happen
to be a creative genius. And just as music-teaching must be provided, a similar system
must be followed for the development of all the other faculties required for success in
life. In the matter of the sense of order, for instance, and differentiation, if from the
very beginning the child were taught to keep his collections, papers and smallp osses-
sions in order and even classify them so as to be able to find anything with the greatest
ease, he would derive great future benefit from this training and save much lost time
in later life.

Papers and documents is a high-sounding expression, but the smallest image, the
least important object may be a kind of document. It is easy enough to teach a child
who cannot read to classify all the pictures referring to the vegetable world in one box,

— 681 —

and those referring to the animal world in another. This will be a first step toward
learning order, classification and documentation. Later, he will make indexes to record
his trips and excursions, and will thus acquire the spirit of order and the sense of dif-
ferentiation.

As a general rule, the experts of rationalization are in agreement in maintaining that
good sense must constitute the base of the organization of intellectual work as well as
of manual labour. Common sense or good sense must of necessity then be widely
diffused.

A booklet dealing with this subject " Comment developper le Bon Sens " by A. Le-
mercier (Brussels, Action Commerciale, 79 Rue de Haecht) points out the various meth-
ods of initiation into the rules of good sense, and sums them up in a schematic table
which was published in the March number of this review. The work is of the highest
value for all those who are interested in problems of rationalizing intellectual work.

In the matter of moral and religious education, parents are often satisfied with saying
to their children : " It is necessary to possess initiative, character and religious princi-
ples ". But what results can be hoped for if the parents themselves are not acquainted
with the best systems for developing initiative, for improving character, and imparting
to their offspring from the earliest days the way to live according to the principles of
the religious life ?

The methodology of education has still much to learn and many improvements
to make as compared with the methodology of business management. In industry
generally and in the workshops, the progress of rationalization has reached the point
where the products come from the factories perfectly calibrated and tested. In the
same way, the methods of moral formation in the domestic workshops ought to be im-
proved, so that the children leave them with perfectly calibrated characters. In in-
dustry, there is always the possibility of super-production, but the possibility of a crisis
in matters of moral education can be excluded.

When our youth can in this manner be prepared by means of a rationalized educa-
tion, the output in life of children will undoubtedly be much greater.

B) Rational Organization of Teaching.

If the family must rationalize its educative activity, the school in like manner
has the duty of rationalizing its programmes and its methods of teaching. Before teach-
ing what rationalization is, it is necessary to rationalize teaching itself.

The school ought to seek to obtain the maximum advantage with the least effort,
taking especially into consideration the future necessities of the students.

In scholastic exercises, as in any other work, the students should be placed in moral
surroundings and such as will keep foremost the idea of what the education is aiming at,
namely the pratical success in life of the scholars.

It goes without saying that teaching ought to be in a position to apply what it teach-
es. A surgeon who does not know how to do the operations he describes to his stu-
dents, an agricultural professor incapable of managing a farm will not obtain the same
results from their teaching as masters capable of making practical application of the
materia they are teaching.

— 682 —

Pedagogical treatises are excellent as statements of principle, but the capacity to
act in conformity with such principles is in itself a desirable thing.

It is therefore necessary to have a continuous development of the child's personality,
but there is always the risk of obliterating the teacher's personality through an excess
of lessons, regulations and inspections .

It is stated that it is necessary to develop in a harmonious manner all the student's
faculties, but if this be true, why are the greater part of examinations mere memory
tests that take no account of the other faculties ? As one result, we find that those who
are strongest in composition are not always those who have the greatest initiative, good
sense and other qualities necessary for success in life.

The school, sometimes assisted in this by the family, tends too much towards the
so called intellectual careers. By this attitude, a social and economic disequilibrium
is or will be arrived at. We should not forget that the same degree of intelligence is
required to exercise an agricultural or industrial profession as for any other.

As a general rule, it is a good thing to direct the children towards the milieu and
profession to which they would seem predestined to belong. Too much difference
between the milieu, the tenour of life and the profession chosen may easily lead to a lack
of efficiency. The number of the unfortunate and discontented is thus increased, and
such folk are the cause of harm and anxiety to society.

As a rule, too many theoretical things are learnt in the schools, and their uselessness
is seen in later life, while many thing useful to young folk are neglected.

Why should not young girls be more largely attracted to domestic work and boys
taught small trades ? The exercise they would thus take would be a productive form
of sport, less theoretical and more efficacious than any other.

In the organization of moral and intellectual activities, there are a infinite number
of blanks to fill in. In the matter of reading, for instance, would it not be better to
make a selection of the best books at once, without wasting any time on books of se-
cond-rate importance ?

The major part of the works listed for reading could be reduced in bulk by a
half or a quarter. The reading of 95 pages of absurdities is often imposed for the
benefit of five pages which can properly be considered useful for the progress of
humanity.

In the work of popularizing books, charts, diagrams and drawings that are carefully
drawn up will save a lot of time for readers. In the universities a great number of cour-
ses and lessons overlap and are mere repetitions, causing a useless waste of time and
expenditure of energy while other essential things, such, for example, as the applications
of knowledge to family life, to which, in the future, 95 per cent of the students are des-
tined are passed over in silence, while systems of intellectual cooperation simply do not
exist in the professorial sphere (1).

As can be seen, the studies for the rationalization of teaching and the popularization
of knowledge open up vast horizons of progress.

(1) An interesting organization of intellectual cooperation is in operation in Belgium at the Ministry
of Agriculture in connection with the ministry's library .

— 683 —

* * *

Examples. — The possibility of applying these methods of rationalization has been
demonstrated by the Superior Institute of Domestic and Agricultural Economy of Lae-
ken in Belgium and in various schools, where the different systems of Dr Croly, Ma-
dame Montessori, Ferriere and Betier are used. To describe these various systems with
any detail would require a whole book.

The fundamental principle at Laeken is to place the students in the normal rural
or domestic surroundings in which they will later have to live, to teach them how to
rationalize the work they will eventually have to do, and to consolidate their habits and
mould the qualities which will contribute to their success in life.

Physical exercises are combined with professional or technical exercises. A score
of domestic or agricultural operations executed by each pupil are timed for each month.
Due account is also taken of the quality of the work and the elegance of the movements
used in it.

The results are posted in graphs, and improvements of one hundred per cent have
been noted in a single year.

The operations in question were phases of domestic or agricultural work, considered
as physical exercises and therefore as applied sport or productive rationalized gymnastics.

A number of schools follow this method. Each year, after a series of ehminatory
trials between schools of the same province, nine picked scholars contend for the prize
known as the " Coupe de la Vaillante Fermiere ".

From the intellectual point of view, the students' personal work is watched with
great care. They are gradually taught to record facts, and to take part in the prepara-
tion of the lessons, and they see others groups do the same thing.

As I remarked before, there are an equal number and perhaps more reasons for
creating methods for the formation of moral character than for increasing the output
in the technical field, and it is possible to carry out the same moral and material pro-
grammes either in the bosom of the family or later in institutions of a family character.

At Laeken, for example, every effort is made to leave the cloudy regions of empir-
icism in order to give importance to initiative. Methods of observation and classifi-
cation have been introduced for registering anything which the pupil may suggest or
invent for improving the studies or the practical installations attached to the Institute.
The girl students who organize the excursions, or the indoor amusements, or take part
in any of the various kinds of work of the Institute such as researches or inquiries or
those who succeed in increasing in any way the productivity of the farms are rewarded
with special individual prizes. Only constructive work for the good of the Institute,
or work which comes within its programme is rewarded in this way. The director and
the superintendents encourage in every way this system of work which accustoms the
studentesses to overcome spontaneously the difficulties which crop up in the course of
daily existence.

Character, it is believed, can be developed very largely. Character consists of
a mixture of qualities and often of defects. The latter can be attenuated by inculcating

— 684 —

in the students the qualities opposed to these defects by means of a thoroughly un-
derstood mutual education. A girl student who has naturally a good temper is charged
with watching over the good humour of her companions. The latter are invited to
indicate from month to month the progress made in this particular field. Another girl
student will take charge of the inculcation of distinction and good taste, another of order
and punctuality, another with the handling of foreigners and so on. Each pupil in
this way becomes a teacher for a determined type of work or effort, while remaining a
student in all the other materia. All progress is regularly noted down, and comparisons
show an efficiency and improvement which is above the normal.

These methods of generic professional formation are in use from the earliest years of
study. The third year schoolars have to take an improvement course, so that when they
leave the scholl, they are able to assume responsibility and handle a business on their
own account, and do propaganda work by the force of example in the country schools.

C) Rationalization of Domestic Economy.

In a workshop where thousands of labourers are employed and when rationalization
of their work results in the economy of a franc's worth of labour per workman per day,
the advantage gained is very notable.

In Belgium, the " Menage'' establishment, which is the largest workship of the
kind, organizes the work of 2,000,000 lady house managers. These deal with
on an average 28,000 francs for every household, and a better domestic management
could easily lead to a ten per cent economy which in a year would amount to five mil-
liards of francs.

In this great national and highly important workshop where all household operat-
ions take place, the women work at least ten hours a day. By rationalizing their work,
and employing specially adapted women for special tasks, it would be possible to permit
them to gain one or even two hours a day, which sums up to between 500 millions and
a milliard hours in the year. All this time could be devoted to the education of ths
children. Notable results for the progress of civilization could be obtained by this
method, as was pointed out in the beginning of this article. The same idea applies
for each country, and similar calculations can be made.

These are the twofold results to be aimed at by the rationalization of domestic
management and the scientific organization of its work.

There is a great deal to be done in the matter of rationalization by a better order-
ing of the position of the various rooms and objects in the house. Too rarely the house-
keepers supply architects with sufficient indications to allow them to make a happy
distribution of the various rooms, so that the various operations of domestic work may
be reduced to their minimum and the movement to and from the various rooms may
be reduced to the smallest possible.

When one rents a house built for a family which has different habits and needs to
one's own, one has to adapt the new dwelling to the new circumstances as best one can.
But, at any rate, it is possible to place the furniture and the household utensils in such
a way as to gain space, while the type of utensils used can be chosen so as waste the
least possible time and effort.

— 685 —

In 1905, at the Universal Exhibition of Liege, M. Graftiau showed [the organiza-
tion of a country family as planned in his " Model Farm ".

In 1910, at the Brussels Exhibition, M. Wautere, manager of the domestic-agrar-
ian school of Bouchout-les-Anvers and now Inspector General of the ministry of Agri-
culture, showed some photographs demonstrating the foolish and anti-hygienic habits
of the countrywomen in doing certain domestic tasks and comparing them with the
correct, elegant and much less tiring motions which proper, rational teaching recom-
mended.

At the Gand Exhibition in 1913, in the " Modern Village " stand, organized by the
Committee for the improvement of Rural Life, there were shown a number of contri-
vances and machines made with this special object.

This committee later organized several exhibitions of domestic utensils and appar-
atus at the Superior Institute of Domestic Economy at Laeken.

The exhibitions of the Ideal Home in London and the rooms showing domestic
utensils at the Pans Exhibitions are always extremely interesting.

In Czecho-Slovakia, the Farmers' Association has organized some most interest-
ing exhibitions along these lines.

The Belgian National Committee of Farm Clubs has instituted skill competitions
for domestic and agricultural work among the students of the domestic economy and
agricultural schools. Another foundation in Belgium has been the National Centre
for encouraging progress in domestic economy. The General Secretary is M. Lin-
demans, manager of the Institute of Agrarian Economy at Laeken.

In France, these problems have been thoroughly considered by Mile. Bernege in her
book on the " Application des principes de I 'organisation scientifique du travail menager ".

The whole question has been adequately studied in the United States, and par-
ticularly by Gilbreth in New York, by Mrs. Christine Frederick, at the Applecroft ex-
perimental station at Greenlawn on Long Island. Her books " The New House-keep-
ing " and " Household Engineering " had a big success. Other books from her pen,
such as " Taylorism at Home " and " Common Sense in House Management " are well
worthy of consideration.

During the recent congress for domestic economy teaching held in Rome, through
the initiative of Dr. Diez-Gasca, many important questions were raised in connection
with the matter.

The International Office for domestic instruction at Freiburg has listed the ques-
tion for discussion at its various international congresses.

All this activity and the various developments of the idea which are continually
extending have only one aim, which is to permit housewives to gain one or two hours
in the day which they can consecrate to rest or the education of their children.

* * *

Better house management must lead to a saving of time and money.

Everybody knows the rules for good management as dictated by H. Fayol, and
it will therefore suffice to mention them only in so far as they concern certain domestic
applications.

— 686 —

I. The housewife must look, ahead. — She must budget ahead for her expenses and
income for the whole year, and balance her budget on these lines, taking into consid-
eration possible expenses for illness and other eventual risks.

The principle involved remains the same whether a large domestic budget or a
very small one is concerned. In the former case, there is only a wider sub-division of
work. In any case, rational methods can always be applied to domestic organization.

The first thing to do is to settle the tasks and responsibilities of each person. Once
a programme has been agreed upon, taking account of the possibilities and wages of each
person, the lady of the house must adhere to it, allowing her assistants to do their share
of the work and limiting herself to encouraging them to carry out their individual tasks
according to the time-schedule and the manner of working established.

II. The organization of domestic work should be so arranged that each person has
the task for which she is best fitted. Thus, for example, the lady of the house should
take charge of the general management of the household, she should decide the pur-
chases to be made, the menus for the meals, the ordering and changing of the linen and
the book-keeping. The daughters should assist their mother in keeping the house
elegant and dainty, and take charge of the sewing. The father's work should lie in the
direction of manual tasks. The servant should undertake the cooking and the cleaning.
A typical system of organization of household work ought to take account of the requi-
rements and necessities, week by week.

III. The office of Commanding a domestic organization belongs to the woman. She
should give her orders with the necessary precision and calm. Taking into account
any objections put forward that seem to be dictated by common sense. Once she
has given her orders, however, she should not go back on them because nothing is
more disastrous than a series of orders and counter-orders which are mutually contra-
dictory.

A housekeeper indulging in such methods will inevitably lose authority and respect.
When a housekeeper knows how to give her orders after due reflection, and does
not show herself imbued with prejudice against anyone, when she shows that she
can assume her responsibilities simply, and shows also that she is endowed with both
good humour and good sense, she will soon be respected, obeyed and loved by all
who are near her.

IV. The task of coordinating the motions and efforts is rarely deputed to the
lady of the house because, as a matter of fact, there is no such need. She is, at one
and the same time, the brain which conceives the idea and the arm which carries
it out. She has to guide the most willing spirits because it is easy enough to utilize
them when they are freely offered. There does, however, arise the necessity of co-
ordinating works that have a personal character and those dealing with the house,
between labour done by determined individuals for definite purpose out of the
house and labour done by members of the family. It becomes necessary in each case
to decide if such labour does not constitute a double job as, for instance, when the task
of sorting out the linen is done by one perosn, while another attends to the actual
washing.

V. Another task remains for the housekeeper which is to control and overlock
all the administration of the house. It may be that she has forgotten some task or that

— 687 —

she perceives how time is lost in a certain detail of housework. The aptest means for
exercising a control and checking-up a business are the following : to keep an exact
account of all expenses, balancing the same every week or every month, so that a clear
idea of how the money is spent is obtained. If there appears to be any irregularity,
anywhere, the cause should at once be found and the remedy applied. Compare the
present month's expenses with those of the previous period. Check up all the objects
belonging to the house, and inquire into the cleanliness of the rooms, etc.

The foregoing are the applications of simple good sense, according to the theory
of Fayol, and may be followed by the housewife in looking after her house with the object
of gaining time and realizing economies.

It is to be hoped that these principles of rationalization will be defined, experiment-
ed, and made known in all families by means of the school and the cinema.

It will be interesting, as an example, to see how the rationalization of the Laeken
school of domestic economy works in the management of its business side according to
the ideas of Fayol. It becomes necessary to mention again in this connection some
points which have already been touched on.

I. Looking ahead. The two principal elements are to be found in a programme
of study and a programme of action.

a) The programme of study was decided upon after an objective examination
of the knowledge which is necessary to the young girl for her triple function of edu-
cator, housewife and partaker in agricultural labours. The programme includes a prac-
tical system of study which does not neglect in any way a solid scientific base. The
thing is to form a class which will have the task in its own turn of teaching others,
either directly in the secondary or primary schools and the agrarian clubs, or indirectly
through example. The curriculum was drawn up after several meetings by the
professors. It was tried for two consecutive years and improved upon as the result of
experience.

b) The Institute's programme of action is distributed to the directing staff and
to the pupils. It indicates the objectives to be aimed at, the methods to be followed,
the best systems to follow. This programme of action is revised every two years. It
takes the place of those over-rigid and standardized regulations which only too often
prevent any useful reform and the progressive development of ideas. All suggestions
made by the teaching staff or by the pupils themselves or by other people in any small
way connected with the Institute are taken into consideration, and if worthy of adoption
are included in the programme.

Supplementary programmes, periodically revised, complete the programme of
action : a programme of experience and researches, a plan of agricultural works, the
budget of the students cottages — the studentesses live in separate pavillions or cottages
according to their age, and each girl " does for herself " — and the lists of the purch-
ases, etc.

II. Organize. — A complete graph sums up the duties and responsibilities of the
entire organization of the Institute. Under the director's orders, (the director being
held responsible by the ministry of Agriculture) the following services work :

a) management and administration, secretariate and accounting ;

b) the various pedagogic services.

^ — Ice ingl.

— 688 —

Education. — The director of the Institute is represented in each pavillion by a
" housekeeper ' who has to answer for the discipline of her studentesses and their char-
acter formation. They derive their manner of life from the pedagogic courses which
they follow in the Institute. The studentesses' collaboration is secured by a system
of mutual improvement. Girl " monitors " are chosen to superintend good behav-
iour, punctuality method and regime of life, etc.

Instruction. — The lessons are in the hands of specialists. The pedagogic sec-
tions are entrusted to doctors in philosophy and literature, while a doctor attends to
hygiene. A professor of agrarian science looks after agriculture and the courses of do-
mestic economy are in the hands of specialists.

III. Farms. — The agricultural work which is kept in close touch with the technical
teaching given at the Institute, is directed by a " cultural inspector " who in turn has
under his charge a number of workmen. His task is particularly to inspect meadow
development and the condition of arable land, to report on orchards and vineyards.
Other agricultural superintendents are charged with the milking sheds and the work
that is connected with milch cows and all the other work which can arise in connection
therewith.

The girl students are assigned in turn to the various labours of the farm just as
they would be if attached to commercial farms. In addition there are organization
classes for every class of students. The time-tables and working schedules, the inven-
tories and other details of organization are established for each section or pavilion.

IV. Carry into Effect. — Everybody must have a knowledge of the objectives it is
intended to reach as well as of the duties incumbent on him or her. The execution of
details should be carried out with the greatest punctuality and precision.

In the practical application of the courses and specifically for the daily work either
in the house or the farm, the principles of Taylor, brought up to date by Fredinck have
a considerable importance in the working of the system. The following essential points
are taken as the basic principle of the labour : the work motions of each task are studied
so as to discover the normal method of doing each piece of work, that method which
gives the best result with the least effort ; study of conditions and surroundings, position
and furniture of the rooms of the house and the farm in order to avoid useless running
about ; the choice of the instruments best suited for each task ; which should be new
instruments driven by electricity where possible. Other necessities are to note the
time required for each operation. Such observations should be made chronometncally,
and can also demonstrate the development made by the pupils. The fixing of working
hours for both Sundays and weekdays for the different operations of the house or farm,
the choice of the best time for making purchases or doing determined household tasks,
such as making jams, etc. The application of these principles permits the school logi-
cally to carry out comparative trials and experiments.

V. Co-ordination. — Co-ordination of effort can be obtained by following these rules:

a) monthly conferences of the director and staff, or with delegates of the girl
students with the object of regulating the normal work of the Institute.

b) pedagogic meetings every week of the teaching staff. The object of such meet-
ings is to coordinate the teaching and perfect the method.

c) family councils. They come into operation in each family of studentesses

- 689 —

(three pavilions) and are presided over by the " lady of the house ", with participation
of the students' delegates. Here problems concerning each single house are cleared
up and regulated. Such matters as internal discipline, purchases, and laying in of
stores are discussed.

d) business council or farm council. This is composed of the agronomist charged
with giving the courses, the " culture chief " and the manager. All matters connected
with the agricultural labour of the Institute are decided upon here.

VI. Control. — Control or inspection is effected by means of inspection tours made
by the director and through the written or verbal reports of the staff.

The studentesses' work, controlled and inspected by the professors, is noted through
annotations made at the weekly questionings and by competitions and examinations

The good running of the house or farm is proved by means of the various forms of
accounting.

D) Rationalization in Public Administrations.

We have discussed administration in teaching and domestic economy, but similar
improvements can be introduced into large private and public undertakings. As far
back as 1907, the author of this article, being of the same opinion as other specialists
that it was possible to increase the output in public administrations, took the respon-
sibility of convoking a congress of administrative science which met in Brussels in 1910.
In 191 5, a project was drawn up for the reform of the methods followed in public offices
and administrations. This project laid before the Belgian Society of Social Economics
was revised by a special commission and placed before the government.

At the same time, Fayol's works and that of his collaborators and a number of con-
gresses helped to spread the idea.

The applications of the plan that were made in the second General Direction of
the Ministry of Agriculture in Belgium proved the efficacy of the regulations that have
been proposed. The International Agricultural Institute in Rome also, through the
interest of its President, Senator De Michelis who was president of the last international
congress for the scientific organization of work, is about to follow the Belgian example.

Here are a few brief indications which are the result of experience and regarding
which the specialists and rationalizers are agreed.

a) The programme of action or work should be evolved in its entirety by the
experts of the administration, including those who belong to its consultive committee.
Several heads and opinions are better than one in these matters. A functionary, more-
over, is always more ready to carry out a scheme about which he has been consulted.
When the programme has been noted and approved by all the officials, a greater unity
in their work will be noticeable.

b) Good organization consists in placing each official in the section where he can
render the most efficient service and find the best outlet for his talents and experience.
He should be allowed a definite amount of responsibility and a sufficient autonomy.

Regarding the examination for admission to the public services, the examining
commissions ought not to limit their work to observing the theoretical knowledge of
the candidates, but should take into consideration all the other qualities necessary for

— 690 —

public administrations, such as initiative, sociability, tact, etc. A period of probation or
pupilage for aspirants to posts in the public services would help to develop such qualities.

In the professional meetings of functionaries, each official ought in turn to deal
with his own work, making proposals, suggestions and putting forward ideas to be carried
out. Intermediate operations should be reduced to a minimum, with no dead weight
and useless interferences.

It is particularly through unity and rapidity of command and execution that public
services can make progress.

Nearly everywhere simplifications can be introduced. By tracing a graph of the
movements of a document in a big administration, and calculating the time that any
particular " case ' takes for each step in its journey, the possibility of gaining time will
be revealed by suppressing one or more useless movements.

The delegation of signing documents to certain responsible officials can consider-
ably help the rapidity of business.

The development of the spirit of initiative among the employees ought to be stim-
ulated by a system of emulation and encouragement. It goes without saying that
the more friendly and helpful the surroundings of the administration the better will
be the output of the officials. In any case, it is the duty of the department chiefs to
take account of these two qualities in their subordinates.

c) Coordination. — Good coordination does away with duplicated services, the
waste of time and money, and induces the officials to more unified outlook and action.
Coordination may be easily arrived at in the course of the periodical meetings of func-
tionaries of the various services presided over by the chief, who will give instructions and
advice. Three meetings a month is about the minimum necessary.

At each meeting all the officials present must consign, as if in answer to a question-
naire, a succinct report of their activity, which report should be inspected by a chief
of the service.

d) Inspection, punishments, and appeals. — Inspection or control consists in not-
ing periodically how each functionary is carrying out his task. In the questionnaire
referred to, we have mentioned that each offi cial should point out his own ideas for
improving the increasing and increasing efficiency, note the saving of time and money
he may have effected and the state of progress of the part of the general plan of action
that has been entrusted to him.

Since the sincerity of these reports must be vouched for by the departmental head,
there is no reason to fear exaggerations in such reports. Results obtained can be syn-
thetized in diagrams. At the second General Direction of the Belgian ministry of Agri-
culture, these graphs show in some cases, an increase in efficiency of 100 per cent in five
years.

This method stirs up a sense of emulation among the officials, and must be com-
pleted with encouragements, warnings, or even fines or other punishments. Reports
showing positive data become a positive basis for appreciation.

The inclusion in lists of promotion or reproof is generally enough by itself, without
having recourse to provisions that may be either too gratifying or too Draconian.

The system of punishments should include the right of appeal to a disciplinary
organ composed of departmental chiefs.

- 691

Conclusions.

I have endeavoured in this summary review to show the magnificent results that
can be obtained in the output of human activity by teaching parents both present and
future the most rational, and efficient methods for educating their children through
rationalized teaching.

Considerable progress can be obtained in national economy also by perfecting the
methods of house-management and the rationalization of domestic work. The output
of the big administrations can be much increased by the use of more rational methods
of planning, execution, coordination and inspection.

It is in any case, a matter of the greatest urgency to continue studies and research
in this field of activity, giving every problem the consideration due to its importance.

Since the educational cinema can better than anything lead the world to higher
levels, it is to be hoped that it will include in its programme the idea of obtaining pro-
gress not only in industry but in all the other fields in which its activity and influence
can bring about beneficent results.

(Translated from the French).

DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN UNDERSTANDING FILMS

By F. Juer-Marbach.

It often happens that artificial reproduction of a fact by means of colour, sound
or speech gives rise to misunderstandings, but in this connection it is necessary to dif-
ferentiate between that which derives from ignorance or misunderstanding. The latter
undoubtedly may also depend on ignorance when the spectator, instead of recognizing
purely and simply that the representation of the fact is not clear, strives to find, an inter-
pretation. Consequently it is not very easy to recognize the thing which distinguishes
ignorance from misunderstanding, although theoretically there is great diversity between
these two terms. Ignorance is revealed in the question " what is it all about ? " or by
the expression " I don't know ", while misunderstanding follows a tortuous path some-
where between understanding and these forms of confession.

What follows should not be considered as mere speculative conjecturing. During
the projection of cultural films I have had occasion, especially in the case of films pro-
jected by the " Urania Institute of Popular Education in Vienna, to examine the
behaviour of the public. I have observed typical misunderstandings which everybody
seeks to avoid. It is easy to go back to the primitive cinema technique of the early
projections. We can see, for example, the way in which a gentleman remembers the day
of his child's confirmation. The film has countless means at its disposal to recall
this event, but the confirmation day is refilmed as it was in that time. All the spectators,
with the exception of a few children, understand perfectly, but the meaning of the pic-
ture ought to be understood and appreciated by the totality of the spectators.

To explain the misunderstanding, two possibilities may be admitted : an error on
the part of the producer of the film, or an error of appreciation on the part of the public.

An example in the department of the so called documentary film. The title is " Licht
Marchenspiele, Paris bei Nacht " (Phantasmagoria of Lights, Paris by Night). Do we
see the attractive luminous advertisements which in December adorn the facades of the
Paris shops, changing from large to small, and making one think of presents for Christ-
mas and the New Year ? Nothing of the sort. We see, on the contrary, conjurers who
play saxophones, throw balls in the air and so forth. A child asks " Is this then Paris
by night ? ", while a young girl frankly confesses that she understands nothing at all
of all this phantasmagoria.

It is natural enough that the film is incomprehensible because it does not bear any
relation to the title, which gave the right to expect the conventional picture of Pans
by night as revealed in the changing night signs and advertisements, often pictured in
postcards. The understanding of the film depends on a certain knowledge of Paris
and its night life.

— 693 —

In the film " Chicago-Weldstadt im Flegeljahren ", we are shown the building of
a city in reinforced concrete witht the sub-title " How a city grows". A spectator speaks
to the lady accompanying him of the metallic supports which are connected together by
metal bars. The lady does not understand the explanation and her companion adds :
" That is one of the floors. Look low down ". Beneath can be seen a street on which very
small automobiles are moving and this indicates that the film is showing the building of
a very high house. The lady does not grasp the film as well as her companion and
was mislead by the sub-title " How a city grows. " Because the word " grow " put
into her mind the idea of something growing upwards. The title was certainly misleading
and the case may serve to illustrate the importance of subtleties in the use of language
in film work.

A typical misunderstanding, resulting from a sub-title can be found in the film " City
Lights " of Charlie Chaplin where the abundance of the running comment is one of the
reasons for the success of the film, at any rate in the German version. In a certain
passage, a boxer receives a telegram in the following terms : " change of air strongly re-
commended ". Children will never be able to understand the connection between this
telegram and the action of the film. In this case there is no misunderstanding but
rather ignorance. Children cannot understand this situation, the ironic note of which
is given by the sub-title " change of air ". Many adults even are not in a position to
understand the point. For example, a child of say ten asks its father why the boxer
in question filies away and suddenly disappears. The father, after reflecting for a
while, replied : " He is a boxer who was obliged to take an airplane in order to get to
the place where he was engaged to fight ". The spectator was a member of the middle
classes who went very seldom to the cinema.

Since he gave a quite exact explanation of the development of the action, we must
suppose that for some moral reason or other he did not care to say that here was a case
of a boxer who was obliged to disappear because wanted by the police, and therefore
found himself of necessity looking for an immediate change of air.

What is the cause of such a misunderstanding on the part of a number of people ?
It depends doubtless on difficulties of both a psychological and material character. In
the first place, it depends on the name of the boxer, Eddie Meason. He has never been
heard of in the film, he was a new, unexpected personage who has no other part or
place in the film, which the public ought to know. In the second place, the name of the
ring was completely unknown, and, consequently, did not make the correct impression
on the public. We have here two errors one after another to which must be added the
text of the telegram couched in rather an imaginative and slangy style " change of air
strongly recommended ". The expression " air " mislead the spectator, making him
think that somebody was about to take an airplane. We can see what infinite subtle-
ties can enter into the matter, and they must be duly considered, for it is only thanks to
them that a film can arouse new emotional reactions in the spectators. The incident
of the telegram was a psychological error, which was served up to the public, but was
after all of little importance in view of the numerous admirable elements in the film.

Badly made cuts can also lead to misunderstandings. We see an example of this
in the cultural film " Urvolk der Pyrenaen " (Inhabitants of the Pyranees), in itself a
reasonably good film. The national game of pelota is shown. The public shown on

— 694 —

the screen is a Basque public. The players suddenly suspend the game, and the public
gets up and goes away. The spectators of the film are convinced that the game is over,
but actually it continues. This piece of film always creates misunderstandings. Since
I am not acquainted with either the game of pelota nor the habits of the Basques, I do
not know if the misunderstanding is due to sub-titles that are difficult to understand (as
in Paris by Night) which seems likely enough, or to bad cutting. In any case, the scene
is not satisfactory to the spectator, who likes to understand each picture thoroughly.

Stage management and stage directions are another fruitful source of mistakes.
Let us take, for example, the film " Rango " of Schoedsack. A few minutes after the
beginning of the film, the roars of a tiger are heard, which, to obtain their effect, should
be reproduced against a perfectly silent back ground. Whereas, almost the entire in-
troduction of the film is accompanied by loud music and the roars of the tiger are covered
by a great number of other noises, with the result that a number of spectators do not
hear the tiger's roaring at all. Almost at the same time, a troop of monkeys is seen
taking flight in a state of panic, and the spectators begin to ask themselves, " What is hap-
pening? " The readiest -minded among the public suppose that someone has fired a
rifle, an inadmissible explanation, in any case. The misunderstanding was a typical
sound film misunderstanding.

In the greater number of the examples of misunderstanding given, the film direction
is more or less to blame, though generally the film is still understandable and therefore
the fault lies with the public.

In " Rango " we see a group of monkeys climbing over the branches of a tree. In
spite of this, a young girl belonging to a middle class family asked " are they rats ? "
and a lady, apparently a ready observer, inquired " are they really monkeys ?

Maybe in her uncertainty she also thought of rats or something of the kind. The
error here was in the preparation of the film, the pictures having been taken as long
shots in which the animals appeared very small on the screen. Their shape, the way
they manage their tails and their movements, which could never appear in a photograph
allowed people to think of rats. A regular cinema frequenter would no thave fallen into
this error because he would have grasped the action both from the logical and optical
point of view, and would have known that rats cannot act like monkeys, but children
are different with their sense of mobility and plasticity.

This is all without taking into consideration the various misunderstandings that
can arise with children and individuals unaccustomed to similar shows. Thus scintil-
lating pictures may give the impression of rain.

Like all technical inventions, the film has created in men's spirits a mentality of
compromise, as for example when one hears the voice on the telephone or on a gramo-
phone disc in a natural timbre.

Numerous misunderstandings have so subjective an origin that it is not possible to
analyse them. I have never been able to understand how it was possible to mistake for
books the cakes which Byrd and his companions loaded into their travelling sacks. Byrd's
big library was only shown afterwards, so that there could be no question of reawakened
impressions.

Misunderstandings in the field of technique are of course numerous. On the one
hand, everything that is technical seems familiar to the city-dweller who thinks of such

- 695 —

things as natural, and appreciates the possibilities and improvements which are revealed
continuously. On the other hand, the spectator's technical knowledge and his
acquaintance with scientific phenomena have bases of little solidity, for adults today
have learnt nothing from their years of study which is useful to them in their daily life.

In the field of natural science we see the same thing.

In the " Byrd " film, the ship, the City of New York which was to take Byrd to the
threshold of the Antarctic is about to sail. Two girls, one of them a cinema fan, and of
a lively disposition, the other calm and of more reflective spirit were both misled by the
picture. They supposed the ship had sailed some time before, and they see it at the
quayside. After a brief pausex, the first girl, exclaimed " It is the ship that accompan-
ies them "... She did not finish the sentence, but it is clear that she was referring to
the ship that was to escort Byrd. She soon perceived her mistake, however. The other
girl, who was a calmer type merely said: " The ship returns, and Byrd goes on ". In
a few seconds both of the girls understood perfectly the situation. Travelogues and
films of expeditions have a great attraction for the public, but they demand attention and
reflection. They can therefore be considered excellent from this point of view, because
without any definite intention or plan they put into practice one of the systems of visual
education, namely reading films.

There are, as a matter of fact, other aspects of Byrd's departure which are not
clear to the public. When the dogs run towards the " City of New York ", a girl
exclaims during a projection of the film " They are taking the dogs again ".

Her impression was that the dogs had only been taken to that point to transport
the goods from one ship to another because up to then she had not seen the much more
important work of the eskimo dogs. Her exclamation must not therefore be considered
as absurd. It shows, on the contrary, the border-line between lack of knowledge and
misunderstanding. The girl will see later on in the film how useful the dogs are to the
expedition. The educational value of the film is beyond doubt from this point of view.
It is interesting from the psychological point of view to notice how many persons have
a certain inclination to given misunderstandings.

In another section of the film, Byrd's 'men are seen engaged in gathering together
all the objects necessary for the great air flight, whereupon the same young person
asks : " Are all these men going with the plane ? " The impression " go with " or
" accompany " evidently occupies a singular place in her sub-consciousness, and the
girl seizes upon every occasion to repeat the phrase, even when the situation does not
warrant it. It is not always easy for the spectators to identify the various airplanes
which appear in the Byrd film.

Several boys showed themselves delighted when Gould's machine was destroyed
by a storm. This incident is capable of creating a number of misunderstandings.
When Byrd takes off to go to the assistance of his comrade, a boy says " It has been
repaired ". The impression created by the damaged machine is so strong that it oblit-
erates for the moment all others, and Byrd is taken for Gould.

This last example belongs to a well known type of mistake, which psychologists have
registered. The pictures shown by the film create so vivid and persistent an impression
that they continue their effect even on successive pictures, interfering with a just appre-
ciation of the complete action. Instead of citing further examples, it will serve our purpose

— 696 —

equally well to mention certain typical misunderstandings among children. The latter
attend picture shows without disturbing the rhythm of their regular scholastic schedule,
and can therefore, better than adults, understand the comic element when it is based
on rhythm. Often enough, however, in cultural films like " Himatschal " or " Byrd ",
their customary rhythm is changed into a kind of impatience capable of causing misunder-
standings, and this all the more easily since children have only a rudimentary knowledge
of natural history.

In order to prepare children for a projection of this type of cultural film, it is useful
to learn how their misunderstandings are likely to arise. Educationalists and parents
ought to know which parts of the films are misunderstood by the children, and then they
should give the requisite explanations. Almost all children and young people consider
films from their own special point of lew, just as they do books. They enjoy what they
can understand, and neglect, often with the greatest calm, that which does not at once
convey its meaning to them.

Much has been said on adapting one's spirit to the cinema. It will suffice to limit
our examination to a few cases of false interpretation. In the following example we
shall see how a child of eight and an old lady can be mislead by the same fragment of a
film, though from different motives. There are several points in the " Byrd " film
which are mirth-provoking, such as the episode of the dogs evidently introduced in
order to amuse the women and children, as are some other of the accidents which occur
to the expedition. Then comes the heroic death of Spy, and the child asks its mother
" What has happened? Perhaps it is because it has some puppies. And the old lady
answers gently : " It wants to be with its little ones ". It is a great pity that the sound
motive cannot be repeated at this point in the film, because it is most important and
would be the best means of giving a psychologically correct explanation.

The child was particularly thinking of the way in which animals have their young,
which is demonstrated by the exigent and imperious tone of the question. The elderly
lady, clearly of maternal aspect, was probably embarrassed by the presence of a young
sister recently married and her brother-in-law.

I will give another interesting example of misunderstandings which can happen to
an even out of the way intelligent lady spectator of the film " Rango ".

When the two big monkeys Tua and Rango go the house of the men for the first
time to commit a robbery, the lady spectator does not at once perceive that it is a hu-
man habitation they are visiting. In her doubt and amazement, she inquires "But this
can't be a monkeys' house ". The mistake, which lasts only for a second, has a direc-
tional origin. Schoedersack, does not make the two men Ah and Jim come out, not
supposing this to be necessary. The reason for this mistake is indirectly connected
with the principal theme of the film, namely the anthropomorphism of monkeys. The
sense of human connection with these animals continues right throughout the film min-
gled with the idea of a common origin. It can therefore well happen that even an intel-
ligent spectator may have for a moment the idea that these monkeys have houses not
unlike those of men.

The intelligence of the lady spectator cited by us is revealed by the negative
nature of her question. Simpler minds would have asked outright " Are these houses
monkey houses ? "

— 697 —

Anyone who buys a programme of " Rango ." learns that Tua is not the mother but
the father of the little ourang. But those who do not buy a programme are almost all
of them under the impression that Tua is the mother because (she) is full of affection
for the little one, and also because the spectator's mind is more naturally filled with com-
passion for an inconsolable mother.

Another example will show how much children's interest in a film is connected
with personal sympathies and can lead to errors of interpretation. During an interval
of " Rango ", a little girl of about ten asks her mother : " Does he tell him all this ? "
She is referring to the story which the uncle, in the prologue to the film tells his nephew.
In this Way, she understands the whole film as a tale, an idea which has a great import-
ance for children. The child is anxious to know if there will a further reference to the
prologue which has caught her fancy.

It is impossible to enumerate all the possible sources of error and misunderstanding
which can arise from seeing films. Up to now, account has only been taken of mistakes
of the technical or artistic management (photography, cuts, sound effects) or to personal
motives or an insufficiency of the faculty of observation. The chief difficulty in reading
a film depends on the coordination between the images actually seen and the thought be-
hind them. Pedagogues are anxious to eliminate as much as possible an excessive readi-
ness of mind, which is always exercised at the expense of exact observation and often
shows a disregard for facts. Too quick thinking joined with superficial observation
in the cinema, just as in real life, leads to erroneous results. On the other hand, neither
is simple contemplation of things the ideal form of observation. The difficulty lies in a
just and equable balance between thought and vision and is one of the major problems
from the pedagogic point of view. Readiness of thought at the cinema is especially
characterized by the sound and the rhythm of language. We can see by this means of
the two following examples.

In the second part of " Rango ", we see here and there landscapes, which unfor-
tunately recall the illustrated postcards of Sumatra. An intelligent person accustomed
to the cinema, seeing the coloured clouds rising heavenwards, will exclaim " A storm is
brewing ". It is a mistake, and the spectator thought too quickly. Another spectator
tries at once to grasp the point of view of the monkey Rango, when the latter jumps to
the window after hearing the roaring of the tiger. The spectator thinks " He is going
to run away ", but this is a mistake.

Just as we have the person who thinks too quickly, so we find the man who takes over
long to reflect, the person who looks and does not think and the person who, for instance
sees smoke coming up from cabins and thinks tbat it is clouds.

Errors of understanding can anyhow happen even to careful observers as may be
seen from the following example. During the last part of the climbing of Jong-Song
in " Himatschal ", only two Alpinists are seen fearfully and arduously climbing upward.
They are either Schneiden and Hoerhn or Dyrenfurth and his companion. The youth-
ful spectator is therefore convinced that only two Alpinists have reached the summit,
and this because only one part of the expedition went on for the ascent, while the other
remained at the camp. The arrival at the summit, on which in the beginning one sees
only Schneider and Hoerhn only confirms this idea, which is of course later corrected.

From the pedagogic point of view, this mistake can be explained according to the

— 698 —

personality of the child. Thus when Byrd leaves Little America with his machine and
flies for some minutes over the snow-covered plain, a youthful spectator asks " Isn't
he going to come back then ? " These types of children are, as a matter of fact, the
best film frequenters. They follow attentively each film, convinced that every incident
must be duly connected with the rest of the picture.

As in education by books, one must learn to read the film exactly from the beginning,
which is not quite such a natural thing as reading syllables and sentences. To read a
film means being able to explain it, and one comes back then to the great difficulty of
finding the just proportion between seeing and thinking.

The following example is typical of the difficulty with which a spectator of average
intelligence may read a difficult passage in a film. In the film " Himatschal ", we see
this note in the pocket-book of the Alpinist Wieland: " We are very anxious about Ma-
dame Dyrenfurth who remains alone on the Jong Song Le " Later on, the film shows
two person climbing with great difficulty a snow-covered rocky ledge. The film produ-
cer wanted the public to establish at once a connection with what had gone before and
to understand that this was Madame Dyrenfurth, but the public does not guess that
this is Madame Dyrenfurth dressed as an Alpinist because she looks like a man, dressed
as she is. After this ascent we see another note from Wieland's pocket-book which
explains the incident in this way : " All alone, with a bearer, she has crossed the peak
in a snow-storm.

At this point, generally the public cries out : " Ah ! It is she. It's the woman.
Many persons of a talkative nature who are always ready to explain the plot, even when
it is perfectly clear to all, become quite silent at this point. They do not ask for explan-
ations in order not to show their embarrassment. The attitude of those two ladies
who from the beginning showed great interest in Madame Dyrenfurth, and her companion
fighting with the tempest to reach the summit becomes characteristic. When they see
Madame Dyrenfurth one of them exclaims " Is it she ? ", while the other, says : " I can't
be certain ". These questions and replies characterise exactly the comprehension of the
public. It is not possible here to quarrel with the producer. The public must learn to
establish connections in the plot, even when they do not at first sight seem spontaneous.

The spectator is asked to know that this is Madame Dyrenfurth, of whom he has
heard from the note in the diary. But the pictures pass by, and what counts for the
public is the picture it is actually seeing at any given moment. A picture of this type
requires that the spectator refer to some of the preceeding pictures projected, and can
when necessary turn back his mind to them. In no other form of entertainment are
similar gymnastics of the mind required, neither in literature, whether recalled events are
underlined by the author himself, or in which the reader himself makes the rhythm of
his reading.

The problem of misunderstandings at the cinema may be considered from various
points of view. The psychological point of view imposes a certain consideration. But
the interest of the stage managers and producers has to be considered also. If a film,
apart from those misunderstandings inherent in its photographic side, contains other
possibilities of error for which only the producers are responsible, it will, of necessity,
disappoint the public and give a feeling of dissatisfaction which may override any desire
to purchase the film. Such defects should, therefore, be eliminated as for as possible.

(Translated from the German).

THE INTERNATIONAL PROBLEM OF THE FILM

By Emanuel Horn.

Every nation has its own artistic conceptions which are peculiar to it. The spir-
itual atmosphere, the country itself, the climate create a type of individual endowed
with a special interior life, so that his artistic productions keep the special character
deriving from his cultural individuality.

Certain examples demonstrate with complete clearness the diversity existing in
cultural spheres. The Chinese theatre, dance and music differ so profoundly from
Western manifestations of the same kind that very often complete understanding of
them is impossible. The Oriental art of the carpet is barely understood by Western
peoples. The carpet is a floor picture in the East, the richness of which, with its mys-
terious ornaments, apart from its artistic value, makes its sought after as a floor or mural
decoration. The peoples of the North are shut out from the profound poetic sense
of the Indian life, just as the peoples of the South cannot understand the pathetic music
of the North.

Each people, as has been said, has its special characteristics. How do they react
to the national or foreign cinema production ?

A foreign film awakens in the spectators a certain sense of understanding, but the
movements of the minds of the personages expressed in the film cannot influence in a
uniform way all the individuals, and the foreign setting, with its special characteristics,
will always give the impression of unfamiliar things. The desire for sensation and
adventure is satisfied by the sight of foreign films, but the aesthetic sense remains un-
touched. A foreign film may often have its own value, whether this be recreative, edu-
cative, emotional, or merely interesting, but it will never be in a position to satisfy
certain artistic requirements which can only derive from a certain sense of life.

The man of the South, who is sentimental, will be led by his temperament to live
intensely certain determined moments of the foreign film he sees, and will pass over
with obvious lack of interest the cold dialogue of the spoken film, which leaves his aesthe-
tic conceptions spiritually unsatisfied.

The nation which possesses a national cinematographic production is better off.
Even if it has not reached a very high artistic level, the national film will be represen-
tative of the people's sentiments and nearer to its conceptions of life. The national
cinema production then may be considered an ideal form when it does not lead to the
ostracism of every type of foreign production.

Practically every people seeks to possess a national cinema production, which is an
encouraging symptom. The film cannot be compared to any other form of import
or export. It must be considered as being something more than a spectacle, more than

- 700 —

a mere form of amusement, but rather as an element of life, which draws its artistic
origins from the spirit of a people and the unknown depths of its soul.

The presence of an excessively nationalistic spirit cannot be considered advisable
in this field of action. We cannot admit the possibility of watertight compartments
between the various types of cinematographic art, which, ought, on the contrary, to
try and approach one another. Such things have a profoundly human basis, and the
sentiments which urge an individual are equally capable of drawing the peoples together
in a collective union. Whence we have the concept of the possibility of the internat-
ional film.

The really artistic film capable of satisfying all aesthetic demands must not, however,
make show of an artificial culture, but must rather do everything possible to elevate
human mentality and obtain only in this fashion the approbation of the spectators of
the whole world.

(Translated from the German).

701

OBJECTIVES

for cinema photographs

BIOTAR
TESSAR
TESSAR
TESSAR
TELETESSAR

the new

CINEMA TELETESSAR 1

rgffiLZElss

In standard mounts for the 16 mm. small film
apparatus CINE NIZO, FILM, VICTOR, and for
the well-known standard film apparatus for ama-
teurs and professionals.

Obtainable from Cine-Camera Manufacturers
and Photographic Dealers

Further information will be given on request by

CARL ZEISS, JENA

Cable-address : Zeisswerk, Jena

LONDON W. 1, Mortimer House 37-41 Mortimer Street — NEW
YORK 485 Fifth Avenue — LOS ANGELES, Cal.. 728 So. Hill
Street — BERLIN W. 9, Potsdamer Strasse 139-1 1 1 — HAMBURG
Alsterhaus, Alsterdamm, 12-13 — KOLN, Apostelnkloster, 27 —
WIEN LX/3 Ferstelgasse 1 — BUENOS AYRES, Bernardo de Iri-
goyen 303 — RIO DE JANEIRO, Praca Marechal Floriano 55
TOKIO, Yusen Building 7-th floor, Marunouchi — MILANO (105)
« La Meccanoptica » Soc in accomandita, Corso Italia 8 — MA-
DRID, Dr. NiEMEYER, Plaza de Canalejas 3 pral dra— PARIS (XIe)
:: :: :: :: Optica, 18/20 Faubourg du Temple :: :: :: ::

— 702 -

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Telephone: 52-121-52-122
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_ d^^

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Works

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T U R I_N : i Positiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
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General Agencies Abroad

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LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
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10 — Film Renting Agencies

10

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Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

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FLORENCE — Via Martelli, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 —Tel.: 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Pimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel. : 52-793 —
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

/. /. E. C. Studies

HISTORY OF VISUAL EDUCATION

(continued)

Conclusion.

After having examined the doctrines of the most important pedagogues and phil-
osophers of every age and nation who were well aware of the importance of education in
the lives of peoples and individuals, I may be allowed to make a reference to some other
points. These include intuition, the education of the senses, and the objective lesson,
which are the three basic principles of visual education and reveal all its importance.

A) INTUITION. — Human intuition may be divided into intellectual, moral and sen-
sory. Although the latter is the one which most closely concerns us, I will refer
briefly to the other two. Inas much as though they are a trifle outside the purpose of
our inquiry, they have at the same time a certain vague connection with it. " By intuition,
says Cartesio, — without further specifying which king of intuition, but clearly referring
to intellectual intuition — " I do not mean the changeable evidence of the senses, not
the false judgment of fantasy, but the conceptions of an attentive spirit, so clear and
distinct as to leave no doubt about what has been understood ".

In the moral field, intuition becomes synonomous with conscience. Personal
experience is here of greater value than words or attempted definition. Who does not
know that interior voice in us which is incessantly speaking and urging us to good and,
reproving our evil acts, which is never silent until it has won our full approval ? Who
knows if the criminal's worst punishment is not so much the penalties inflicted on him
by society, as his own intimate remorse which harasses and disturbs him. So long as the
voice of conscience, dwelling in a soul lifts its powerful voice like a pallid echo of the
of God is our own voice, so long as man, even if sunk to the lowest depths of abjection,
cannot stifle his conscience, it would be foolish indeed to despair of humanity. If man
too often prefers darkness to light and repeats sadly with Ovid :

Video meliora proboque
Deter iora sequor.

we must be in no haste to cast the first stone at him. The causes of such falls should
be studied, and there is no need to despair of finding the medicine capable of bringing
back the corrupt and vicious man to new life. Nor will the search for such a cure be
long or difficult. If we open the Bible, we shall see that the Master has pointed it out
to us ; " I am the way, the truth, and the life ". It will not prove difficult to trace out a
programme of life by the light of His Words for the new generations. Nor will it be im-
possible to entrust to the educative ideal, embellished and improved by the countless
inventions of human genius, the happiest task of all, which is that of shaping for the good
and the beautiful the souls of our children, the souls of the citizens of tomorrow. If

J la ingl.

— 704 —

intellectual intuition then is the spirit's immediate vision, which — if I may be permitted
the expression — blinded by truth cannot seize it, moral intuition is the vision, not only
of the mere intellect but also of the heart and the conscience of good and evil, which
appear in forms that leave no room for any doubt.

The intuition of the senses, or sensorial intuition as it is sometimes called, is not only
the spirit's vision but the observation of an actual fact which the intellect does not dir-
ectly perceive (contrary to the case of intellectual intuition of abstract truths, or in the
case of moral intuition of the cognition of good and evil) but through the senses. Whence
derives the necessity for an education of the senses, since, they being by nature changeable,
fallacious and only affected by appearances, are not really in a position to offer the spirit
a representation of phenomena such as van be obtained when truth is perceived by reason.

B) The EDUCATION OF THE Senses. — The argument is not a new one. Rousseau
was among the first to point out its importance, and as is known, he was followed on the
marked out track by Pestalozzi, Froebel and many others.

In order to avoid useless repetitions, I will confine myself to examining the problem
in the light of the new ideas of the twentieth century, studying it particularly in two
very important works, one by Maschili and the other by Montessori, also in an article by
G. A. Colozza.

In 1909, Colozza published in the Rivista Pedagogica an article entitled " Does Edu-
cation of the Senses exist ? " The mere fact of posing the question shows both the author's
interest in an unsolved problem and his sceptical attitude, Without arriving at any def-
inite conclusion, he contents himself with citing data and experiments, which on the
whole seem to indicate the necessity of a negative reply. Notwithstanding this, he quotes
the old pedagogic adage to the effect that an idea is better understood and known in
proportion to the number of the senses whereby it is grasped. He also cites James
when he says that children must go through a lengthy education of the eye and ear
before they can perceive reality as adults see it.

Marsili, in his " Education of the Senses ", following Dante and Lambruschini,
places education " on the basis of nature " that is to say education in conformity with
nature as understood as human nature, and external reality as observable by the
senses.

He enumerates the various currents of thought which through various and sometimes
tortuous routes lead to the same conclusion . We have thus the education of the senses
as the basis of mental development, objective teaching considered as the sole source of
knowledge, the substitution of the gospel of enjoyment with that of effort. The most
divergent and contradictory ideas may be observed, among the theoretical conceptions,
such as neglect of the senses because the contemplative life can suffice for the spirit ;
reawakening of the senses in order to furnish the mind with the matter of knowledge,
cultivation of the senses as the sole source of thought.

The old Aristotelian saying reconsecrated by Locke " Nihil est in intellectu, quod
non fuerit in sensu " finds its best application here, seeing that there is implicit in it the
necessity of cultivating and educating the senses, the task of which is to lay before the
mind the raw material of thought.

The education of the senses should receive all the greater care since it should lead to
making the capacity for observation more acute. This a capacity possessed by everyone,

/

— 705 —

but in the case of too many people it remains in a rudimentary state, owing to lack of
exercise and care.

If one reflects that an observing spirit becomes such under the impulse of that heal-
thy curiosity which is the real source of mankind's scientific patrimony, there is no lon-
ger any room for marvelling at the various and multifold means to which educators
resort for the development in children of a capacity from which the most flattering and
amazing successes may be rightly looked for. Where it is lacking, I will not say the pos-
sibility, for this in latent in us all, and is never absent, but the habit and, therefore a cer-
tain ability in observation, deprived of its natural nutriment, which develops it, will
shrivel away little by little and gradually die, much like the branch, torn from the tree
whence it drew its life, finds the very sun cold, since in the nature of things it can no
longer feel its warmth.

If curiosity provokes observation, interest maintains it wakeful and alive, whence
arises the necessity of encouraging both in the child if one desires to give him a culture
that is not superficial and wordy and likely to vanish at the first resistance or difficulty
like the sayings of the Sybil at the first breath of wind, but an education which will awake
in him an inclination to study, considered as the source of great conquests of the mind
and important spiritual victories.

I would especially insist in demanding from the child application and diligence,
that is struggle against his natural tendencies which urge him towards a dissipation of
energies. At the same time, it should never be forgotten that the individual from whom so
much is asked is a small weak defenceless being, as yet unformed, whence it is the first
duty of the educationist to help this small being in his fight, solacing him in his defeats
and praising him for his victories. Rewards and punishments? Yes, certainly, rewards
and punishments, but not only rewards and punishments. Avoid evil and mistakes
rather than punish them : this should be the task of the educator worthy of the name.
Give the child the habit of good, making him consider it as something necessary which
will produce its own reward in himself. This should be our educational ideal.

Such is the end to aim at. And the means ? The means are many and various.
The method, as understood in this sense, is that each case must be considered in its own
particular light, which though it may looks like the light of another case, will always be
found to have some divergence and difference. The educator, once he has chosen his
path, will not traverse it in the same way as others have done before him. He will find
a way of adapting its aid to his own mentality, his own feelings, as well as to the character
of his pupil and the general surroundings. In one point only all the paths converge : in
love. Love the child really for himself ! Work and transform the countless possibilities
in which his nature is rich into marvellous realities and benefits, never disassociating the
good from the beautiful. Open the way for him, avoiding in him the pride of the
strong and the depression of the weak, form him with a mother's tenderness and an
apostle's ardour : these are the beautiful, fascinating though difficult ideals for which it
is sweet to fight and suffer.

Marsili then points out, facing the argument fairly, that the result attained with all
the exercises for the so called education of the senses comes, in a final analysis, to the
capacity to distinguish, since the exercises used imply the distinguishing of facts.

' The act of distinguishing and differentiating ", comments our author in reference

- 706 -

to a concept of Ardigo, " is a complex act which implies the use of functions that are more
extended and different from the function of simple, immediate perception by the senses.
The same functions which with more or less regularity are called into play for every
mental act even when the senses are not engaged in receiving the impressions of some
external agency. The act of distinguishing cannot be explained merely through the
bettered operation of the mere sense. It is due rather to a complex and general increase
in the powers of the mental faculty. It depends on a mind apt to distinguish, even in the
field of its own elements (representative, logical etc.) and will be able to arrive at percep-
tive or sense distinctions.

We must consider here that certain formulae can enjoy a reestablishment or recon-
sideration, and to define these more clearly we may say they comprise the content of
the action of perceptiveness or sensibility and the spirit. The field of activity of the first is
necessarily limited to mere sensation, and as soon as a profounder education of the
senses by means of sensory exercises is attempted, implying a criterion of distinguishing,
it appears evident that sensibility attempts in vain to usurp the sphere of action where
the spirit, which has the sole right to such discriminatory judgment dominates.

We must not say therefore that the education of the senses tends to lower the child
to the level of some small animal, which understands nothing except what its sees, hears,
tastes, touches and smells, for sensory exercises, properly carried out, lead to the imme-
diate education of the senses and the mediate education of the spirit, appeal to which is inevi-
tably made when it is desired to pass to the ideal notion from the concrete object observed.

"II Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica " (The Method of Scientific Pedagogy (1)
by Dr. Montesson brilliantly supports the thesis of the necessity of submitting the child
of from three to six years to a sensorial educative process to develop its sensibility, which,
especially in the first years of life, can easily be shaped, and if need be corrected and given
a certain direction. In order to demonstrate the importance of this early education, Ma-
dame Montesson stresses the two objects of education, the biological and the social.
The first is limited to helping — how often does it not impede, on the contrary — the
individual's natural development, while the second kind prepares him for the surround-
ings in which he or she will have to live and exercise his future activity.

The development of the senses, which is most intense at the tender age, proceeds
intellectual development. It is therefore to it that our first care must be directed unless
later on, we are to lament deficiencies which are very difficult to correct and alter in adults
deficiencies which are all the harder to eradicate in proportion to the length of time they
have existed and become a kind of second nature. For the child, everything is the future
and promise. The rapid and progressive development of its senses brings it uncon-
sciously to the exercise of them, to reflection, to observation.

Since it is the stimuli rather than the reason of things which attract his attention,
a methodical direction of such stimuli becomes necessary, so that sensations proceed
rationally and prepare an ordered basis for building in the child a positive mentality.

" Moreover ", the authoress goes on to say ", it is possible with the education of the
senses to discover and correct defects which often even nowadays pass unobserved in the

(1) Dr. Maria MONTESSORI : II Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica. Ed. Maglione & Strini, Succrs.
Loescher, Rome.

— 707 —

schools until a time when such defects show themselves in an evident and then irreparable
unsuitability to the surroundings (deafness, short-sightedness, etc.) . In recalling some
of the great discoveries due to observation, such as the Roentgen rays, the Hertzian waves,
the vibrations of radium, etc., Madame Montessori points out that " the education of
the senses by making observers of men, not only carries out a generic purpose of adapting
mentalities to the present period of our civilization, but also provides a direct prepara-
tion for practical life. As a general rule, whenever a thing is explained by word of mouth,
the listener, although he may have grasped the idea, often finds himself unable to translate
what he had heard into action. This strange dualism which impedes the carrying out
of an action goes by the classic description of lack of practice. But if this description is
analysed, examining the terms and making it clear what is intended by " practice ", it
will be seen that as often as not such an expression can be interpreted as a faulty sensorial
education. Thus an adult may do with uncertainty and hesitation things which as a
child he could have accomplished easily. Madame Montessori cites an example which
will help to explain the foregoing. " What is generally meant when one says that a
doctor has not had experience, except that he is not good at distinguishing the symptoms
of diseases, which in the majority of cases are diagnosed by palpation, percussing or the
use of the stethoscope ? The capacity to recognize tremours, murmurs, sounds, tones etc.
belongs to the senses, and if the latter, because they have been ill- trained, are incapable of
fine discrimination and distinction, it is because a doctor must have much practice in train-
ing them. What else is practice but a late and often inefficient training of the senses ? ''

So far there is nothing very original or new in this. But novelty and originality
exist in the system, though they are to be found in the application rather than in the ex-
position of the principles. The authoress deals at length with these in order to demon-
strate the spirit animating her method and to show how it should be interpreted. To
quote her again, " The difference between this method and the so called " object les-
son ' of the old methods, is that the objects are not an aid to the teacher who must ex-
plain, that is they are not " didactic means ". They are, however, an assistance to the
child who chooses them, manages them, appropriate them to himself, and uses them ac-
cording to his own inclinations and needs, under the impulse of interest. Thus the
objects become " means of development ".

The idea is clear. We are not any longer dealing with didactic means or didactic
aids. The objects which generally are docile instruments in the teacher's hands merely
help to illustrate his word, to give life and soul to notions not inherent in them, but here
they acquire a new importance, and show themselves under an aspect quite new and
unexpected.

' The objects and not the teaching of the mistress are the principal thing. Since
it is the child who uses them, it his he and not the teacher, who is the living entity ".

Every school, conscious of its mission, ought to have as its aim to promote the child's
activity, not to spoil its frankness and spontaneity too early. This beautiful and necessary
concept of education must not, however, be allowed to develop too far in the opposed di-
rection. We must not forget that as well as the pupil there is also a teacher in the school,
whose spontaneity also should develop at an equal rate with that of the child, and whose
work must not be mechanized. The old fashioned pedagogy thought only of the teacher,
the new considers merely the child. In this case, as in countless others, we must guard

- 708 —

against excesses and lock for the truth in the middle way, where, by taking account of
both sides of the question, we may arrive at a satisfactory synthesis.

Without giving overmuch heed to the just demands of the teacher who does not
want to become crystalized in a work which more than any other demands soul and life,
since it is directed to the spirit and the heart, Madame Montessori traces a rapid picture
of the ideal mistress such as she imagines her for her own schools.

' The mistress has many tasks, none of which is easy : Her cooperation can not
te done without, and should be prudent, delicate and multiform. There is not so much
need of her words, her energy and her severity — what is really needed is her quiet wis-
dom in observing, in helping, in coming forward to help, or in withdrawing, in speaking
or in being silent, according to the requirements of the case. She must acquire a moral
agility, which so far has never been demanded of her by any other method. This spec-
ial state is made up of calm, patience, chanty and humility. Merit rather than words,
should be her maxim ".

Noble words, which at first sight appear satisfactory. But does the ideal portrait
of this teacher correspond altogether to the educational end for which she was designed ?
In other words : turned into flesh and blood in a real school, will the abstract mistress
carry out her duties with success ?

In real life, how can a living being, virtuous, calm, patient, charitable and humble
as Madame Montessori has imagined her, limit herself to observing and interfering only
when a mechanical difficulty impedes the child's progress, leaving to inanimate objects
the task which a human being himself approaches with diffidence ? What will a child
subjected to such a system remember of its early education, except an experience of things
and a lack of experience of humanity?

' Things ! Things ! " exclaimed Rousseau, reacting to the abstract education of his
times. Let us not deny objects to our children, but let us inform them with a vital
breath, let us spiritualise them, in a manner of speaking. They will thus become all the
more fruitful and kept within the proper limits. Beyond this their usefulness becomes a
danger ; they will really be of aid to education for such service and assistance as it re-
quires. For education can take advantage of the humblest means for bringing an
intenser light of beauty and truth into the consciences which are entrusted to it for gui-
dance on the path to good.

It Was perhaps a good idea to touch upon the education of the senses because in
view of the fact that the most important among them are the sight and the hearing, there
follows as a consequence — once the desirability of educating them has been settled
within the circumscribed limits — the advisability of not allowing them to fall into disuse
and of maintaining them in full vigour by giving them such nutriment as they may re-
quire for their rational development. In as far as the hearing is concerned, this will
not prove difficult, for those who assume pedagogic attitudes and talk until the unfor-
tunate child is drowned in a deluge words are numerous. And of this flood of words,
perhaps not one — I am tempted to say fortunately — will be remembered by the
little victim.

The same is not the case, however, with the sight, which is only too often neglected,
and instead of cooperating in the work of education ends by impeding it, being the chief
source of the distractions which withdraw the scholar's attention from the master's teaching.

I

— 709 —

To master this double-edged weapon, and make it the strongest and most reliable of
friends : here in two words lies the object of visual education.

C) The OBJECT LESSON. — The object lesson, or lessons in things, as it is often
called, has been in the past and will continue to be until the cinema substitutes it,
the clearest proof of the importance and efficacy of visual education, whence derives
the gay aspect of the modern school and the pleasureable and practical instruction
given in it.

By substituting realism for verbalism, the object lesson, when rightly given, serves
admirably to cultivate in the child the instinct of knowledge and the healthy curiosity
of observation.

' The object lesson — writes Vessiot — is a simple approach to the study of experi-
mental science. It comprises the perceptible things which surround the child. It ends
where science begins ; its object is to teach observation, its method is to awake curiosity,
rather than to teach ".

It came into being as a happy reaction against the common custom of speaking of
things without exhibiting them and in order to maintain its fundamental characteristics,
it must remain vivacious and fresh, and capable of establishing a direct contact between
the child and reality.

It easily degenerates from its original character and loses the intuitive value which
distinguishes it, if it is given as a sort of chorus before the entire class. As for instance,
when all the pupils are made to repeat together in the presence of a rabbit ; " The rabbit
has one head, two eyes, etc. " (1). The object lesson reacquires its value when it is
connected with every lesson of history, geography or natural science.

Vidan (2) writes in connection with this subject :

" Whenever the difficulties of reading prevent the scholar from using the text book,
the teacher should use nature's great book which may be in a dead or abstract but never-
theless valuable form. He should use collections of natural objects, photographs and
drawings, representing phenomena, aspects and scenes of life. He should use in fact
all those artifices and mechanisms such as projections, lantern slides, cinematography,
stereoscopy, etc., which modern industry has given the school. For since to speak is to
think, and to think is to refer to objects, the intuition of the latter in their singularities
and their relations with other forms of matter is a necessity. Things are observed, ana-
lysed and realized in their true aspects. The object lesson should not be merely arid
nomenclature, more likely to burden the memory than nourish the intellect, for the scol-
ar's task is to intervene in the act of comparing the quality and the relations of objects
with one another in learning, retaining and reproducing the word connected with the
object or image, in accompanying with sensory acts, feelings or evaluations the discoveries
he is gradually making.

Vidari also reasserts opportunely the principle enounced by making references to
the study of history and geography.

(1) Giovanni Vidari, Elementi di Pedagogia, Vol. Ill, La Didattica, Hoepli, Milan, 1920.

(2) The same thing happened in Germany following the irrational application of the Pestalozzi method.
The object lesson was then suppressed by the Prussian " Regulativ " of 1854 without anyone taking up the
cudgels on its behalf.

— 710 —

" In the teaching of geography, symbolic representation is necessary, either by
sketches on the blackboard, plastic models, mural designs, atlases, comparative and syn-
thetic tables, photography, lantern slides. These means are essential, not accidental,
for they represent not the aids but the very base on which such didactic work must be
built ".

Not an aid, but the very base. Let teachers remembers this. It is not a question
of a convenient aid which the teacher can use or forego as his individual inclination af-
fects him. No. In every field of education, and especially in geography, visual educa-
tion is necessary as the safe and rational basis for the instruction of the children. Where
the oral method proves inadequate and breaks down, the visual method overcomes every
obstacle, and obtains in all cases the best results.

Vidari goes on to say : " Artistic illustration is an aid of great importance for teaching
history, and it may be contemporary illustration or that of a later epoch. The first has all
the advantage of genuinenes and freshness, and speaks with immediate appeal to the fan-
tasy and heart of the pupil, awakening in him images and sentiments which allow him to
grasp the historical fact as presented. The second method has the advantage of imposing
on the image of the past the artist's interpretation, enabling us to enter into the life of
the past and giving us a richer and more dramatic sense of it.

"... A good middle school, organized with superior educational criteria, ought to
possess, just like its library, a museum containing photographic reproductions of pictures,
statues and notable monuments, which are adapted for providing a lively comment to
the historical narration ".

Nor need it be supposed that it is only in the elementary school that the object les-
son can be used. That would be a serious mistake. Object lessons are usefully given
in the middle schools whenever a lesson in physics in given in the scholars' presence.
Object lessons are given at the university when a surgeon, in the presence of the stu-
dents, performs an operation or an autopsy.

" Object lessons are recommended not so much for what can be learnt from them as
for the useful habit which they create of seeing and observing personally and forming
judgments after seeing things. They are not a subject in the teaching sense, but a meth-
od, and the most concrete and simple form of the active and intuitive method recom-
mended for all subjects (1).

An outstanding advantage of the object lesson is that it makes the lesson varied and
interesting. If we grant that the immediate necessary condition for keeping the scholar's
attention alive is to arouse their interest, it is evident that it is wise to use advisedly a
didactic method which so easily arrives at the desired result.

' The best method for making the lesson attractive ", writes Horace Mann ",
is make the eye rather than the ear do the work of acquiring the notions being imparted,
because the eye is superior to all the other senses in readiness, precision and capacity.
It is the real connecting link between the external and material infinite, and the internal
and spiritual infinite. The spirit often grasps with one look what numerous books and
months of work with only the cooperation of the ear would have taught it with

(1) F. Alengry: L'Educazione su le basi delta psicologia e della morale. Published by G. B. Paravia, Rome.

- 711 -

difficulty. To use the ear in place of the eye, when the latter can be used, is about
as intelligent as it would be for carrier pigeons to walk instead of flying. Let us open
wide then the vision to the eye, which with one glance can gather in both sky and earth ".

In a page packed with thought, Lombardo-Radice, dealing with the object lesson,
illustrates both the possibilities and the limitations of the scholastic museum. With the
illuminated spirit and sure intuition of the educationalist, he would complete, if not
entirely substitute it with animated pictures.

' The scholastic museum offers precious elements to anyone desirous of clari-
fying the lessons, especially when things which are not seen every day are being discussed,
for in a verbal explanation of such there is the danger that the word sounds empty
without evidence of imagination, that is without the thing being made present to the
spirit at the same moment as the teacher's word.

' The very expression " scholastic museum " ought to put us on our guard, remind-
ing us that here we shall find individual objects detached from the surroundings they
existed in when alive, which means the richness of connections and interdependence of
beings. They are objects, but abstract objects, although one can touch and see them.
Concreteness does lie in palpability and visibility, but in being the living part of a whole .
The value of the object lesson does not therefore lie in the object itself, but in the lesson
which reevokes its true and complete being.

" A fuller aid in use today is the projection and the animated projection especially,
which permits us to observe in a greater variety of aspects and relationships the subject-
matter of the lesson " (1).

In a note, Lombardo-Radice observes that there has recently been established in
Italy an association called " Minerva ", the object of which is to spread the use of films
for scholastic purposes, and which perhaps led to the beginnings of the cine-educational
movement in Italy that developed in the foundation of the National Institute LUCE,
cradle of the idea the concrete manifestation of which was to be the founding of the
International Institute of Educational Cinematography.

In conclusion, visual education has supported the noblest causes : religion for which
it has made the best possible propaganda, adorning the curches with paintings, frescoes,
and statues, capable of recalling the dogmas of the church and stimulating the fervour
of the faithful. It has served morality, the sense of which it has spread throughout the
world in millions of examples of the masterpieces of painting, the sight of which elevates
nobility of [spirit creates enthusiasm for virtue and awakens a healthy and aesthetic
revulsion for indecent pictures. It has served patriotism, praising the glories of the
home land especially, through cinemas, as well as in courses and conferences for adults,
nowadays more and more frequented, thanks to the moving pictures which illustrate them
and provide one of their chief attractions.

" Visual education educates when by making us reflect on ourselves, it succeeds
in making us know ourselves better. Without reflection, that is to say with the attentive
observation, of our own intimate ego, without a clear appreciation of what we are and we
ought to be, our moral progress is impossible.

(1) GIUSEPPE Lombardo Radice : Lezione di Didattka e Ricordi di Esperienza magistrale. Published
by Remo Sandron, Palermo.

— 712 —

" Visual teaching is not the universal panacea which can cast light into every mind
curing all intellectual and moral weaknesses — and still less is it a frivolous amusement for
entertaining the scholar and allowing the taecher to rest — but a simple means for ar-
riving more safely and more rapidly at the children's souls. This, however, on condition
that one is equipped with that modicum of intelligence to perceive its limitations, that
amount of tact that will prevent its abuse and enough abnegation to face the scacrifices
it will demand (!)•

Alengry associates himself with Thomas in the apology of visual education, which
the latter makes in the work already cited and expresses himself as follows : " Sensorial
intuition used as a didactic means assumes a well known form, namely visual teaching.
It is highly esteemed in our schools. The walls are all adorned with tables of figures,
charts and often well filled show-cases. The lessons, especially for the small children,
consist in examining the objects in the scholastic museum and the sketches made by the
teacher on the blackboard. The history, geography and reading books are embellished
with charming cuts and plates of a modern and attractive type. Even moral ideas are
sometimes taught by means of a collection of pictures (2). Lantern slides have become a
commonplace in the scholastic routine, and shortly we shall have the cinema ".

I join my wishes to those of Alengry and so I will bring to an end this rapid sur-
vey of centuries of education from which I hope that everyone, after reading the opi-
nions of the great pedagogues on visual education, will be convinced that the strong cur-
rent of opinion visible to the superficial observer everywhere, but especially in America
and the Soviets, in favour of the silent and talking film is but the logical development of
the inutitive principle which was scientifically presented by Aristotle. The object of
this new application, which is not so much to assist the teacher s work as to complete it,
is not a new discovery of modern pedagogy, but from Aristotle downwards through the
centuries has been shared by the greatest thinkers who in the " philosophy of the master
of those nho know ' found the base whereon to build their various speculative systems.

Not the cinema which is barely five years old, but visual education, understood in
the widest sense of the word, may be considered as old as man and fully necessary, being,
as it is, the expression of a natural need fo of human nature.

This need was understood by the great poet of our race, to whose poem heaven and

earth have lent their hand, admirably expressed by him with the authority irradiated

by genius. Let is seal the thesis we have outlined here. To which may the world

pay heed.

Al fondamento che natura pone

Seguendo lui avria buona la gente (3).

(1) P. P. ThOMAS : La Dissertation pedagogique.

(2) See the collection of pictures of family scenes, real life and various notions published by G. B. Para-
via & Co.

(3) Dante. Paradise. VIII, 143 et seg.

END

713 -

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National Committees of the L I. C. E.

CZECHO-SLOVAK COMMITTEE

The " Societe Tchecoslovaque pour la Cinematographic scientifique " of Prague
has been officially recognized as a National Committee of the I. I. E. C. for Czecho-
slovakia.

The body referred to is presided over by Dr. Victonn Vojtech, Professor of the
" Karl " university of Prague, director of the Czecho-Slovak Institute of graphic research-
es, etc., a man known for his great culture and activity. Under his guidance, the
Czech Institute for Cinematography has developed remarkably, and carries out an
interesting programme. The Institute has as collaborators some notable personages
in various fields of the country's cultural activity, including a number of professors.

DUTCH COMMITTEE

We are pleased to be able to give here the composition of the Council of Adminis-
tration of the " Centrale Commissie voor de Filmkering ", the I. I. E. C. committee
for Holland : —

D. VAN STAVEREN, President
J. H. VAN ZWIJNDREGT
Dr. P. TlDEMAN

Professor Dr. A. H. M. J. van Rooy.
We send the new committee our congratulations on its formation.

Dr. C. W. J. Natzijl
J. J. v. d. Verruysen,
J. C. Mol.

CHINESE COMMITTEE

Our committee is at present engaged in developing a vigorous propaganda
for the spread of the educational cinema. During the month of July, numerous
conferences were held in the principal cultural circles of Shanghai. Practical
demonstrations were given in schools directly, with the attendance not only
of pupils and teachers, but of numerous persons interested in scholastic work
The exhibitions were given in the following schools : —
Secondary School for Chinese Girls,
Public School for Chinese,
Northern District Primary School,
Eastern District Primary School,
Western District Primary School,
^> Council Primary School.

The projections given were chiefly on geographical lessons, personal hygiene
and commercial practice, and all aroused the greatest interest.

The article " Potentialities of the Cinema as a Cultural Agent „ published in the
Shanghai Times of July 7 was much commented and reproduced by other papers.

V

716 —

THE FILM IN NATIONAL LIFE

Report of an Inquiry carried out by the Commission on Educational ond Cultural Films.
(London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1932).

No better definition of this imposing work
can be given than that contained in the be-
ginning of the report itself, where the objects
and aims leading to the institution of the
organ conducting the inquiry are explained.

" The Commission on Educational and
Cultural Films was instituted in November
1929 on the unanimous vote of some hun-
dreds of educational and scientific organiza-
tions which had realized that the cinema had
become — for good or for evil — an in-
fluence of the first rank in the national life,
which it was necessary to take constructive
advantage of in the educational sense in
its widest meaning ".

The programme of the commission is
traced m these words, and the report we
are examining must be considered as
being one of the most important pieces of
work undertaken by the commission for
the benefit of the British cinema.

The work is divided into ten chapters,
the first whereof is dedicated to a study of
the situation of the cinema in general in
Great Britain. Careful examinations on
the development of the cinema in other
film-making countries follow together with
remarks on the censorship, on the meaning
of the film, understood both as an art and
as an industry, on the film as a means of
educating children, as a form of amusement
and even education for adults, on the im-
portance of the documentary and scientific
film and on the organization of the cinema
in the British dominions beyond the seas.
Within this general framework of the situa-
tion, the report discusses the film as a thing
to be developed for the good of the people,
and proposes the foundation of a National
Cinema Institute of official character for
Great Britain, since the Commission on Edu-
cational and Cultural Films is still a purely
private organ.

The report stresses the disadvantageous
situation caused by the deficient coordina-
tion of individual efforts, due chiefly to the
lack of a central controlling body, which is
to be found in the majority of other countries.
In chapter III the workings of the censorship
are explained while its character is illustrated.
It is also shown why it must not be considered
a negative element, but rather as a regulat-
ing and constructive organ or control. In
the chapter dedicated to the study of the
cinema as art and industry, the report des-
cribes the complicated machinery of cinema
production, and shows the need for close
collaboration between producers and trader.

The elaborate report concludes with some
important appendixes, a number of which
are of undoubted general interest. We
may cite Appendix C, which deals with the
organization and control of the services in
Educational Cinematography in the various
states. (There is an ample note on the ori-
gin and workings of the National Italian
L. U. C. E. Institute) Appendix F contains
an extract from the report of the Cinema
Committee of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science (1930) with remarks
concerning inflammable and non-inflammable
films, on the types of projectors best suited
for school-rooms, and on the conditions nec-
essary for reducing to a minimum the
tiredness of the eyes due to seeing films.

It can certainly be stated that the Commis-
sion on Educational Cinematography by means
of this important work has made a valuable
contribution to cinema studies considered
as an important element of progress in the
general interest of humanity.

This review is especially pleased to have
the occasion offered by the consideration of
this report to speak of the useful, thorough
and intelligent work undertaken by the
English Commission.

- 717 —

The commission represents — in reality —
the official organ of liaison between the Insti-
tute and the great British world, a work of
collaboration with a country which has felt
and continues to feel the exceptional import-
ance of the educational cinema movement.
After having carried out careful studies and
inquiries worthy of every consideration,
it seeks now to realize in a positive way the
aspiration of all countries, whether great
or small, namely the systematic introduction
of the cinema into the schools.

The studies and inquiries carried out in
England — which we have referred to on
more than one occasion — have permitted
the noble British nation to overcome all

obstacles, to study the question thoroughly
from all angles, and to prepare the ruling
classes for what may be a profond change in
existing pedagogic systems.

The Institute — through its review —
is particularly glad to offer warm greetings
to the Commission of Educational and Cultural
Films, to its worthy secretary Mr Orr, who,
with an apostle's spirit but with a practical
mentality, is carrying on a work which de-
serves to be pointed out to the world, that
follows with interest the struggle which we
are maintaining day after day for the defence
of a cause, which finds in organs like the
Commission on Educational and Cultural
Films capable and encouraging allies.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEHGUE ©F RED CROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or l/»
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8-

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Welasquez, Paris VIII.

718 —

PARAMOUNT

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Legislation

THE CINEMA CENSORSHIP IN GUATEMALA

General Regulations. — The cinema cen-
sorship in Guatemala has as its principal
if not sole object that of safeguarding the
minds and spirits of minors against the dan-
gers which may menace the more youthful
of film spectators. In this respect, Guate-
mala follows the system of the group of na-
tions, like Belgium, which do not allow sys-
tems of control for the cinema, desiring to
leave the path open to all manifestations of
thought and art in the film, but desiring at
the same time to prevent minors who are
less capable of self-control and criticism than
adults from deriving moral hurt from the
cinema.

Worthy of notice is the brief heading to
the decree No 11 38 of April 17, 1931 which
institutes a film censorship for minors. In
the two introductory preambles in the first
part of the decree we read :
..." The proprietors of public cinemas
where children are allowed, have not up to
the date of this decree taken care to project
films adapted to the intelligence of children
and capable of developing in them a sense
of the beauty there is in the world, or such
films as may lead to scientific knowledge
and. . .

. . , " on the other hand, the influence which
public spectacles have on children's minds,
morals and intellects is well known and de-
cisive, and creative work full of thought and
ideas may be a source of inexhaustible rich-
ness .

Legislative orders. — The regulations
and rules which govern the system of cinema
censorship in Guatemala depend on : —

a) the decree of October 6, 1927 which
establishes the general principle of safe-

guarding the morality of minors in the mat-
ter of cinema spectacles ;

b) the before mentioned decree of
April 17, 1931, No. 1138 which sets forth
the governing rules.

c) the regulations " para la censura
escolar " contained in the decree of Novem-
ber 5, 1931.

General Rules. — Article I of the institu-
tional decree of 1927 banned children and
adolescents of under 1 4 from all cinema shows
whether given in the afternoon or evening,
the programmes of which shows do not ex-
pressly and clearly state that children are
admitted.

Article I of the decree N. 1 138 states that
from the date of promulgation of the decree
all directors or impressionarios of public
spectacles must submit the programmes of
their films and all their entertainments in
general to which children may be admitted to
a particular form of control and to the approv-
al of the Technical Council of Scholastic
Censorship, without which no shows may
be given. This does not prevent the govern-
ment from exercising other safeguarding
measures in the matter.

Children of under two years cannot any-
how be taken to any cinema show what-
soever, even to spectacles permitted to chil-
dren and adolescents, Minors, moreover, are
not to be admitted to evening performances,
but only to those held in the afternoons.

Offices and Procedure. — The work of
control was first of all entrusted to a thea-
trical censor (art. 4 of the decree of 1927).
The decree of 1931 introduced some im-
portant innovations. It established in art-

4 let ingl.

— 720

icle 2 that the work of censoring should be
handed over to the Technical Council of
Scholastic Censorship, which was to be
composed of the Head of the Scholastic
Department (/e/e de Extension Escolar)
and by two directors of private or public
teaching establishments, to take turns in the
censorship sittings.

The Scholastic Council, according to
art. 2 of the regulation, will include supple-
mentary members as indicated.

It was laid down that the functions of the
members of the Council, that is the censors
should be of a purely honorary character.

The members of the Council cannot re-
fuse to carry out their work or abstain from
attending the sittings, except under circum-
stances of force majeure, which circumstances
must be duly notified in writing the day be-
fore that fixed for the holding of the censor-
ship meeting. In this case, the Head of the
Scholastic Department will nominate sub-
stitutes.

The censorship examinations must take
place, according to law, every Saturday from
two to five in the afternoon in a place to be
settled on for this purpose by the ministry
of Public Education. Article 3 of the de-
cree establishes as a temporary measure,
that the censorship may for the time being
take place in the public projection halls or
theatres.

It is the duty of the censorship board to
draw up each time a short report of films
seen and censored with observations and re-
marks to be annotated in the special registers
of the Council.

If for reasons depending on the exhibitor
or cinema owner, the censoring of a film
or films cannot take place and the exhibitor
has not supplied satisfactory justification
of the fact, the Council will make a report
which will be transmitted to the competent
authority for the possible question of fines
that may arise.

The decisions of the board of censors
cannot be made known to the interested par-
ties until two days after the day of the exam-
ination of the picture, and will be communi-

cated in a notice sent by the Head of the
Scolastic Department.

Criteria to be used in Censorship. — The
criterion inspiring the censorship decrees
may be gathered better from the regulations
for the censors than from the enunciation
of principles made in the preamble to the
decrees.

The regulation establishes in articles 6, 7
and 8 that the censors' functions are limited
to selecting, after close attention, all those
films which seem adapted for children and
adolescents (minors of less than 14 years)
bearing in mind that the films should tend
to elevate and not depress the intelligence.

The films coming in one of the following
categories may be approved : —

a) films of scientific-cultural character
(geography, history, arts, industry, natural
science and so on ;

b) films having value as illustrating or
imparting knowledge of the life of the world,
documentary films and news-reels ;

c) comic films of a simple and moral
type, whether represented by actors or
animated drawings.

Consequently, the ban must be effective
for all films which do not come under the
foregoing headings, and, of course, more
especially for all films which contain scenes
verging on the indecent or based on plots
of an equivocal character.

Appeal. — No regular right of appeal is
admitted by the law against the decisions of
the Board of Censors. Article 10 of the
regulations, however, lays down that if the
decision of the Council or Board is unfavour-
able to the film, a second examination may be
requested by the interested parties within
a fixed period of time to be decided on by
the Head of the Scholastic Department.

General Censorship. — The principle of
safeguarding the morality and purity of spir-
it of children in Guatemala allows of one
exception, which is expressly provided for
in article II of the regulations.

721

It is laid down that there is no need to
submit for censoring films which can only
be shown to children on the request of the
secretary of the ministry of Public Education.

In all cases, the Council is responsible to
the government for its decisions, and is
expected to make such decisions in a spirit
of absolute impartiality and intelligence.

Auxiliary Officers. — Officers attached to
the censorship include all members of the
censors' board who are entitled to visit from
time to time, and whenever they so desire,

all cinemas where films are being shown
in order to ascertain if the decisions of the
Board and the fundamental laws have been
observed.

Punishments. — Article 5 of the regulations
states that all fines imposed for non-obser-
vance of the regulations or breach of the
rules must run from ten to 20 quettales in
local money.

The amount of all fines collected goes to the
Scholastic Offices dependent on the Secre-
tariate of Public Education.

REPUBLIC OF PANAMA

Origins. — The censorship for the cinema
originated, in Panama, with the rules set
out in article 1232 of the administrative code,
which established, in general terms, a cen-
sorship on all public spectacles and enter-
tainments, and decree No. 38 of November I,
1926, issued by the Alcade of the district to
lay down the practical procedure of the board
of censors.

Commissions. — By article I of the decree
indicated, the commission or giunta of cen-
sors is composed of as many members as
there are theatres or public amusement
halls or cinemas, but in the proportion
of three censors for the two principal thea-
tres, and two for each of the others.

The special control over each theatre
must be entrusted to two or three censors
whose names will in due course be commun-
icated to the manager or impressario.

The censorship giunta or commission
will be renewed annually in the month of
February, and the members of the old com-
mission are eligible for reelection. The
commission or giunta will elect a president
and a secretary for a period of six months.
Decisions in matters of appeal against a
ruling of the giunta or collective decisions
require a majority vote.

Procedure. — The members of the giunta
nominated for each theatre or other place

of amusement are responsible for the per-
formances given, but when the members
of the sub-commissions are not in agreement,
the question must be referred to a plenary
sitting of the whole giunta.

Theatrical managements or their represen-
tatives and film exhibitors must submit to
the giunta through the Alcade of the district
not less than three days before the proposed
show or performance the manuscript of
new works or little known works, or a resume
of films to be shown.

The censors will carry out their work in
the municipalities of the various districts.

If the applicants to have films censored
can show that such films have passed the
censorship in other countries, the giunta
may accept such decision as sufficient, pro-
vided that such permits took into account
the moral and social protection of children
in passing the film. In this case, the exhibi-
bitors must announce on their programmes
to which category of minors the film is
adapted.

Entertainment productions approved by
the giunta may be given in any public hall
theatre or cinema, but the title or number
of the production must not be altered, this
constituting a punishable offence.

Similarly it is not permissible to alter
or modify any part of the programme of a
public spectacle without the authorization

— 722

of the Alcade, and by giving notice to the
public at least twelve hours previously.
Neither, is it permissible to mutilate the
censored portions of any act or film without
the consent of the giunta whose approval
must also be obtained for presenting a bur-
lesque adaptation of any known production.
In any case, the portions of films or acts
not approved by the censors cannot be in-
cluded in programmes and projected or
acted unless the whole giunta has reversed
the judgment of the sub-commission at an
appeal.

Criteria to be followed in Censoring. —
On general lines, all productions are to be
forbidden which, in whole or in part, are
in antithesis with the principles of morality,
which offend modesty, which cast ridicule
on, or hold up to public contempt customs,
institutions or nations with which the Re-
public of Panama has diplomatic relations.

Practically, the censors must :

a) watch the morality of the perfor-
mances given in the public halls of the city ;

b) be present at the dress rehearsals
of new theatrical productions, or demand
a special performance or projection when
desirable for obtaining fuller particulars
and knowledge of the act for which authori-
zation is requested :

c) collect and examine all the reports
made or published on theatrical performan-
ces or films shown in public halls ;

d) prevent, with the assistance of the
police when required, the representation of
spectacles or films that have not been ap-
proved by the censorship;

e) do any other thing which they may
consider useful or necessary for their duties.

Appeal. — Appeal lies from decisions of
the individual censors or sub-commissions
of censors to the giunta of censors united
in plenary session. The Alcade of the
district may make application for such re-
course in appeal for the party interested,
who may also make such request personally.

Minors. — As far as concerns the censors'
work, spectacles must be divided into four
categories : " suitable for children ", " chil-
dren admitted ", " not suitable for children "
or " unsuitable for children from the moral,
national or international point of view ".

By children minors of 1 5 are meant. Such
can only witness, alone, day shows or matinees
in hours which do not interfere with their
scholastic duties. For evening performances,
children must be accompanied by parents
or guardians.

Performances for children must include
moral or educative spectacles.

The decree does not show the consequen-
ces derivable from the fourfold classification
of theatrical or cinematographic production.
It is clear, however, that the classification
is aimed at preventing children going to
shows which are not suitable for their age
and their psychology, and the exhibitors must,
as is the law in other countries, make known
to the public the limitations, imposed on
their films by the censors. Otherwise the
regulations would be completely futile.

Auxiliary Offices. — In order to see that
their orders are observed, all the members
of the giunta of censors have the right of free
access to all public spectacles, with the ex-
ception of the National Theatre, where only
the censors attached especially to that theatre
are admitted free.

When, however, the Alcade of the district
is present at a show, the censors present can-
not enter for the purpose of forbidding, lim-
iting or altering the spectacle, on the prin-
ciple that they are merely delegates of the
power vested in the Alcade.

Punishments. — Offences against the reg-
ulations of the decree of November 1,
1928 which do not come under other sanc-
tions of the law are punishable with fines
of from 5 to 25 balboas, payable by the
exhibitors, managers, impressarios or their
agent or agents who may have committed
the offences in question.

— 723 —

JHJ^AD OFFICES

51, Via Sallustiana :: ROME :: 38, Via S. Basilio

Profits paid to policy holders for 1931
increased to 3.50 per thousand of insured capital

It is a fact that as from the company's financial year 1930, persons insured
by the " Istituto* Nazionale delle Assicurazioni „ were made participators in the
company's profits, and for that year the distribution of such profits amounted
to 3 per 1000 of the sums insured.

It was forseen that the company's excellent financial position would event-
ually permit a still larger participation in the profits by policy-holders, and as a
matter of fact

FOR THE FINANCIAL YEAR 1931

in consideration of the prosperous results obtained by the company, the Board
of Directors has decided to increase the distribution of profits to those insured
with the Institute to 3.50 per 1000.

This increase has a most important consequence, since it affects profits cal-
culated on several thousands of millions of lire of insured capital.

In fact, the sum of the profits set aside in the company's last balance sheet
in favour of the owners of savings entrusted to the Institute amounted in round
figures to

15,600,000 LIRE

so that the first two distributions of profits (1930 and 1931) show a total of

29,000,000 LIRE

paid to persons insured with the Institute, which demonstrates clearly the
increasing strength of the Company, and at the same time establishes between
it and its supporters a continually strengthening bond of interest.

- 724 -

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Information and Comment

THE POSSIBILITIES OF VISUAL EDUCATION

Representatives from California, Connec-
ticut, Delaware, Illinois, Kansas, Massa-
chusetts, Minnesota, North Carolina, New
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Washington, D. C, and West
Virginia, attended the Atlantic City con-
ference of the two national visual organiza-
tions which merged at Washington, D. C,
last February. School people from sev-
enty per cent of the states heard the paper
of the president of the merged organizations
on " The Possibilities of Visual Aids ".

The central theme of all the meetings
was The Value of Visual-Sensory Aids from
the standpoint of types such as apparatus,
school journeys, objects-specimens-models
and museum procedure, pictorial materials,
(prints, stereographs, slides, films) and the
contributions these types make to the cur-
riculum and school activities. The values
were made concrete through a series of
demonstrations at the different sessions of
the conference.

A significant pronouncement was that
scientific experimentations have revealed
certain definite values for visual-sensory
aids. Among the important values — as
revealed by experimental studies and theses
of the graduate schools of the country —
are that the proper use of visual-sensory
materials increases initial learning, effects
an economy of time in learning, increases
permanence of learning, aids in teaching
backward children, motivates learning by
increasing — interest, attention, self-acti-
vity, voluntary reading and classroom parti-
cipation.

A second important general declaration

* Report of the Atlantic City Visual Education
Meeting, June 27 and 28, 1932.

was that teachers do not know the various
types of visual-sensory aids, their sources,
standards for their evaluation, and tech-
niques, for their use require special pre-
paration.

It was the common belief of those pre-
sent that effective instruction depends not
only upon a knowledge of visual-sensory aids
and their sources, but in the skill to use
them effectively in instruction. The opin-
ion was unanimous that this preparation
is a responsibility of teacher-training insti-
tutions ; and that the contribution which
visual-sensory aids make to improved instruc-
tion justifies a requirement that every teach-
er in training in the public schools of the
United States take a laboratory course in
visual-sensory aids, and that some means
be developed to tram teachers m service
in the proper use of visual-sensory mater-
ials. It was announced that Pennsylvania
State Teachers Colleges have made such a
course mandatory ; it was also announced
that several other states are about to do so.

Much stress was laid on the values of
school journeys. Data were cited from
experiments, and from reports of foreign
countries which show that this medium of
instruction is central in Great Britain, pro-
gressive European countries and Japan.
Emphasis was placed on the fact that our
country does not use its museums for in-
structional and learning purposes to the
same extent as foreign countries. Objects-
specimens-models enable pupils not only
to see but also to handle materials which
are being discussed, thus revealing such
characteristics as three dimensions, color-
ing, weight, texture, etc. Museums have a
wealth of materials that, if used, will

726 —

enrich and vitalize subject matter. A closer
cooperation between school people and
museum officials will result in a wider use of
museums and museum materials.

It was the consensus of opinion that if
a course in visual-sensory aids be made
mandatory on the part of every person
preparing to teach in the schools of the
nation ; if superintendents of schools will
encourage teachers in service to take such
a course — either in extension or at summer
schools ; and if visual-sensory aids be used
effectively in the school rooms of America,
the next ten years will witness one of the
greatest contributions to the improvement of
instruction that has ever been made in the
history of our country.

In the resolutions, adopted by the con-
ference, it was recommended that the core
of a course in visual-sensory aids should

consist of the following elements common
to practically all subjects : research ; histor-
ical background ; psychological aspects and
verbalism ; projectors and projection ; school
journeys ; objects-specimen-models and mu-
seum procedure ; pictorial materials ; still
and motion picture camera techniques ;
blackboard and bulletin-board techniques ;
administering and budgeting visual mater-
ials ; radio-vision ; bibliography.

It was further recommended that the
schools officials of the country be requested
to encourage teachers in service to take a
laboratory course in the use of visual-sen-
sory aids wherever such courses are avail-
able ; and that those responsible for national,
state, and county educational meetings be
urged to include the subject of Visual In-
struction in the programs of the coming
year.

A LONDON INQUIRY ON THE CINEMA

The Chief Educational Inspectorate of
London distributed recently to 28,280 chil-
dren of 28 County Council schools some
questionnaires on the impressions received
by children after witnessing theatrical films.

Though the inquiry in itself, both in the
matter of number of replies, and the form
of the questionnaires is less important than
the inquiry of a similar character organized
in 1930 by the I. I. E. C, the returns, as
published by the British press, are in them-
selves worthy of note.

Cow-Boy films proved popular with all
the children, especially the young children.

War films and adventure films are popular
with boys. War films proved to be espec-
ially liked by boys between 8 and 10, rather
than by lads some years older. The girls
were of a contrary opinion in this matter.

Mystery, gangster and similar films are
much more appreciated by the boys than
the girls.

Comedies and farces do not seem to be
much liked by children between 1 1 and 1 4,

though they appreciate the comic element
in adventure or detective films.

Documentary, real life films and trave-
logues, as well as films showing the life of
animals, are rarely preferred by the junior
members of the public. The reason for
this, according to the compilers of the
inquiry, is that such films are often shown
at the beginning of a performance, and are
therefore considered as films of small ac-
count.

Sentimental adventures or romances are
distinctly disapproved of by the boys, though
often the girls of between 1 1 and 1 4 show
a marked preference for such films. The
examiners of the questionnaires had, how-
ever, occasion to note in classifying the
answers that the smaller number of remarks
made in connection with films of this type
was the result of a form of shyness or
dissimulation.

What is clearly revealed as a result of
the inquiry is that children prefer the talk-
ing film to the silent. Further, the running

727 —

comment in the sub-titles is not very easily
understood by the children, who also defin-
itely prefer English to American films.

In addition to these evidences of prefer-
ences, some other interesting observations
are revealed through the questionnaires.

With regard to the moral content of the
films, the examiners point out that they
did not hope or expect children of tender
years to possess any integral conception
of the meaning of morality. They, in
consequence, ignore what may appear im-
moral to adults, though this is no longer the
case with young folk of from 1 5 to 18 years.

It would seem that the influence of the
film drives young people to imitation. It
is pointed out that often after having seen
a film of adventures, the children have come
to school with rulers and pencils stuck
in their belts like arms. Such imitation,
however, does not go beyond the limits
of mere play.

Apart from this observation, which may
be considered of small importance, it is
noteworthy that the cinema does not seem to
exercise any influence on the exterior con-
duct of children. Very often the naughtiest
child in the class is the one who never goes
near the cinema. It is, however, certain
that the film leaves traces in the children's
minds which can exercise an influence after
a lapse of time. On several occasions edu-
cationalists have found in the minds of their
students real treasures of knowledge ac-
quired through seeing films.

The only really dangerous point is the
impression of terror provoked in childish
minds by terrifying films. Such impres-

sions are not easily forgotten, and even
after some time and during sleep they can
return and cause nightmares.

These are briefly the results of the new
inquiry which can be added to the know-
ledge derived from former inquiries and to
those in course in various parts of the world.

Two observations are necessary. In the
first place, it is again ascertained that the
cinema does not exercise a depressing or
exciting influence from the point of morality
or instigate to crime the minds of the
youthful spectators. Thus, once again, one
of most serious charges brought against the
film by theorists falls to the ground.

Secondly, it is stated that young folk
up to the age of 15 do not possess the in-
tuition and capacity of differentiating be-
tween immoral and moral elements to be
found in the development of a film. This
seems to be a rather risky statement. One
does not know the type of film which the
young folk saw before answering the ques
tionnaires. One does not know consequently
if there were any films of dubious or dan-
gerous morality shown to the children.
It is, however, certain that if the child has
not the complete conception of good and
evil possessed by an adult, the very daily
life which he leads, often enough in con-
tact with the sadder and less lovely sides
of life, must teach him in a precocious way,
at any rate in part, the meaning of evil and
immorality. To intensfy and render more
detailed this knowledge by means of films
does not seem either advisable or useful.

VISUAL AND PRACTICAL TEACHING IN HOLLAND

We think U desirable to publish this resume of the report which the secretariate of the
" Der Kindervrienden " foundation of Amsterdam has sent us regarding its objects, means,
organization and working.

The " Kindervrienden " foundation creat-
ed in Amsterdam has various objects, among
which may be mentioned practical and visual
education by means of the film and slides,

and the organization of a museum contain-
ing collections of objects to be shown before-
hand on the screen. It also seeks to arouse
by means of photography and cinemato-

728

graphy interest in the beautiful and in
nature and, as the name of the organization
implies, to develop sentiments of humanity
in children.

The installation of the foundation in-
cludes a small intimate hall with stage and
seating for 60 children at the most.

The walls are adorned with drawings
and pictures calculated to arouse the chil-
dren's interest. There are episodes from
the life of Robinson Crusoe, Baron de Crac,
Gulliver and the Fables of La Fontaine
carried out by the painter Albert Hahn. By
means of the epidiascope, pictures are first
of all shown, which will later be projected
on the screen, with the idea of preparing
the receptivity of the children, and helping
them to appreciate what thev see in the
film.

After the cinema representation, the chil-
dren are gathered together in the near-by
museum and are shown the objects which
were thrown on the screen, so that they
can examine them as they are in real life.
In order that their attention shall not be
distracted by other near-by objects, as is
often the case in museums, only the cases
holding the objects to be studied are illum-
ined. The museum, which is installed in
a most artistic manner, has painted glass
windows illustrating mans principal qualities:
beauty, work, strength, humanity, devotion,
the idea of peace, etc.

The installation of the foundation includes
microscopes, acquariums, pianfortes, gramo-

phones, etc. In the museums there are
exposed various collections such as the flora
of Holland and the Dutch Indies, coal and
its products, iron and a fine collection of
minerals, paper, etc.

The walls are covered with phrases and
mottoes. Near the entrance, under a pic-
tured gold sun is the phrase " Try your
best to make the sun shine around you ".
In the projection room and the museums
there are phrases and mottoes calculated to
have an influence on the children's educa-
tion and character.

Experience has shown that, although all
the children take a lively interest in this
visual teaching, it is especially those belong-
ing to the less well off families who derive
the most profit from it. Slides and the
museums have proved very useful for
teaching, even if the film has a greater
attraction.

The installation cost altogether from four
to six thousand florins, and the annual ex-
penses amount to between 1500 and 2500
florins.

Each projection of two films and subse-
quent visit to the museum lasts two hours,
and brings in to the foundation 10 centimes
of a florin per child, although the ticket
is not obligatory.

The foundation is ready to supply friends
of the children of every country with all the
information and indications that may be
useful to them. It will also send its cata-
logue in Dutch.

"CHILDREN NOT ADMITTED

La Patrie Suisse of Geneva of June 1 1
last published an article by Walter Marti
entitled " Children not admitted ", which
is worthy of being examined in some detail.

The author points out that in several
legislations dealing with the control of the
cinemas there exists a distinction which is
revealed at once in the notices exposed
outside the public cinema halls dividing
the pictures into two classes, those to which

children can be admitted and those from
which they are banned. The writer ob-
serves that this is a grave error, in the first
place, because even m the case of those
films to which children are admitted, it is
possible theoretically to see certain shades
of meaning or even actual elements of danger
for child morality which render the dis-
tinction without practical value. In the
second place, because today children are

729 —

thoroughly conversant with what life is
in all its lofty or base manifestations, just
as they have known, either directly or
through the words of their parents the
horrors and sufferings of war. To forbid
them to see on the screen things they al-
ready know is an absurdity, and a form of
hypocrisy, all the graver, inasmuch as we
have not the force of will necessary to elim-
inate from our lives those forms of immor-
ality and those horrors which we consider
unsuited for our children, while we our-
selves are ready at any moment to repeat
them when it seems to us necessary.

Marti s argument is not a new one, but
it is nevertheless worthy of consideration,
because it touches one of the basic problems
of cinema censorship : that, namely, relat-
ing to the admission of children to all pic-
tures shows, or only to those judged by com-
missions or government or technical organs
to be suitable for them and their particular
psychology. The limitation implies undoubt-
edly a double consequence : it causes the
children to desert the cinema out of the
fear that all they will see will be more or
less tame and insipid films, chosen for them
according to special criteria ; films in a
word, made to fit an artificially created
life ad usum delphini. The second conse-
quence is to sharpen the desire and the sense
of knowledge of the young people in the
most dangerous manner, tempting them in
a wholesale way to seek to defy the regula-
tions and laws, and to enjoy the forbidden
fruit, despite everything and everybody.

The opposite system implies another con-
sequence : that of one hundred per cent
liberty, which if theoretically admissible
as just, is practically absurd.

Children and young folk, according to
the writer of the article, know life in its
more or less lofty expressions, on its good
sides and on its bad ones, where the sense
of duty and the most absolute purity to-
wards the world is revealed. They know
it also when it is infected with lower senti-
ments which bring man down to the level
of the beasts. Such things are exemplified

in war films and films of passion. Since
they know everything, they can see every-
thing, without restriction or limit. So runs
the argument.

But up to what point ? The fact that
their knowledge of the world is complete,
as some maintain, does not prevent all those
who have a sense of responsibility for the
moral and spiritual life of children from
understanding how far the ordinary life
and common exchange of ideas with adults
may be permitted.

No child should have a full knowledge
of the sufferings and uglinesses of the world.
A child has the right not be considered a
man before his time. He is entitled to an
atmosphere of serenity and a vision of the
good things in life. His approach to an
understanding of sorrow should be gradual.

What will his future be like if his soul
be grown old and saddened before its time ?
Shall we not in this way fill the world with
a series of old children, untempered by the
battles of life, which they will not have
had the chance to combat and dominate
with all the force that derives from self-
criticism and self-command learnt as a
logical lesson of the passing years and the
gradual awakening of the spirit ?

It is an ill thing if life today gives or
demands of the child more than he ought
to give. This is a wrong which does not
justify the premise of a necessity.

Marti's argument, if it does not seem
logical on this point, has, on the other hand,
a serious foundation from another point of
view. He examines the question whether
it is advisable to prepare special performances
for children, to which they should be ex-
clusively admitted. Not so much from
the moral point of view, as on account of
the particular psychology of the child and
its possibilities of understanding and intui-
tion, which are quite distinct from those
possessed by an adult.

Apart from the legislative systems today
in force, which have been more than once
examined in the pages of this review, we
may refer to what was written in our num-

— 730 —

ber of March 1930 on the matter of social
problems.

An inquiry carried out by the League of
Nations, the results of which were summarily
reported in the number of October 1929
of the Revue Internationale de I'enfant
(pp. 302 and 715) concluded :

a) children do not like films for chil-
dren, where the author takes too low a
view of the capacity and intellectual level
of his youthful public ;

b) Far West films seems the most
attractive ;

c) in general, films which please adults
also attract the children ;

d) children under 15 are bored with
love stories ;

e) despite the surprise of inquirers,
children show a noteworthy preference for
beautiful things ;

/) an infantile public, however im-
pressed by the film, does not forget that it
is merely a fantasy ;

g) the most appreciated films are those
travelogues which illustrate the life of
children in the various parts of the world.
The inquiry proposed :

1) the creation of a series of after-
noon performances with programmes suit-
able for children, to finish early.

2) travelling cinemas to give shows to
children in the villages and small centres ;

3) the organization, in cooperation
with Child Protection Societies of perman-
ent instructive cinemas in the big cities
(L'Enfant et le cinema in Revue Internatio-
nale de I'enfant, Vol. VIII, No. 46, p. 46
and 706, etc.).

Edgar Leroy is of the same opinion.
" Showing children " he writes, scenes sit-
uations and sentiments unsuitable to their
age but more adapted to adults, one runs
the risk of falsifying their ideas. The dir-
ector of a country school pointed out to
me recently that children accustomed to
frequent the cinemas in the company of

their parents begin to lose their interest in
the documentary films shown them in the
schools, just as young people allowed to
indulge in the reading of sentimental novels
cease to take an interest in more serious
reading.

" It must be repeated once again : special
films are required for children. Badly made
propaganda films are useless as are films
for adults mutilated for minors, where, for
instance, they are shown — with the sup-
posed purpose of combatting such vice —
the habits of cocaine fiends, or where they
can witness Biblical scenes in canvas or
cardboard settings or madonnas represented
by women of quite different character. To
make children's films really interesting, they
must be prepared with just the same care,
perfection and conscientiousness given to
the manufacture of commercial films for
adults ".

No " cinema for children then, but
rather films made according to the same
technical and artistic rules of any moral
film for the general public. Films in a
word that do not give the dangerous and
repellent idea that they have been mutilated,
and censored out of all sense and mean-
ing. Such pictures for children should be
shown in the afternoons, while the evening
hours should be left free for the exhibition
of any kind of film. It should be under-
stood that children are not admitted to
evening performances in any case, thus
doing away with the useless and suggestive
advertisements lamented by Mr. Marti.

This seems to be the best solution of the
question, and one that allows minors an
enjoyment that does not in any way bring
the risk of evil to the child mind.

" Have you the love that knows not bit-
terness nor impatience, which finds its hol-
iest and most beautiful occupation in giving
itself in sacrifice to the new soul coming
into life ?

(H. HOTZKY. The Child's Soul).

- 731 -

A VOICE MADE BY SCIENCE

W. E.'S NEW FILM THAT DESCRIBES THE ARTIFICIAL LARYNX.
THE DUMB SPEAK

Western Electric have added to their
library of non-theatrical pictures, a medical
film illustrating the wonders of the artificial
larynx, a W. E. invention that restores the
power of speech to those who have had their
larynx surgically removed or whose vocal
chords have become paralysed.

Entitled " The Voice that Science Made "
the picture illustrates the functioning of the
human vocal chords followed by a comparison
and description of the working of the me-
chanical larynx. The closing sequences
depict examples of the instrument being
used by genuine subjects, well-known bus-
iness men and public speakers, their names
being given in the commentary which ac-
companies the picture. The speech which
is " manufactured " by this ingenious de-

vice possesses a singular distinctness, and
this is clearly recorded on the film.

The history of the development of the
artificial larynx is interesting. Although
now forming one of Western Electric's
regular products, the device was not perfected
with a view to providing a source of revenue,
but was marketed as a humanitarian gesture.
The invention was made, when, after years
of telephonic research, it was realised that
there would be some need for such an instru-
ment ; it was therefore developed and W. E.
have since made it available at a nominal
price to people suffering from the infirmity.

The appearance of the instrument in use
is no more unsightly than the majority of
deaf aids, whilst its operation is simple and
can be mastered in a very short time.

SUMMARY OF REPORTS
OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF ARTS

This cultural organization, which has a
membership of some 6000 broadly distrib-
uted throughout the United States and
elsewhere, reports that despite the loss of
2252 members and subscribers during last
year, the position of the federation continues
flourishing, for the loss of members was more
than made up by the acquisition of new ones.
The Federation has at present, according
to the annual report issued by Mr Grant
H. Code, Director, 657 members and 1652
subscribers to the magazine run by the asso-
ciation, " The American Magazine of Art

Like all other organizations of an altruistic
and educational character, the American
Federation of Arts has had its progress and
development impeded by the financial con-
ditions prevalent throughout the world.
One cannot cut down the incomes of spen-
ders and givers without reducing the where-

withall of those who have either something
to sell, or are accustomed to receive. This
state of things has undoubtedly laid a heavy
burden upon the President and those res-
ponsible for financing the work of the Fed-
eration. However, the Federation, in its
various cultural and educational activities
has more than marked time. It has pro-
gressed, if slowly, this year.

One of the outstanding experiments made
by the Federation during the past year
was that in connection with educational art
courses for the Boys' Preparatory Schools,
conducted on behalf of the Federation for
a period of three or four months by Mr E. A.
Park under a special appropriation, set
aside from the Educational Fund, of $ 15,000
provided last year by Mr Pratt. Mr Park
took five exhibitions provided by the Amer-
ican Federation of Arts, among which was

— 732

one consisting of reproductions of drawings
made by Rockwell Kent as illustrations for
Moby Dick. Enthusiastic cooperation on
the part of the head masters of the schools
was reported.

The major project of the Department of
Advisory service during the past year, how-
ever, has been that of directing an exten-
sion programme at the Telfair Academy of
Arts and Sciences, Savannah, Georgia.
Moving pictures of objects which it was
desired to illustrate or impress on young
minds were included in the programme.
In addition there were exhibitions of pictures
and lectures sometimes illustrated with
slides and moving pictures.

Among factors in the success of the
work, must be noted the full sympathy
and cooperation on the part of the Presi-
dent, Mr Ellis and the intelligent support
of the local committees as well as assistance
given by newspapers.

Perhaps even more significant are the
reports which have come from the Board
of Education, the supervisor of art, and the
principals and teachers in the public schools.
For the experiment three schools were
chosen. The work done in the schools
this year took the form of projection of
moving pictures of processes, and illustrated
stories of art and artists borrowed from the
Metropolitan Museum.

CZECO-SLOVAKIA AND THE FILM

Quotas for imports.

The ministry of Commerce has published
a decree according to which six permits
to import a foreign film will be given for
every national film made. As the permit
costs 17,500 Czech crowns, each national
film will thus receive a subsidy of 105,000
crowns. These permits can be obtained
by the exhibitors' agencies directly from
the Czecho-Slovak producers. In any case,
the exhibitors are allowed the choice of
purchasing permits to import, or participat-
ing directly in the national production. The
total quota for the year has been fixed at
180 foreign films.

Reform of Cinema Laws.

The cinema trade in Czecho-Slovakia is
interested in the recent reform of the cinema
laws, which were originally enacted in 1912.
The ministries of Commerce, the Interior
and Public Instruction have already taken
steps to enforce the new decrees, which
have been long awaited, as soon as pos-
sible.

Czechoslovak- Yugoslav film collabo-
ration.

A new grand cinema theatre has recently
been opened at Zhm. The projection hall
is installed in a modern building measuring
43 metres by 40 with height 1 2 metres, capable
of seating 2580 people. The new hall,
which is one of the largest in Central Europe,
was built through the initiative of the well
known business-man Thomas Bato, who died
recently.

New Sound Machines.

The firm of V. Kalar of Modrany, near
Prague has been experimenting for some
time a new sound-registering machine of
its own construction. The designers, Messrs
Bulanek and Necasek state that the patent
rights will not cost much, with the conse-
quence of rendering a reduction in the cost
of films likely. Experiments so far have
been most promising.

New Sound Projectors.

The manufacturer Flechta of Prague,
inventor of the Cinephon sound-register-

- 733 -

ing machine, which works without noise
or a cabin of any kind, has built a new pro-
jection machine which is not liable to any
patent dues. The projection of a series of
sound films of various producers has shown
that this machine gives a perfect reproduction
of sound. The mechanical means is cheap
to use, and this signifies that even small
cinemas will be able to install sound
films.

In these days a contract has been signed, in
Prague, between the A-B-Film, Ltd., and
" Jugoslovensky prosvetny film " which is
a Yugoslav film company, working under
the direct patronage of the State and
having for its president the former Yugo-
slav premier, Mr. Mihajlovic. The con-

tract just signed is of great national, cultural
and economical importance for both coun-
tries ; it practically means the mutual exploi-
tation of Czechoslovak and Yougoslav
films and the systematic exchange of all
important news-pictures. Further, there is
a clause in the contract which emphasizes
the possibility of making in the new A-B
sound studios in Barrandov not only You-
goslav versions of Czech films but also
that Yugoslavia can produce there its own
original pictures. The realization of this
contract is acclaimed in Czech and Yu-
goslav papers as the first step in estab-
lishing the Slav film collaboration, and it
is hoped that even Poland and Bulgaria
will be soon interested in this matter.

THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION
FOR THE BEST AMATEUR FILMS

The second international competition for
the best films by amateurs will take place
at Amsterdam in December 1932.

The competition is restricted to reduced
size films of 16 mm and 9.5 mm format,
and is exclusively open to the Amateur
Associations of each country.

Each country is entitled to present onlyone
scenario film in the two permitted formats and
one documentary or real life film or travel-
ogue, in the two formats allowed. In countries
which have more than one amateur associa-
tion desirous of taking part in the compet-
ition, the associations in question will proceed
to some form of eliminatory competition.

The competition is not offering any
prize, but will name the winner of :

a) the best scenario film of 1 6 mm ;

b) the best documentary film, travel-
ogue, etc. of 16 mm ;

c) the best scenario film of 9.5 mm ;

d) the best documentary or travelogue
film of 9.5 mm.

The winners will receive a medal record-
ing their victory.

The jury is to be composed of represen-
tatives of the competing nations, of per-
sonalities of the international cinema world,
and literary men and journalists of the
international cinema press.

Associations intending to compete should
make known their intention in writing not
later than the end of October 1932 to the
Nederlandsche Smalfilmliga, Ocievaarslaan 8,
Eindhoven, Holland.

The society promoting the competition
hopes that the third international compet-
ition to be held in 1933 will take place in
one of the winning countries of the present
competition.

- 734 —

EXAMINATION OF CHILDREN'S HEARING

The School Board of Walthamstow, a
suburb of London, has acquired an audio-
meter from the Western Electric Company
of the type known as " 4 A ", which is sup-
plied with 24 receivers. In using this ap-
paratus, the children of Walthamstow can
be periodically given hearing trials, and
those with defective hearing, who, in con-
sequence, are unable to derive full profit
from their lessons, will be given medical
attention.

A number of other school boards in
England are considering the advisability of
purchasing audiometers.

During a conference held before the
Manchester section of the British Medical
Association, Mr A. G. Ewing expressed

the hope that the medical faculty would
consider the best methods suitable for
examining the acoustic capacity of children
in the schools. He paid a compliment in
this connection to the audiometers manu-
factured by the Western Electric Company,
which the speaker stated he had himself
used in the course of his studies on hearing.
Mr Ewing declared that he had tried several
audiometers of this type, but had finally
decided in favour of the type known as
" 2 A, oscillatory ".

In the recent report of the British National
Institute for the Deaf, we find a report on
the audiometers of the Western Electric
Company. This statement contains details
of the work carried on during the last two
years. The Institute itself used the type
" 4 A, microphone ".

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on Cinematography, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching ~ ~

" Der Bildwart "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The "Bildwart" Supplements:

" FILMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);

" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);

" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses);

" MIKROPROJEKTION " ;

" PATENTSCHAU " (Patents' Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

= Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =

(BILDWART VERLAGSGENOSSENSCHAFT G. m. b. H., BERLIN, N. W. 21, Bochumer Strasse 8.a)

735 —

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- 736

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Technical Notes

THE WESTERN ELECTRIC COMPANY AND THE INTEGRAL
REPRODUCTION OF SOUND

Mr. J. E. Otterson, one of the chief
executives of the companies selling Western
Electric sound reproducing machines re-
cently made some interesting statements to
the London press regarding " integral sound
reproduction ". The new discovery to
which the foregoing phrase refers has been
made by Electrical Research Products Inc.,
and represents both for the disc and the
film an important step forward.

As far as the film is concerned, the new
improvements are so important, in Mr Ot-
terson's opinion, that in a cinema, where
the acoustics are good, it is no longer pos-
sible to make any distinction between the
sound reproduction of a phono-film and the
music of the orchestra or the words of the
actor which the film is mechanically repro-
ducing. Up to now, both sound registra-
tion and reproduction have been really
operating in their early stages of develop-
ment, from the point or view of both science
and music in so far as results have been
obtained. The improvements announced
under the designation of " integral sound
reproduction " are as much head of present
day sound reproduction as the talking films
of today are compared with those of five
years ago.

We are following at the present time, stated
Mr Otterson, a series of practical experiments
which have already given results that can
be immediately applied commercially.

At the present time, the quality of regis-
tration is superior to the quality of repro-
duction. We can register on the sound
track of the film remarkably high frequencies
which the reproducing apparatus cannot
render perfectly.

The change will be readily remarked
when the new system of " integral sound
reproduction " has been generally installed.
The improvement in the audition will be
very considerable, as the following figures
show. Today registration does not exceed
6500 periods a second, while the reproduc-
ing apparatus does not surpass 4500 periods.
The new system of " integral sound repro-
duction " will carry the maximum of re-
gistration and reproduction to 8500 periods.
The ideal would, of course, be to be able
to reproduce sounds of 1 2,000 periods, which
is practically the limit of audibility for the
human ear, but, generally speaking, the
maximum of 8500 periods may be considered
a satisfactory limit for the entertainment
provided by the cinema.

In the matter of gramophone discs, it
may be said that this system of registration,
thanks to vertical registration methods, has
a quality superior to that of the sound film,
but before the question of a return to the
gramophone system of sonorizing films can
be thoroughly considered and possibly ap-
plied, the difference between the film and
the disc will have been levelled up, and the
film with the photo-electric process will
have regained its lost advantage. The lab-
oratories of the Western Electric Co. are
of the opinion that this will come about
within the next six months.

Mr Otterson added that many cinema
halls should undergo a careful examination
with the object of improving their acoustics,
which in some cases are so bad as to lose the
advantage deriving from the improvements
in sound technique.

4* — /ce

- 738

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Review of periodicals and newspapers

Social Aspects of the Film.

In an article entitled " Romance in Crime
and in Pictures ", George Z. Medalie makes
some interesting observations on the cinema
and criminality. He states among other
things, that if crime were shown in the cinema
in a sinister light, films of this type would
lose their interest for the public. (Motion
Picture Herald, New York, 4-VI-1932).

Judge H. S. Mott of Toronto states that
child criminality has diminished by nearly
half between 1927 and 1931 despite the
enormous development of the cinema, which
some people wrongly seek to make respon-
sible for crimes committed by young folk.
(The Film Daily, New York, 1932).

Raymond Berner deplores that a new at-
tempt seems to be going on to attract the
public to the cinema with films of doubtful
morality, and concludes that in the cinema s
own interest, producers and renters should
show greater respect for public morality.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris, 2-
VI 1-1932).

Documentary Film.

The 0. C. E. N. has organized a compe-
tition for a film scenario on the legends,
popular feastivals and games of the North
of France. (L'AMICALISTE, Lille, June 1932).

The Sowkin of Moscow has produced some
new documentary films, including: " The
Switzerland of Siberia ", a film showing
picturesque and little known places in Si-
beria ; " On the Frontier ", a film illustrat-
ing a trip from Baku to Batum and " Blood
of the Earth ", a picture of the Kara-

kuma desert. (GAZZETTA del Popolo, Tu-
rin, 10-VII-1932).

Taking as his starting-point an article
in Radio Magazine, against the present
news-reels, Hubert Revol, makes a further
protest of his own against these news pic-
ture films, because, he asserts, that instead
of giving a real and exact picture of the
world, they falsify it. Revol urges that
news-reels be presented in such a way as to
provide a means of information and educa-
tion. (Cine-Spectacles, Marseilles, 10-VII-
1932).

The Tourist Propaganda Cinema continues
to make big progress in France. After the
films " Armor " and " Au pays breton " on
Brittany and the film " Dieppe-Newhaven "
two new films on Normandy are announced.
(L'Ami du Peuple, Paris, 12-VII-1932).

The Swiss Schul und Volkkind (National
and Scholastic Cinema Institute) has pro-
duced and exhibited under the title of " Die
Kergottsgrenadiere " the first national film.
The film story develops its action in the
Vallois canton which the picture illustrates
and reveals, dealing especially with popular
traditions. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 15-VII-
1932).

Religion and Film.

At Olten, in Switzerland, a meeting of
the Swiss Catholic Popular Union took
place under the chairmanship of Abbot
Carlier of Geneva in order to discuss the
question of the cinema. The following
proposals were agreed to:

1) To create a federation of the Swiss
Catholic cinema halls,

740

2) To draw up a petition to the compe-
tent authorities urging that ceach anton
exercise a film censorship.

3) To invite the Catholic papers to
use greater prudence in publishing advertise-
ments of cinema shows. (OsSERVATORE
Romano, Vatican City, 21-VII-1932).

Cultural Film.

According to the well known writer G. R.
Cooper, the public taste is now turned to-
wards historical, scientific and documentary
films. (The Film Daily, New York, 3-VI-
1932).

In seotions 7 and 8 of an article on
the material required for teaching natural
sciences in liceum and colleges, the author
deals particularly with apparatus for mi-
crography and film projections. (L'UNION
DES Naturalistes, Paris, No 2 of June 1932).

The Austrian Association of middle school
professors for the employment of slides and
films organized in May and June, in con-
nection with the Osterreichischer Bildspiel-
bund, a course of lessons on the projection
of reduced format films ((16 mm and 9.5
mm). The large attendance at the courses
showed the interest which the middle school
professors have for the reduced size film.
(LlCHTBILD UND FlLMDIENST, Vienna, No. 6-7,
1932).

The Association of German educational
film producers (Bund Deutscher Lehr und
Werbefilmhersteller) has laid before the
Prussian ministry of Science Arts and Na-
tional Education a request that teaching
films should be subjected to the same treat-
ment as cultural films in so far as regards
the total or partial exemption from enter-
tainment tax. {Deutsche Filmzeiting, Munich,
8-VII-1932).

The Scientific Film.

Die Kinotechnik of Berlin of 5-VI-
1 932 publishes a report on some cinema films

of the aurora borealis made by Engineer
Briiche of the Institute of Researches of the
A. E. G. of Berlin.

The studies carried out by the Ross
Institute on marsh life have been filmed
by a member of the Institute. The film,
produced in reduced 1 6 mm size, shows the
development of the marsh mosquito and
the methods for recognizing it. (Movie
Makers, New York, No. 6, of June 1932).

In an article entitled " Fortschritte in
der Nordlichtphotographie " professor Karl
Stormer of Oslo mentions the progress ob-
tained by the use of photography and cine-
matography in aurora borealis research work.
(FORSCHUNG UND FORTSCHRITTE, Berlin, 10-

VI I- 1932).

In Movie Makers of New York, (No. 7
July, 1932) Mr Bucher gives some useful
advice for obtaining good films of total
eclipses of the sun based on his own work
in connection with the eclipse of August 31
last which was visible in many parts of the
world, and notably in the United States.

Dr. J. R. Gill has produced for the use
of dental students a film on making a por-
celain tooth crown. (MOVIE MAKERS, New
York, No. 7 of July, 1932).

Hygiene and the Film.

As a result of the charge made at a meet-
ing of English film operators that projection
cabins are sources of tuberculosis, the U.F.A.
of Berlin declares that nothing of the kind
can take place in Germany, where the in-
stallation of the projection cabins is made
with every care for hygienic methods and
the personal safety of the operators. (Licht-
Bild-Buhne, Berlin, 28-VI-1932).

The ClNEOPSE of Paris (No. 155 of July
1932) announces that an excellent education-
al and propaganda film against alcoholism

- 741 -

has been shown in Paris under the auspices
of Professor Letulle, member of the Academy
of Medicine and President of the National
anti-Alcoholic League. The film was en-
titled " L'Heritage qui tue la race ".

The same review announces that M. J.
Tourame-Brezillon, director of the Afric
Film is at present busy in making an anti-
tuberculosis propaganda film at the Preven-
tive Cure Establishment of Cap Matifou
and the Heliotherapic Camp at Duera in
Algeria.

Le ClN^OPSE of Paris (No. 155 of July
1932) publishes an interesting article by
Dr Foveau de Courmelles on " the Cinema
and Hygiene ", in which the author main-
tains that all the advances in hygiene, whether
considered from a general or a special point
of view, ought to be popularized by means
of the cinema.

customs protective tariffs adopted by the
various countries against the import of for-
eign films.

The bill for the Sunday opening of cine-
mas in England was approved by the House
of Lords by 53 votes to 23. As a conse-
quence of this bill, 5 per cent of the Sunday
cinema takings will be set aside in favour
of the British Cinema Institute, which is
at present in course of formation. (Today's
Cinema, London, 8-VI I- 1932). The House
of Lords rejected the proposal to limit
Sunday cinema shows to exclusively edu-
cational films. (The Daily Film Renter,
London, 7-VII-1932).

The Directors of the Austrian National
Council have agreed to proroguing the
contingent law until August 19, 1934.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 9-VII-1932).

The Didactic Film.

In an article on " Systems of Study in
ancient and modern Greece ", Mr. G. D.
Spangler stresses the utility of visual di-
dactic means for study. (EDUCATIONAL
Screen, Chicago, No. 6 of June 1932).

Continuing his series of notable articles on
the teaching film, M. Colette gives some
excellent practical advice on the making
of good teaching films (Le Cineopse, Pa-
ris, No. 155 of July 1932). In the same
issue there is a brief but interesting report
of the educational film in France by M.
Michel Coissac.

Cinema, Taxation and Legislation.

A decree was published in Czecho-Slo-
vakia on June 3, last which makes it obliga-
tory for the sub-titles and running comment
of films to be in Czech. (INTERNATIONAL
FlLMSCHAU, Prague, 30-VI-1932).

Die Kinematograph of Berlin of 7-VII-
1932 publishes a comparative list of the

The ministry of Commerce in Czecho-
slovakia has fixed the contingent quota
at 1 to 6 so that in future only six permits
for importing films will be given in return
for the production of one Czecho-Slovakian
film. In order that this ruling shall not
produce a diminution in the receipts of
the National cinema fund, the cost of import
licenses has been increased from 15,000
crowns to 17,600 crowns. (LlCHT-BlLD-
Buhne, Berlin, 11 -VI I- 1932).

In order to encourage the formation of a
great national cinema production centre at
Istambul, the Turkish government has
lifted the customs dues on the necessary
material which will have to be imported
from abroad (// Messaggero, Rome, 15-VII-
1932). It would appear, however, that the
Turkish government intends to place a limit
on the import of foreign films. (Il Cinema
Italiano, Rome, I5-VII-1932).

Film Censorship.

The Belgian senator de Brouckers declar-
ed in the course of a speech made at Geneva

- 742 -

that the various governments, ought to ex-
ercise a less strict control over the theatre,
radio, books etc. He disapproved the
whole idea of censorship. (The FlLM
Daily, New York, 7-VI-1932).

Statistics.

The Educational Screen of Chicago
(No. 6 of June 1932) publishes some in-
teresting information of a statistical nature
on the employment which the churches
make of the cinema for religious and moral
purposes.

Industrial Film Teaching.

A film has been made at San Diego in
California for teaching drawing as applied
to mechanics. (EDUCATIONAL SCREEN, Chi-
cago, No. 6, of June, 1932).

Industrial film.

The Atlas Educational Film Co. will show
a series of documentary industrial films at
the International Century of Science Exhibi-
tion, which will open in Chicago in 1933.
(Educational Screen, Chicago, No. 6, of
June 1932).

The Moscow Sowkin has finished a film
of general culture called " The manumeter
No. 2 and the Telegraph. (GAZZETTA DEL
Popolo, Turin, 10-VI I- 1932).

Workmen's Accidents.

" Red Hell of the Kaniksu " is the title
of a film which shows the methods adopted
by the Forest Service of the U. S. govern-
ment against forest fires. (Movie Makers,
New York, No. 6 of June 1932).

The Bemfsgenossenschaft fur die Eizenl-
handel of Berlin has made a film on avoid-
ing accidents for workmen in its workshops.
(De Veiligheid, Amsterdam, 15-VII-1932).

Mr. R. P. Currie is at present engaged
on the production of a film for the Depart-
ment of Commerce of the U. S. government
to be called " The Coal Loader ". The
film shows the best methods as recommend-
ed by the Department for securing the safe-
ty of workers in the coal mines. (Movie
Makers, New York, No. 7, of July, 1932).

Producing Films.

The awakening of national sentiment in
Egypt has led to the making of Egyptian
sound films. The Mior National Bank is
interested in the enterprise. A studio has
been built at Cairo where only Egyptian
actors and actresses are employed. As has
been done in Russia, the Egyptian films are
intended to show especially the life of local
country populations in their real aspects.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 9-VII-1932).

Exhibitions, Congress and Meetings.

Photographs are being exhibited at the
Berlin Exhibition (Joachimthalstrasse 7) as
well as films and film cameras dating from
the early days of the art. We see pictures
of some of the actors of today when thy were
only supers. The early difficulty of scene
directors, producers, operators, architects
are exposed and a number of other draw-
ings, models and photographs.

There are special stands devoted to med-
ical and biological films. In a cinema hall
built according to the style of 1905, films
of the early days are shown and commented
in an amusing manner by the lecturer on
Schmidt.

The exhibition was organized by the
cinema author Edouard Andres, who is
also publisher of the periodical FlLM UND
FoTO of Giinther Lenhardt. The organ-
ization by Paul Voigt is excellent. Erwin
Wolfgang Nack of Berlin, whose series of
artistic photographs " Poesie der Nacht "
has enjoyed great success, has put forward
a plan to enlarge the film and artistic side
of the exhibition.

- 743

Techique.

The American Cinematographer of Holy-
wood publishes in its June number a
series of articles of a technical character
especially on the value of sound and colour
in cinematography as introduced by J. F.
Westerberg; on the shape of images, on the
principles of sensitometry and its applica-
tions and on the optical part of projectors
of 16 mm.

In The Cinema of London (6-VII-1932)
we notice several articles and notes of a
technical character of great interest. Among
others may be mentioned: " Rectifiers or
Rotary Converters ? " by J. C. Cleewes ; "
" Projectors and Efficiency " by Charles
H. Champion ; " Guide to Depth of Focus "
" Advantage of twin Loud Speakers ",
and " High Class work by Silent Record-
ing ".

The varied Film Life.

Sydney Kent Director of the Fox Film
has stated in an interview that the abuse

of dialogue has cost millions to the film in-
dustry, and that it becomes necessary to
reduce wordage to the strictest limits.
(Today's Cinema, London, 14-VI-1932).

The Daily Film Rentfr of London (20-
VI- 1932) forsees that shortly 2000 feet will
be the standard length of films.

A photographic competition.

The contrasts existing in modern life
will present numerous difficulties to the
historians of the future, and it is difficult
for us who live through the events of our
epoch to establish their due proportions and
pass judgment on them. It is therefore
better to let the facts speak, and to register
them like documents through the lens of
a camera.

How are we to see the present day world
with full objectivity? This is the problem
set forth by the Unionbild G. m. b. H. to
the photographers who are requested to
answer it by sending unpublished photo-
graphs (three at the most) showing essen-
tial aspects of modern life.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — < L' Universale > Tipografia Poliglotta.

744

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ROiME

OCTOBER
19 3 2

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING BODY.

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome, President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign A0airs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTREE Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Films, Inc.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.

MARTINEZ-SIERRA Mme Maria, Member of the International Committee for the

Protection of Infancy.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela. Doctor of Letters, ex-Director of the Girls Lycee of

Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. /. C. Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW,

Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Gimeno, Jose Maria

de Feo, Giuseppe JORDAN, H.

de Lavallaz, Maurice STORER, Edward

APOLLONio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV.

OCTOBER 1932

N. 10.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

- LEAGUE OF NATIONS -

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1a - ROME

INDEX

Page

Profs. W. KoLLE, K. LAUBENHEIMER, H. Vollmar — The importance of Cinemato-
graphy in biological Researches and especially in
cells and cell cultures 749

WlLBERT EMMERT ... — Core of a visual-sensory Aids Program 760

Eva Elie — " Dubbing " 764

FLORENCE Jacobs ... — Wholesome Films for Children a great and growing

Need : 767

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Public Attendance at the Cinema 769

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

Language-teaching and the Talking Film (by F. Juer Marbach) 779

LEGISLATION

The Cinema censorship in the Republic of Costa Rica and the Republic of San
Salvador — Mexico and her fiscal System for Films — Authors' Rights
in Iraq 793

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

Visual Instruction, its Value and its Needs (by Carl E. Milliken) — A Uni-
versity for Teaching by the Film to be opened in London — The Cinema
Commission of the Association for Sex Studies — Film week in Belgium
— The Educational sound Film in the British Fleet 799

TECHNICAL NOTES

The new Western Electric sound Apparatus for 16 mm. Films 805

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 809

BIBLIOGRAPHY 819

THE IMPORTANCE OF CINEMATOGRAPY
IN BIOLOGICAL RESEARCHES AND ESPECIALLY IN CELLS

AND CELL CULTURES

By Prof. Dr. W. Kolle,

Prof. Dr. K. Laubenheimer,
Prof. Dr. Hildegard Vollmar.

Biology, the science of life, has not only the task of seeking to understand
the conditions of existence and the manifestations of the life of organisms,
but also that of determining the duration of the phenonena which develop
either in organisms or in any of their parts or elements, as, for example,
modifications in the form of cell life.

For some time now apparatus has been in existence capable of register-
ing the beginnings of such phenomena and the duration of their development,
but it has hitherto been impossible to obtain in any definite fashion a com-
plete picture of the work of the organisms and the modifications of their
shapes, and at the same time reproduce such picture. Isolated pictures,
taken at more or less distant intervals, were only capable of reproducing
the state of the organism at the actual moment of the picture, that is in one
single moment of the development of the phenomenon, and it was therefore
necessary to make a mental picture of the preceding and subsequent devel-
opment through all its various stages. The mental conceptions of such
phenomena which attempt to complete the process of development are
notably full of hiatuses and depend on a subjective attitude in which fantasy
has a predominating part.

It is thanks to the invention of cinematography that it has been possible
to fill up these hiatuses in representing life as movement and modification
of the forms of an organism. It is interesting to note that in its beginning
cinematography took the direction of attempting a scientific analysis of the
movements of man and the animals. (Muybndge, Anschiitz, Marey). Later
cinematography has been almost exclusively used as a means of amusement
for the public, and only in more recent times has once again been utilized
for scientific researches and experiments. This evolution of scientific cine-
matography, and especially microcinematography, is subordinate to the
fact that in this particular field, the work to be taken in hand required a
serious intellectual effort, and no little difficulty in constructing those special
apparatus which we possess today.

- 750 -

The principle of cinematography consists, as is well known, in decom-
posing or analysing a movement by means of photographs in a great succession
of pictures of the animated object. By this method, the impression of iso-
lated images or pictures builds up over again in our brain which is the seat
of our visual sensations the movement which corresponds to the real move-
ment. In order that the movement may appear in this natural and percep-
tible rhythm, the release of the photograms must take place at a rate of be-
tween 1 6 and 1 8 a second, both for making and reproducing the picture.

Thanks to this principle and its application, it is possible to reproduce in
pictures which faithfully mirror nature the movements and modifications of
shape of an animated object and project them in a room capable of containing
a certain number of spectators. When a phenomenon takes place in too short
a period of time for it to be understood in all its particulars by the spectator in
one projection, its becomes possible to make several copies of the film, each one
of which has the same value. In this way, the same phenomenon manifesting
itself rapidly on the film can, when repeated, appear again and again before
the spectators' eyes in any way that is desired, so that the spectator can fix the
images in his mind and recognize the smallest details of a complicated process.

Again, cinematography gives us the possibility of registering like a docu-
ment to be shown at any time and containing every detail of every movement,
observations which could otherwise only be rarely made, either for some defect
or fault in the object itself, or in the necessary material or the preparations.

When the development of a phenomenon has been registered at the
rate of 1 6 or 18 photograms a second, and the film is projected at the same
speed, the rapidity of the succession of the pictures corresponds to the rapid-
ity animating the object under examination. The movement on the screen
appears quite natural, and, from this point of view, the cinema is not in a
position to register or show more than an attentive observer can see with
the microscope. It is however, true that phenomena appear much more
distinctly in projections, which for one thing is due to the enlargement that
comes from the optical means used. The objects so seen are infinitely more
easily recognizable.

Nevertheless, cinematography and micro-cinematography especially
cannot develop so as to become a precious aid for biology until their technique
is able to supply automatic installations capable of multiplying or reducing
at will the registrations of pictures. For example, certain phenomenon take
place among bacteria and infusoria so rapidly that the eye cannot follow all
the movements, but the new cinema technique which can make 100 photo-
grams a second comes in .most useful here. When the film is projected

- 751 -

at a normal speed, the movements appear to the spectator to be slowed down,
so that their various phases can be exactly followed and analysed. This kind
of high speed registration is called accelerated taking of pictures.

On the other hand, when the phenomenon has so slow a development
that it cannot be perceived in continuous fashion by microscopic observation,
as often happens in growth phenomena and cell movement and division,
it is possible to increase at will the interval between photograms. If the
film is allowed to run through the projector at a normal speed of 16 to 20
photograms a second, the impression of an accelerated movement is ob-
tained. The real duration of the movement is reduced in the reproduction
and these low frequency registrations are called slow motion cinematography.

The following table shows the relation between the number of photo-
grams per second and the slowing down or speeding up of the movement
during the normal speed projection.

Number of photograms per second

Slowing down or speeding up

160

80

48

32

16

8

4

2

slowing

down

10

times

5j

rt f »

D I spe

2J

Normal speed

speeding up

2 times

4 \

8

16

2

32

3

48

4

64

5

80

6

96 slow m

8

124 I

9

144

10

160

15

240

20

320

30

480

60

960 1

speeded up registration

When the phenomena of movement of growth or cell culture to be
registered with micro-cinematography develop with great slowness, it will be
necessary to use the system of slow motion registration, that is leaving

752

between pictures an interval of more than one-sixteenth of a second. Each
second will increase the rapidity, of the movement one-sixteenth. The
duration of the interval between each image is determined by the rapidity
of the movements of the micro-organisms and by the degree of enlargement

Fig. I.

it is wished to attain. For a powerful enlargement, there will be more
reduction than for a small enlargement. The brief description that follows
is only dealing with the slow motion camera as invented and carried into
effect by E. Leitz at Weltzar and by Askanianwerke of Berlin of the firm
of Georges Speyer. This apparatus has proved itself excellent even for the
most difficult pictures. *

* The numbers found in parenthesis in the description refer to those indicated in Fig. I.

- 753 -

For cinema camera we use a normal Askaniawerke machine made to hold
a 1 20 metre film. It moves on a vertical track placed above the microscope.
A balancing weight permits of moving it up or down as desired. It also has
a support which permits of it being used on its side, and its operation and
placing in position of the film is very easy in this position. The vertical
track on which the camera can be moved is attached by a strong spring, the
tension of which can be regulated. By means of the tension in this spring,
the bottom of the camera which bears on the spring does not carry the weight
of the camera, and does not therefore transmit extraneous vibrations to the
microscope. Again, in weak enlargements, that is when the illumination
is sufficient, the aperture of the microscope can be placed directly on the
film. In connection with this, there is in the back part of the camera a little
aperture which in the normal position does not allow any light to reach the
film, allowing at the same time the possibility of observing the picture as on
a smoked glass screen when the rubber shutter of the aperture is displaced
by the pressure of the eye.

The movement and rotation of the film in the camera are provided for
by two different mechanisms. The first consists in a motor working cog-
wheels which allow of the movement being reversed. H and 2] "phe movement
of the wheels is conveyed by means of inter-connected soft belts, one of
which works the registering apparatus, 1^1 and the other a disc placed
between the microscope and the lighting. Kl

Besides regulating the illumination, this second shutter has also the task
of protecting the microscopic preparation against an excessive exposure to
the light, only allowing the luminous rays to filter for the time necessary for
each image. M In the latest machines of the Askaniawerke this filter consists
of two discs, each of which has a round aperture of the diameter of the light
ray. Between these two discs and operated by a motor, a third disc turns,
one section of which forms an aperture capable of being regulated at will by
means of a small lever.

A second lever permits the synchronization of the disc's movement
with that of the exposure shutter of the camera. A filter can be placed in
front of the apertures of the fixed discs or smoked glasses of various types.
By means of change-speed gears, and without modifying the number of rota-
tions of the motor, the movement of the two transmissions can be regulated
from 16 photograms a second to two photograms a minute.

When the speed is less than 2 photograms a second, it is advisable to
use instead of the procedure indicated, a machine which does not put into

-754-

operation the lighting supply and the camera except at the moment of taking
each photogram. Microscopic cultures are therefore not subjected to the
action of the light except at the actual moment of making the pictures. To
be able to do this, a controlling apparatus is required, a chronometer, Kl which
with the assistance of relays, W to begin with, operates the light supply, and
then when the latter has reached its maximum intensity, operates a small
motor W which makes the camera handle turn. Again, it is possible to slow
down the picture-making in relation to the degree of strength of the
light, which is of considerable importance when it comes to using lamps
which light slowly. This slow motion picture camera permits the use of
intervals of 15, 20, 30 and 40 seconds, of 1, 2, 5, 10 minutes and of several
hours.

The microscope is a Leitz with double observation device. A lens is in
the eye-rest ^1 and a prism directs 3 per cent of the light towards the observer's
eye and 97 per cent towards the film, so that the material can be observed
even during the taking of the pictures, which permits of regulating and, if
desired, improving the enlargement. The eye-rest of the observation device
shows the image through a net of small lines, which allow the field to be regu-
lated and corresponds to the superficies of each photogram. The field is
regulated by means of the eye-piece.

For the study of cell structures of a particularly delicate character,
such as the mithocondra, the nature of which in cell life is still unknown,
illumination against a dark background is particularly important, because it
allows the use of condensers with a completely dark background which
have the greatest illuminating power, like Zeiss 's cardoid condensers or
Leitz' mirror condensers. In order to take cinema pictures of small
drops on a dark background, condensers with long focal extension are
indispensable.

In order to observe an action of intervention in cell life, such as the injec-
tion of medicated substances into the cells or in their vicinity, or for a mecha-
nical action on separate cells or a group of cells, a micro- manipulator installed
in the microscope is necessary. In the experiments to which reference will
be made, we used a Chamber micro-manipulator made specially for us by
the Leitz people.

In micro-cinematography, only powerful electric lamps can be used
as light supply, because the exposures for the pictures at normal frequen-
cies, and still more so in the case of those made at higher frequencies (in
speeded-up picture-making) are extremely brief.

- 755 -

In slow motion pictures, the lighting can only be of the duration a few
seconds. Pictures on a dark background require lamps with a high poten-
tiality. For making pictures on a light background, and for slow-motion
work on dark backgrounds, low voltage lamps that are easily found will be
sufficient. For example, the special Leitz lamps with an aplanatic collector
of 5 volts which stand a current of 6 amperes. When an arc lamp ^ is used,
it is advisable to use also a low voltage lamp, like that indicated for the illu-
mination during the focussing in order not to subject uselessly the microsco-
pic subject matter to an intense light, which might be harmful for it. The
light from this accessory lamp falls on a mirror placed so that it casts its reflec-
tion directly on the microscopic material. A light pressure on a lever switches
out the low voltage lamp and places the mirror in position, so that the arc
lamp casts its light in turn on the microscopic material at the moment of the
picture-making.

The lenses must be heated. Lenses of the Eisenberg type, made
by the Leitz people are indicated in this connection. They can be kept
at the desired temperature by means of an electrical heating system.
Since the preparations placed under the microscope may be subjected to
variations of temperature, as a result of the radiations of heat waves that
cannot be regulate/1, the entire microscopical part of the apparatus is placed
under a small glass dome which maintains a constant heat. \W In cinemato-
graphy, which is photographic reproduction of movement, the scientific
results obtained can only be briefly dealt with in a few words. Nevertheless
in the following pages I will endeavour to indicate with some brief descrip-
tions and with the aid of photograms taken from films the most important
facts revealed by cinematography. This does not mean that I propose to
give an explanation of the developments, transformations and functions
which have been from time to time registered by the microscope.

Cinematographing live cells, such as the white corpuscles of the blood
can be done without accelerating the movement at the moment of projecting
in order to make their activity and their various transformations more appar-
ent to the spectator than through direct microscopic observation. The
movements of the leucocytes are so slow, that in order to observe them it is
necessary to engage in a lengthy and accurate observation without any inter-
ruption. On the screen, however, the cells are so tremendously enlarged
by the projection (from 1 00 to 200 times) that their movements are developed
and accelerated to a corresponding extent. The same phenomenon can be
noticed in the flight of an airplane, which seems more rapid when seen close

- 756

than far off. The phenomenon of the phagocytes is excellently seen in micro-
cinematography.

Although micro-cinematography can, without the assistance of the
slow motion camera permit us to improve our knowledge of cell life and

activity, the slow motion
camera makes it possible
for us all the same to gain
fresh knowledge which
would doubtless escape di-
rect microscopic observa-
tion, because the pheno-
mena of activity under exa-
mination develop too slowly
to be perceptible to the
observer. By means of the
slow motion camera it
has been possible to esta-
blish that the activity of
artificially cultivated cells
is not dissimilar from that
of cells taken directly and
immediately from the
body, from which the others were removed. Micro-cinematography with
the slow motion camera has a special value in the examination of the complex

Fie. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fie. 4.

phenomena which takes their origin from the reproduction of the cells by
section. Thanks to micro-cinematography, we have been able to discover
that certain kinds of cells, as for example, the small mobile cells which have

\5-

— 757 —

extremely rapid movements reproduce themselves only by splitting up into
two or three without the intervention of chromosones. With regard to the
intervention of the chromosones, in figures 3, 4 and 5 can be seen cultures
of cells coloured with hematoxiline which show the formation of chromo-
sones in various stages of growth. In the film it is especially interesting to
observe the phenomena produced and the movements of the cells. When a
cell prepares to divide itself, it loses part of its activity and becomes round.
The equatorial plane can be seen
forming, round which the chromo-
sones gather, tending to break up

and then through a greater activity . &

of the cell the division takes place. lM

If one of the edges of the cultures is J '1 •* :'),

placed in the field of visibility, the cC

cell will be seen to leave it in a few ... Hb

hours. The increase does not only
take place through self-division, be-
cause each new cell increases in vo-
lume.

As to the influence of chemical
substances on isolated cells, Horteg-

a's cells in culture have provided us with an admirable subject for purposes of
study. Costero (1) has explained very well why we must give up the idea
of probing the details of the activity, charactertistics and importance of these
cells in the special function they have in the life of the nerves and the brain.
In addition to their mobility, Hortega's cells undergo notable changes in
their shape, accompanied by the formation of pseudopedicel appendices
around the body. Under the microscope, these appendices seem like lashes
moving in every direction. Slow motion micro-cinematography has suc-
ceeded in giving us some indications of their real nature.

In the successful photograms, we see that the body of these cells is
surrounded by a fragile membrane of almost equal diameter with the cell,
which it propels through undulatory movements. In numerous points,
this membrane splits producing the eye-lash effect. The phenomenon
is quite different from that of the pseudopedicels of the amoebae and the
1 ashes of bacteria.

(1) CoSTERO. Studien an Mikrogliazellen {Hortegazzelen) in GeWebskulturen von Gehern. Arb. a-d
Staatinstitut.

— 758 -

A whole series of alcoloid substances has been placed in connection with
these cultures, and the results micro-cinematographed. Among the numer-
ous researches made in this field of science, we will only mention those
which demonstrate precisely the difference between the effect on the exterior
and the interior of the cells. The experiment was organized so that with
the aid of the little jet of the micro-manipulator, the substance was first of
all injected in a cell, and then a second time into a culture. If, for example,

• o

''•>.„ jj

<:.vr

Fie. 6.

we inject in a cell a solution of pilocarpine, the activity of the cell is, to begin
with, completely arrested, but after a few minutes, the activity recommen-
ces, and even shows a marked acceleration. If, on the other hand, we inject
pilocarpine into a culture, in which the cell lives, the reaction is diverse. The
cells come together, roll up and the influence of the pilocarpine on the super-
ficies of the cell kills it.

As to the other alcoloids which have been used on Hortega's cells, we
will only refer to curare and morphine. Curare diluted in the proportion of
1 to 10,000 and placed near the cells arrests their activity and kills them.
Morphine at the same strength and similarly injected^provokes an acceler-
ation of the cellular movements, but it has not been observed that this drug
produces evil results.

Micro-cinematography has also given interesting and practical results

- 759 —

on the influence of the various rays on cultures of cells extracted from normal
tissues as well as from tumours. It will suffice to quote the two following
experiments.

Rontgen rays have not produced notable evil results on cultures of cells
taken from a rats sarcoma. Only when their intensity was increased the
pseudopedicels which before had been very active, became round and
motionless and showed a strong granulation. From this point on the cells
did not manifest any further activity, nor any growth when the action of the
rays had cased.

The cathodic rays, after an action of 50 seconds, on a cell culture of sar-
coma produced on the cells the same effects as the increased Rontgen rays.
The cells rolled up and ceased all activity. The cathodic rays did not kill
all the cells, however, for 48 hours from the exposure to the rays some live
cells reappeared in the culture. It required a radiation lasting 80 seconds
to kill all the cells.

Summing up, it may be stated that micro-cinematography is an excellent
method for biological research into cells and cells cultures. Numerous phen-
omena which occur in cells and near to cells can only be examined with
the slow motion camera, especially when their development is so slow that
direct microscopic observation is impossible. They can be studied by
means of the slow motion camera which will allow of all their phases being
carefully watched. The powerful enlargement of the projection makes it
possible to examine with great exactness a very large number of details. There
is also the advantage that a considerable number of persons can witness the
projection. The first condition for serious work in this field is the use of
first class optical material which should be constructed with a knowledge of
all modern technical advances.

(Translated from German).

CORE OF A VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS PROGRAM

By Wilbert Emmert.

Instructor in Visual Instruction and Science
State Teachers College, Indiana, Pennsylvania.

The purpose of this report is to submit to the Department of Visual Instruction of
the National Education Association a " Proposed Core Course in Visual Instruction ",
as developed by a committee appointed by the Organization for that purpose.

The report is divided into four major parts. It deals with (1) the significance of the
report, (2) how the course was developed, (3) some insistent declarations, and (4) the
course itself.

The title of the report embodies several significant implications. Only two of the
implications will be mentioned here. First, it indicates that visual instruction has be-
come an integral part of the school curriculum. Visual Instruction teachers and school
administrators no longer need argue for a visual-sensory aids program. It is an accepted
reality. The problem now is to determine those common elements of the course and
perfect a suitable technique for carrying out the program. Second, it indicates that the
merged Department of Visual Instruction and National Academy of Visual Instruction
contemplate carrying out the far reaching resolution set forth at the Los Angeles meeting
of the Department of Visual Instruction, namely :

" Resolved ; That the Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education
Association earnestly recommend that a course in Visual and Other Sensory Aids in
Teaching be required of all persons preparing for the profession of teaching and that
teacher-training institutions in every state be required to organize and offer such courses
beginning with the scholastic year of 1932-1933 ' .

The suggested " Core Course in Visual-Sensory Aids " represents the combined
judgments of the leaders of visual instruction in the United States as to " What a Core
Course in Visual -Sensory Aids Should Contain ".

A tentative outline of a " Core Course " was submitted to twenty-seven visual in-
struction teachers in a total of twenty-one states, representing all sections of the United
States. The letter which accompanied the outline asked that the person go over the mat-
erial and add or delete anything his judgment dictated. Eighteen usable replies were
received. In addition, the available mimeographed and printed courses of study in
visual instruction were used in making the final tabulations.

After the replies were in, the tentative outline was set up and a tabulation of frequen-
cies of the common elements for the course was made. This, then, gave a representative
topical outline for the core course. It is based upon what is being done at the present
time, and in addition, some elements to be introduced within the near future.

Content and method of all school subjects are the product of an evolution through,

— 761 —

(1) authority and opinion, (2) speculation, and (3) research. Visual instruction is no
exception to this rule. In many places and in a variety of its phases, visual instruction
is in the first stage. In other places and in certain phases, it has arrived at the third stage.
The ultimate goal is to determine scientifically, by research, the content and technique
for all the various phases of visual instruction .

While the submitted replies are " judgments ", these judgments in many cases are
based upon research studies made by the various individuals submitting the suggestions
and criticisms. They, therefore, lend weight to and assist in justifying the elements
included in the outline of study.

If visual instruction is to maintain its present standing and to take the forward
strides warranted, a determined stand must be taken upon certain questions. From
this point of view, the following declarations are made :

1 . The initial, core course in visual instruction should be mandatory and every
teacher in training for public school work should be required to take a laboratory course
in visual-sensory aids.

2. The course should carry three semester-hours of college credit. In the conduct
of the course, due consideration should be given to (1) Philosophy and psychology of
visual-sensory aids, (2) a technique for their use, and (3) skill in the use of the various
visual -sensory aids.

3. The Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education Association
is justified in an aggressive program which will see, within the next decade, a core course
in visual instruction in every progressive state.

4. A course for Directors and Supervisors is in the offing ; and special courses,
such as " Visual -Sensory Aids in Science ", etc., will become popular.

5. As other courses are developed, the core course as a separate course should
be insisted upon as a pre-requisite for the special courses.

I. — Name of Course : Visual-Sensory Aids in Education (Core Course) 3 hours
per week, 3 semester hours.

II. — General Description of the Course :

This course is based upon the philosophy that sensory experiences and mental
activities parallel each other in the learning process. Visual and other sensory aids,
therefore, should hold a major place in the teaching of practically all subjects and on all
levels of learning. To be a well balanced course and of the greatest value to prospec-
tive teachers and teachers in service, it should give training in and an effective technique
for the use of all types of visual-sensory aids. This core course should be mandatory
on the part of every person preparing to teach in the public schools. The course is
designed for the preparation of teachers of the various subjects, and should consist of
those elements common to practically every subject.

III. — Objectives :

1 . To learn the meaning of the common terms used in visual-sensory education.
Give the student a concrete and meaningful vocabulary.

2. The development of skill in selecting the suitable teaching aids from those
available for the teaching of a specific subject, or subject of a grade.

— 762 -

3. The developement of proper technique for the efficient use of all the various
teaching aids.

4. To provide the prospective teacher with a body of knowledge as well as to
direct acquaintance with useful sources of information which will be helpful in the teach-
ing of the various subjects of the curriculum.

5. To give the prospective teacher an understanding of the psychology under-
lying the visual-sensory aids concept.

6. To give training in the organization of the various visual-sensory aids for
the various subjects so that such aids may be on hand available and usable in the class-
room.

7. The development of a projection technique which will assure an efficient use
of all the teaching aids.

8. To give some understanding of administration and budgeting problems in-
volved in the visual -sensory aids program.

9. To acquaint the prospective teacher and the teachers in service with minimum
standards for visual-sensory equipment ; and standards for evaluating the various vis-
ual-sensory aids.

IV. Method :

The lecture-demonstration, discussion, and laboratory method will be used
throughout the course. Certain phases of the work can best be presented by the instruc-
tor in lecture demonstration form. Other phases lend themselves to other types of
teaching. Projects suitable for the various grades will be worked out by the group.
Emphasis will be placed upon suitable methods of presentation and ways of further stimu-
lating the interest of the students. The student will be taught how and when to use vis-
ual and other sensory aids. Maps, specimens, objects, models, the blackboard, projec-
tors, slides, films, field trips, etc., will constitute the materials of the course.

V. — Outline of the Course :

1 . Research-Summary of investigations.

2. Historical background.

3. Psychological aspects and verbalism.

4. Projection and projector techniques.

Still and motion ; housing, care, operation.

5. School journeys.

Organizing, conducting, checking results.

6. Objects-Specimens-Models.

7. Museum procedure.

8. Pictorial materials.

Standards for evaluating, mounting and filing pictures.

Housing and care of stereographs.

Making lantern slides.

Mending films and film-strips.

Housing and care of slides and films.

Techniques for pictorial materials.

763 -

9.
10.

12.

13.
14.
15.

16

Apparatus and equipment.

Representations .

Maps, charts, digrams, etc.

Miscellaneous.

Exhibits, sand tables, pageants, etc.

Photography.

Still and motion picture camera techniques.

Film, lantern slide and film-strip camera techniques.

Developing films, plates, and making prints.

Making blue prints.

Blackboard and bulletin board techniques.

Administering and budgeting visual-sensory materials.

Radio-vision.

Apparatus, procedures, programs.

Bibliography.

L la ingl.

DUBBING

By Eva Elie.

The problem of dubbing or duplicating a film, which it is useless to set forth in
this note, continues to arouse everywhere the liveliest controversies. It is a most admir-
able subject for dissipating apathy, reanimating discussion and proving to the readers of
newspapers or cinema review that criticism is never asleep.

What is it that its enemies charge against dubbing?

A serious accusation ; that the listeners hear certain words, while the lips of the
actors seen on the screen are engaged in pronouncing others.

This is true, but it is becoming less and less true. The progress of the sound film,
due to the union of the cinema and the theatre, is continuous. There have already
been screened films which satisfy all the demands of both sight and hearing from every
point of view. The German version of a Metro Goldwyn Mayer film " Die Freunde
Mutter ", played by American artists, is an example. Wallace Beery and Marie Dressier
play the leading parts, which, when dubbed, give, as far as the speech goes, the exact
impression of listening to any Hamburg sailor or any German woman of the people.
However the actors are seen, whether in close-ups or long shots, the words pro-
nounced in German by their doubles correspond perfectly to the lip movements of
the personage on the screen talking in English. The difficult moments have been
overcome by showing the actors in profile or making them speak from a distance.

In his paper, " Informations Cinegraphiques ", Jean Pascal speaks of another
dubbed film which has succeeded perfectly, namely" The Brothers Karamazoff ", adding,
however, that the dubbed film must always be considered an expedient, to help out the
momentary deficiences of the French production.

This point of view, though casting disapproval on the dubbed film, placing it on
the level of a tolerable substitute, is more to the point than all the accusations and
noisy protests used against dubbing which charge it with being a brain-muddling, incom-
prehensible mixture, a device insulting to the public, and so on. At any rate, I propose
to plead the cause of at least one section of the public which desires that dubbing should
continue. There comes to mind the case of that charming, American actress, with the
sweet, gazelle-like eyes, who, through the sound film, instead of allowing us to hear a
musical voice such as her appearance would lead us to expect, startled us with a rough,
rusty, almost timbreless voice. The result was a martyrdom even for the most indul-
gent section of the public, while for the artist, it was suicide, or at least moral suicide
and as far as Europe is concerned for the actress's fame as a star. In this case, would
it not have been much better to perform a work of charity for both listeners and ar-
tist, since, after all, art is a mixture of illusion and lies, and to dub her voice, lending,
her one such as the public wants to hear, and one suitable to her appearance and part ?

- 765 -

The process of dubbing, as I understand it, requires fine taste and an acute sense of
physical and vocal accords. It requires great skill, also, because the public ought to be
kept in ignorance of the subterfuge as it is of other film devices, and rightly so, since
the purpose of them is merely to add to the attractiveness of the picture. It would now
seem that anonymous dubbing is no longer possible, because the French Superior Cin-
ema Council has decided that " no dubbed film can be allowed unless the work of
post-synchronization has been carried out in a studio or studios situated in French
territory and unless it is shown to the public '" without any attempt to disguise the fact
that it is a dubbed film, carrying the indication of the country where it was originally made
the names of the artists who acted originally in the picture and the names of those who
dubbed the parts ".

In this fashion, the problem seems definitely settled, but not in the best way pos-
sible.

There is also the question of the sub-titles or running comment printed at the
bottom of the picture as was done, for instance, in " Sonny Boy ", and is still done with
success in some modern films as ' Girls in Uniform ". I recognize that this method
seems right when we are dealing with dramas or comedies of a typically national character,
which cannot, without becoming ridiculous be taken out of their natural living frame-
work. We cannot, for instance, imagine a Bancroft, in "Chicago Nights " speaking
French, or any other language save the slang of Chicago bandits. Nor can we imag-
ine a Napoleon speaking with the accents of a dweller in Whitechapel.

A third system is to substitute some artists by others, and to make as many versions
of the picture as it is desired to issue editions of the same. This method places in relief
the various characteristics of the races, unless there is an attempt to secure a uniformity
of style and a modelling of the successive artists on the actors who make the first version.
The contrasts thus obtained are not without interest.

In the film " L'Opera de Quat ' Sous ", it is easy to define the points which divide
two mentalities and two diverse methods of feeling and revealing such feelings. Charles
de St Cyr in " Semaine a Paris " though we no longer see his name in connection with
the piece — wrote a careful study on this film which went to show that while in the
French version of Pabst's picture the two principal actors Prejean and Florelle ac-
centuated the satirical side of the film, illustrating it in a French spirit, in the German
version, the actors, taking their roles more seriously, gave a certain dramatic heaviness
to the piece, which was much appreciated beyond the Rhine (1).

We may classify with this type of film " Arianne, Russian Girl ", with Elizabeth

(1) One wonders why " The Beggars' Opera " was not filmed in English with English actors, who
would have been able to render more exactly the inner sense and spirit of this English piece.

— 766 —

Bergner in the German version, and Gaby Morlay in the French edition. The plot here
could develop in any country, seeing that the little Russian student might go to any
foreign university, and as a consequence, speak the language of the country where she
was residing. It would have been a good plan to choose for the part of Arianne a real
Russian girl, since it could not be supposed that either a French or a German actress
could find in their spirits that indefinable sense of life of the Russian soul, which is
generally referred to as Slav charm.

Summing the matter up, if we cannot condemn outright the methods of dubbing at
present in use, which after all permit us to see and hear foreign works of art which is an
international things itself and only capable of improvement by contrasts, we must at
least exhibit great prudence in choosing the persons to carry out the dubbing. We should
safeguard the national character of the film as far as possible, because it is one thing to
translate a book, and a very different thing to present a film in a language different from
the original language of its makers, when such a film has about it all the evidences of
its originating country.

Film adaptors ought to have much tact and a wide knowledge of ethnography and
psychology.

(Translated from the French).

WHOLESOME FILMS FOR CHILDREN A GREAT
AND GROWING NEED

By Florence Jacobs

It is not easy to realize at the first casual examination the tremendous influence
which the motion picture of today exerts upon the child mind, yet investigators are
agreed that motion pictures constitute possibly, if not actually, the greatest influence
moulding the thought of the rising generation.

Of course, no one can reasonably demand that all motion pictures be constructed
to meet the needs of the twelve year old child. The primary purpose of motion pic-
tures is entertainment for the mature, and certain of life's problems and situations —
perhaps not just the thing for juvenile observation — must be pictunzed, if we are to
have any drama in our photoplays. If all pictures were made for the adolescent mind,
the grown-ups would not patronize the theatres, and if the theatres had to rely for their
maintenance upon the patronage of children, they would soon pass out of existence.
I think every thoughtful person will accept that situation.

What is the reason that motion pictures have such a tremendous influence upon the
child ? One of the most important reasons of course, is because the child mind is
so impressionable, so susceptible to the thousands of stimuli which daily make them-
selves felt on our growing children. In the plastic age, the child is engendering ideals,
morals, and aesthetic values, unconsciously building the foundation for his life's philo-
sophy. Because the motion picture registers its impression visually, it has a strength
and influence far stronger than the influence of written matter or oral teaching. Some
say the visual impression is five times stronger than the impression one receives from
reading. This applies to grown-ups as well as to children, but we may readily see that
the minds of children being plastic receive a terrific impact from the force created by
moving pictures.

Another important reason why the cinema is such a powerful influence is because
of its accessibility. Any child walking home from school must run the gamut of
enticing posters in his neighbourhood, and the admission prices being low, it is not
very difficult for children to save enough money to attend the picture show once, if
not two or three times a week, where he or she may be seated in a luxurious theatre
chair and loose himself or herself in the land of dreams and imagination which the
films offer.

Movies are entertaining, and of course that is the chief reason why they have such
a great influence upon our youth. Children have a tendency to classify their existence
into those things which are " fun " and those which are not " fun ". Movies naturally
come under the first classification, and that gives them a tremendous advantage over
school, reading, isteningto lectures or concerts or any other items which are usually,

- 768 —

classed as " no fun ". It is a known psychological fact that the plastic mind of the child
retains images and impressions more vividly than does the adult mind, and the most
difficult subjects can be made very attractive to them by use of the screen.

The child is a hero-worshipper and therefore it is essential that he be given real
heroes to worship. He loves adventure, mystery, thrills, and the two-gun man appeals
to the average boy and a modern drama to the girl, rather than fairy tales. Adventure can
be clean and lose none of its thrill or fascination. Heroes can be fine and manly and not
be weak, and pictures can be interesting, exciting and character-building for the child.

Of course our great need today is for a larger number of wholesome films for chil-
dren. We need pictures with a gleam in them, a call to higher things with chivalry
and romance which appeal to all of us. A good motion picture for children should
present first of all beauty, and it should lift the child out of himself, with the lifting up
that is the aim of all creative art. It should impart useful knowledge of the world, its
beauty, art, history, science, literature, etc., and sordid, ugly facts of life should not
be shown.

Pictures in which kindness to animals is exhibited, and pictures in which courage,
honesty, reverence and tolerance are interspersed with adventure, humor, romance, prin-
cipal and honor will appeal to children, and at the same time inculcate the proper ideals.

I think it is quite necessary that we teach children how to appreciate and judge
pictures, their plot with a view to discovering their logical denouement, cast, photo-
graphy, etc., etc. We should provide a time for a discussion of the movies, if possible
in the home, classroom or library, and I am looking forward to the time when such a
department will be a part of a child's study in school. It depends almost entirely
on what children are being shown and taught now whether or not they will make of this
world a better or a worse place in which to live. Is it not important then, that their
ideals be held as high as good books and pictures can hold them ? Consequently
there is a need for constant vigilance in production to see that only pure metal is poured
into the mould.

We need good pictures for children. A movement to tell stones wholesomely
and sanely would seem to me to promise very beneficial results properly influencing
the lives of children. It is one of our country's great needs.

It is not for the children of today alone that we want to create taste for the good
in pictures and in life, but for the children of generations to come. The motion pic-
ture can enrich and elevate children's taste and standards or do the other thing. The
cultivation of discrimination will make them eliminate the unworthy and take pride in
upholding standards they are not ashamed to see branded as American.

In the final analysis, the home must bear the ultimate responsibility for the movie
going habits of its children. The task for all people, especially for organized forces,
is that of forming good citizenship, and the motion picture industry with its audience
of millions daily, is one of the greatest potential forces. If the impressions made, ideals
formed and trends determined by pictures are such as to implant respect for national
ideals, observance of law, sanctity of home and integrity of character, then the world
will look upon motion pictures with gratitude and thanksgiving, and to this end, every
effort should tend toward the study of the child in its relation to the motion picture.

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

PUBLIC ATTENDANCE AT THE CINEMA

The problem of public attendance at the cinema has always been one of the chief
considerations of those who are interested in social questions connected with the film.
To consider if and how the phenomenon of the cinema is manifested extensively means,
as a matter of fact, considering it in its intensity. Either the film is a source of culture
and education for the masses, or it is a cause of danger. In either case, the degree of
public attendance at cinemas will be an informative element and a stimulant to those
states of well-being or spiritual ill health which may become tomorrow the determining
cause of an increase of intellectual culture or a moral degeneration of the people.

Statistics show some very remarkable figures regarding the attendance of the public
at the cinema halls. To limit our inquiry to one nation only, America, it is calculated
that 1 50 million spectators frequent the cinemas every week. How many of these spec-
tators are minors, and how they are divided among the sexes is not known exactly. In
any case, it is certain that the number of minors must be very high indeed. The workman
and the employee rarely go to the cinema on working days. They have other and
more serious matters to think of. The fatigue of their work makes them prefer rest
or other forms of amusement which help to give back strength to the body.

Children, on the other hand, have the cheapest and most varied forms of amusement
ready for their habits and desires that it is possible to imagine. The child can choose,
especially in the cities, from the various film programmes that which is best suited to his
inclinations and his spirit.

He does not care for the theatre, which requires a certain cerebral effort except when
it descends to the level of a pochade, or to the tiresome banality of ordinary commonplace
existence. He is by nature the enemy of lectures, concerts and all other manifestations
of intellectual life. The only competitor of the cinema for children is gymnastics. There
are no other attractions having even in appearance or partially, any spiritual value.

This is the essential motive, on account of which all persons or bodies which regard
safeguarding the souls of minors as the basis of their activity are much occupied in
examining the phenomenon of public attendance, which they study and consider carefully
in the light of statistics in order to be sure that such attendance may not be a peril in
itself.

* * *

The Rome Institute has set itself the task of discovering the practical value of the
question by means of its questionnaires and the replies from interested parties (1).

(1) The questions framed in the questionnaire were as follows : —

1 . Do you go often to the cinema ?

2. What class of cinema do you usually frequent? Popular? Medium class? Luxury class?

770 —

The Statistics of the inquiry.

As has been stated in the case of other inquiries and referendums published by the
international review, the data that follows refers solely to cinema attendances in Italy.
Reports referring to other countries will be published in due course.

The conclusions to be drawn from the inquiry can be deduced by the readers from
the figures and statistical tables shown in the previous study on the subject. In any case,
there is a brief summary of the figures at the end according to the criteria which the
I. I. E. C. has thought fit to follow, as the result of its researches.

The phenomenon remains what it is. The Rome Institute does not presume to
be in a position to formulate a definite thesis on the matter. It offers the study as a con-
tribution of work and thought to the difficult task of making a picture of our social life.

The questionnaires, distributed to the 742 elementary, middle and technical schools
comprised in the referendum, totalled 24,000.

Positive Questionnaires. — dealing with all queries in the inquiry numbered 18757-
Other answers have been eliminated, either because they were entirely negative to the
group of questions prepared, or because they contained erroneous, incomplete or other-
wise unclassifiable indications.

It may as well be pointed out here, once and for all, that a numerical correspondence
between the figures of the questionnaires (children questioned and number of positive
replies) and the figures of the individual questions, even in the matter of the occupational
categories of the parents, is impossible. Not all the questions were always answered,
and sometimes more than one reply was given. In the first case, the returns have
taken into account the individual positive replies ; in the second case, when the double
replies appeared interesting, account has been taken of them in the various queries.

For example, several children and young persons stated that they frequented both
popular cinemas and those of a medium category, without considering that the question
put forward by the I.I.E.C. was concerned with the habitual nature of the frequenting,
and required an answer in this sense. At any rate, even with these inexactitudes, the value
of the statistics remains unchanged. This is so both because the indication of the fre-
quency of attendance is more definitely made plain and also because while the positive
answers are in all, as has been said, 1 8,757, the actual number of those who did not answer
exactly to all the questions put, or answered in a double form is a negligible quantity,
when compared to the great mass which followed the criteria of the inquiry.

3. When do you go ? During the week or on holidays ?

4. Do you like going to the cinema? Why?

5. How many times a week or a month do you go?

6. Do you prefer to go in the afternoons or the evenings ?

7. Do you go alone or in company? If so, in whose company?

The first question, containing a generic question of the value of the theatrical cinema, and the fourth
query which requires an appreciative answer will be examined at the end of the present study.

With respect to question No 5, the examination of the answered questionnaires has revealed certain
difficulties of classification on account of the infinite variety of kinds of attendance indicated by the in-
quirees. We have, therefore judged it opportune to suppress the first part of the question, and to consider,
as will be seen in the text of this study, the frequency of monthly attendance.

- 771 -

To permit even a general study of the statistics furnished by the inquiry, it is ad-
visable to take account only of the data offered by one determined group which had the
smallest number of replies viz., 1 7,281 . This figure may in general be considered to
correspond with the actual number of students who replied with the minimum number
of variations, which in respect of the other group of questions, may be considered as
about one tenth of the replies obtained through the duplication.

Sex :

Boys 12,140 equivalent to 70.26%

Girls 5,141 « « 29.74 «

divided as follows according to the importance of the urban or rural centres where the
questionnaires were distributed :

Major Centres : Minor Centres :

Boys 9415 equivalent to 71.99% Boys .... 2725 or 64.84%

Girls 3663 « « 28.01 » Girls ... 1478 » 35.16 »

Major Centres : Minor Centres :

Boys Girls Boys Girls

10-12 years 2475 2673 1731 1064

13-16 « 2836 684 901 385

17 upwards 4104 442 93 29

Resultingly, we have, grouping together age and sex without taking account of
major or minor centres :

10-12 years Boys 4206 = 34.65% Boys Girls . . . 3737= 70.75% Girls

13-16 » » 3737 = 30.78 » » » . . . 1033 = 20.09 » »

17 upwards » 4197 = 34.57 » » » . . . 471 = 9.16 » »

The very high percentage of adolescents and youths of from 13 upwards — 65.35 %
— in comparison with the children under 12 is worthy of notice. In the case of the
girls, however, the proportion is completely reversed, for in this case the total of adoles-
cent girls comes only to 29.25 %.

Well Worthy of notice, in any case is the fact that 9438 of the young people interro-
gated out of a total of 1 7,281 , that is 54.62 %, were of an an age allowing them to reply
with greater exactness and sureness to the queries in the questionnaire.

In the matter of the occupations of the children's parents which was not always
indicated by the scholars, keeping as basis of the examination the figures resulting from
the fifth group of questions we have the following :

Boys Girls Total Percentage

Workmen . 3193 1379 4572 26.85

Agriculturists 1970 793 2763 16.22

Private Means . ' 868 260 1128 6.62

Employees 2894 1161 4055 23.81

Professional Men 1125 408 1533 9.00

Shop-keepers , . 2031 950 2981 17.50

772 -

Answers to the second question.

The second question placed before the students sought to ascertain what special
class of cinema they were accustomed to frequent.

A total of 18.749 answers were obtained to this question, divided according to sex,
age and place of residence in the following table.

Boys:

CLASS OF CINEMA

10-12 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Total

13-16 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Total

17 years upwards

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Total

Popular . .
Medium . .
Luxury class

Popular . .
Medium . .
Luxury . .

875
1310

67!

706
1431
833

906
624
188

1781

1934

859

657

1826

533

547

327

93

Girls:

1184

2153

626

1214
1984
1184

29

51

9

784

1490

120

165

285

40

19

341

1772

382

139

521

198

21

76

909

298

28

326

140

10

1243
2035
1203

59
219
150

For the second group of questions, we find about a tenth of duplicated answers (17281
questionnaire queries and 18749 replies).

The figures show proportionately certain specific characteristics, which it is essen-
tial to note :

Boys :

Girls :

Medium

Popular

Luxury

Medium

Popular

Luxury

10-12 years . .

. -. 42.29

38.93

18.78%

42.49

35.72

21.76%

13-16 » . .

. . 54.33

29.88

15.79 »

46.04

25.16

28.80 »

17 upwards

. . 45.41

27.74

26.85 »

51.16

13.79

36.05 »

Both boys and girls, and especially the latter, as they grow older tend to desert the
cheaper priced cinemas for the luxury ones. The medium class halls are preferred par-
ticularly by boys of from 13 to 16 years, while the girls frequent this category of cinema
less in proportion as they tend to drift towards more refined surroundings.

As to the centres from which the replies come the numerical and quantitative dis-
proportion between urban and rural centres in the matter of attendance at the better class
cinemas does not depend so much on economic reason as on the fact that in the country
districts luxury cinema halls are very frequently to be found. In small centres, then, we
find a great majority of attendances at the more popular type of cinema. This applies
to both sexes.

In fact, out of 2774 boys' answers from minor centres, 1482, that is 53.42 % favour
the popula cinemas as against 26.61 % for the larger centres. In the case of the girls, we
have: small centres, 61.15 % and larger centres, 20.68 %.

- 773 -

If we consider the occupations of the parents indicated in the second group of ques-
tions we have the following data :

Boys :

PARENTS- OCCUPATION

Emplys.

^gric.

Pvte Mns

855

510

910

133

252

261

Girls

353

103

321

87

134

85

Prof.

Shopkprs

at u ii Workmen

ass of Hall : _

Medium 1363

Popular 1614

Luxury 396

Medium 650

Popular 563

Luxury 165

According to the figures given by the professional categories, the following groups
of answers in direct and proportional figures are revealed : —

Cinema :

635

693

1072

722

176

494

785

385

551

713

187

452

272

98

242

464

170

335

Total

Popular

Medium

Luxury Class

Workers . . .

4751

2177 = 45.82%

2013 = 42.38

561 = 11.80

Agriculturists

2825

1231 = 43.55 «

1208 = 42.79

368 = 13.66

Private Means

1179

220 = 18.66 «

613 = 51.15

346 = 30.19

Employees . .

4591

994 = 21.66«

2348 = 51.13

1249 = 27.21

Professional Men

1709

274 = 16.03 «

880 = 51.49

553 = 32.48

Shop-keepers

3148

736 = 23.38 «

1526 = 48.48

886 = 28.14

The workmen and the agriculturists take the first place, with percentages that can-
not be beaten for attendance at the cinemas of a popular class, while the smallest atten-
dance at such entertainment halls is given by the children of men of private means and
the professional class, as might be expected. In the case of the cinemas of medium class,
the degrees of difference in attendance between the various categories is not in any way
remarkable. In the case of the luxury cinemas, on the other hand, the children of pro-
fessional men and men of private means appear as the greatest frequenters of this class of
cinema, as might very well be expected.

Another table, in decreasing ratio, shows the figures of attendance for two of the
classes of cinema under discussion.

Popular Cinemas :

Workmen 45.82%

Agriculturists 43.55 »

Shop-keepers 23.38 »

Employees 21.66 »

Private Means 18.66"

Professional Men 1 6.03 »

Luxury Cinemas :

Professional Men 32.48%

Private Means 30.19 »

Shop-keepers 28.14 »

Employees 27.21 >»

Agric altruists 13.66 »

Workmen 11.80 »

It is worth while noticing in this connection that the children of agriculturists and
workmen frequent the higher class cinemas about 50 per cent less than the sons of em-
loyees, and about one third less than the sons and daughters of men of private means
and professional men.

774 —

Answers to the Fifth Question.

One of the most interesting points to discover was the degree of frequency of the
attendance at the cinema. With this object in view, the fifth group of questions has had
as its purpose — seeing the numerical impossibility of arriving at subdivisions which
would have destroyed the value of the returns — the grouping together of the data
regarding monthly attendance in four distinct answers which are progressively an index
of the greater or less facility for seeing films.

The first table shows :

Boys:

MONTHLY ATTENDANCE

10-12 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Total

13-16 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Total

17 and upwards

Large Small
Centres Centres

Total

Less than twice . .

Twice

Four times ....
Eight or more times

Less than twice

Twice

Four times ....
Eight or more times

172

406

1330

567

175

696
1382
420

217
574
689
201

439

980

2019

768

87

349

1748

652

200
138

442
121

Girls

287

487

2190

773

121

958

2111

914

19

18

28
28

140

976

2139

942

320

495

27

108

135

2

7

317

1013

128

129

257

78

16

312

1694

305

126

481

188

5

115

535

138

22

160

74

1

94

193

75

Exactly 1 7,281 answers were received to this fifth group of questions, divided in the fol-
lowing manner :

Boys : Girls :

10-12 years 4206 3737

13-16 « 3737 1033

17 and upwards 4197 371

Considering individual questions and age, we find the following results :

Boys : Girls :

Monthly attendance (per cent)
Twice Twice 4 times 8 or more — 2 2 4 times 8 or more

10-12 years .... 10.43 23.30 48.01 18.26 13.25 27.10 45.34 14.31
13.16 « ... 7.68 13.03 58.6! 20.68 13.07 24.68 46.76 15.49

17 and upwards .. 3.33 23.25 50.98 22.44 2.42 25.33 52.04 20.21

Attendance at the cinema less than twice a month is progressively observable in a
very small class only. The frequency of attendance over eight times a month or twice
a week registers a constant progression. The middle figure for boys is practically
stationary, while in the case of the girls it shows a systematic tendency to increase.

775

It is worth noting that the youngest children of both sexes, that is children under
12, show a high frequency of attendance. Thus the boys go to the cinema from once
or twice or oftener a week in the proportion of 66.27 per cent and the girls of the same
age in the increased proportion of 59.65 per cent as compared to elder children.
As a general rule, girls frequent the cinema more often as they grow older in a bigger
proportion than boys.

Regarding the centres from which the answers come, we find the following table :

Boys :

Girls :

Large Centres

Twice 43 88

Twice 70.12

4 times 81.74

8 times or more 87.51

(per

cent)

Small Centres

L

irge Centres

Small Centres

56.12

31.92

68.08

29.88

66.13

33.87

18.26

81.29

18.71

12.49

82.08

17.92

Frequency of attendance shows a notable progression for the larger centres in
comparison with the smaller centres. The obvious logical explanation of this lies in
the fact that, while in urban centres, all or the greater part of public amusement halls
are open every day, in rural districts they are only open a few days each week or
month. The long hours attached to agricultural and operatives' labour, in the smaller
centres and country conditions generally contribute to explain the phenomenon.

In the matter of parents' occupations, we have the following table :

Monthly Attendance : Workmen

Less than twice ...... 303

Twice 721

4 times 1547

8 or mere times 622

Less than Twice 220

Twice 398

4 times 633

8 times or more 1 28

Boys :

PARENT'S OCCUPATION

Agric.

Pvte Means

Emplys.

Prof.

Shopkpi

122

35

206

63

128

515

131

490

256

327

940

514

1610

546

1148

393

188

588

260

448

Girls

91

22

133

36

120

172

92

317

126

250

461

101

464

155

419

69

45

247

91

161

The totality of the figures given by the occupational categories reveals the following
groups of answers calculated in figures and percentages :

Total

Frequency of Attendance :

■ Twice % Twice %

%

8 up

Occupations :

—

.

—

Workmen . . .

4572

523

11.43

1119

24.47

2180

47.70

750

16.40

Agriculturists .

2763

213

7.71

687

24.86

1401

50.72

462

16.71

Private Means .

1128

37

5.05

223

19.77

615

54.52

233

20.66

Employees . .

4055

339

8.36

807

19.91

2074

51.14

835

20.55

Professional . .

1533

99

6.46

382

24.91

701

45.74

351

22.85

Shop-kprs . . .

3001

248

8.26

577

19.22

1567

52.25

609

20.27

- 776 —

The lowest percentages of attendance not exceeding twice a month comes from the
workmen. In the matter of the more cultured classes, the highest figures come from
the children of professional men, while the workmen supply the lowest.

Frequency of Attendance :

Minimum

Average

Maximum

Less than twice

Four times

8 times or more

Workmen

Men of Private Means

Professional Men

Employees

Shop-keepers

Men of Private Means

Shop-keepers

Employees

Employees

Agriculturists

Agriculturists

Shop-keepers

Professional Men

Workmen

Agriculturists

Men of Private Means

Professional Men

Workmen

(to be cuntinued).

G. DE F.

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/. /. E. C. Studies

LANGUAGE - TEACHING AND THE TALKING FILM

INTRODUCTION

Understanding cannot be complete
without sensorial perception.

Leibnitz.

In the early days of the invention of cinematography during the last century, it
was first supposed that the importance of the discovery Would become more prominent
in the scientific field. Edison was of this opinion, whereas, as a matter of fact, the
cinema developed more particularly in the amusement and recreational field, and it
would seem today that nothing can alter this development. An analogous phenomenon
was witnessed when the sound film and the talking film were introduced, especially
during the period when these inventions had not yet surpassed the experimental labor-
atory stage. I will quote later on a portion of an article published in 1922, when, in
Europe at any rate, the development of the sound and talking film had not aroused
any great interest. In this article, the readers' attentions are drawn to the possible
utility of the talking film for teaching foreign languages. Today, now that even the
small cinemas offer the public sound and talking films, the idea of utilizing this magnif-
icent invention for scientific purposes has not entirely disappeared, and has indeed been
actually made use of in a number of interesting ways, although the chief interest of
the public is directed towards the sound and talking film as a form of amusement, which
view the trade endorses, believing it the only profitable way of using it.

In the following pages I will endeavour to illustrate a new method of teaching lan-
guages by means of the talking film. Though this method is based on scientific data,
and realized by rational methods, it is not my object to propose or recommend in any
way scientific films. We have to consider our pupils as coming from all classes of the
people, and therefore comparable, socially speaking, to the public of the cinema.

Although the general notion of our method of applying the silent and talking film
to the teaching of foreign languages is not entirely new, the manner of preparation and
its scientific bases are, nevertheless, innovations, and I am anxious to set them forth in
detail, because I hold that the moment has come to give them a practical application.

The essentials of a method lie in the results. Their very existence presupposes
that essentially practical researches have been sought for. Unfortunately I have not
yet been able to begin their practical application, and I must therefore limit myself
to a purely theoretical work: I trust, however, that this defect will not be too obvious,

Ice ingl.

— 780 —

as I have always taken practicality into consideration during my experimental re-
searches.

The study of a foreign language and the methods and new systems it was my
ntention to explain, as well as the notable pedagogic importance of such a system of
teaching attracted me to the work, and induced me to consecrate myself to it. It was
a difficult task, and I was aware of this from the very start, for not only did I not have
the possibility of carrying out my researches in a photographic laboratory, but I realized
that my knowledge of the technical and commercial aspects of the problem were very
incomplete. I may add that I made every effort to acquire by means of theoretical
researches the technical and practical notions that I lacked. Since, then, I have never
been able to consolidate theory with practice I am obliged to ask indulgence of the rea-
der if certain passages of this work dealing with technical questions are not set forth
as a competent expert would detail them.

I wish to be frank. It may be recognized that several defects of my work originate
from the fact that this problem is being examined for the first time and I may there-
fore have good hopes for the value of my description.

As will be seen from the material illustrated, I have intentionally contrasted the
mother tongue with foreign languages. Although the ideas contained in this introduc-
tion cannot be considered as forming part of a systematic method of teaching, I do well,
I believe, in dealing with them here. The comparative contrast of the mother tongue
with a foreign language has so lengthy a history that it has already a certain scientific
renown. Comenius, Rousseau, Diderot and Bassedow when dealing with the study of
languages insisted on the comparative study of the mother tongue and a foreign lan-
guage, and their deductions may be considered as being in agreement. Not only peda-
gogy, but also psychology has a notable part in these researches, because ever since
man has been capable of reflection, he has worked at the problem of languages. In
the course of studying them, it has been seen that the mother tongue only is strictly
and inseparably connected with all our being, that our character is expressed through
it, that it gives life to all sentiments and our intelligence, so that we really only think in
our own mother tongue. Further, our mother tongue enters into both our conscious and
subconscious being, and we even speak in it when we speak in dreams.

I have therefore thought it desirable to utilize in this work the methods, and in
part, the results of the psychology of the subconscious, in the hope that I may be able
to illustrate things which up to now have never been said.

In the chapter on the method of teaching, I have consecrated a lengthy section
to phonetics, that is, to pronunciation.

In this problem of the study of foreign languages, in itself complicated enough,
the greatest difficulty lies, without doubt, in the pronunciation. In any case, the difficulty
is one of method, for alphabets furnished with the most accurately chosen and studied
phonetic indications can only be used by persons who have had occasion to hear the lan-
guage under study actually spoken.

I have sought to divide the pedagogic from the methodical problem. As to the
educative value of foreign languages, enough has been said, and if I mention the matter
again, it is to demonstrate better still how, thanks to my new method, it is possible to
develop the conscience and the linguistic feeling even through the mother tongue. If

- 781 -

I succeed in realizing my purpose, I shall have helped to heal a deep-seated and pain-
ful sore in public education. A number of folk engaged in popular education in Ger-
man-speaking countries maintain that their language has been weakened and corrupted
by the quantity of words used in the various regions and by newspaper language to
the point that those for whom German was their mother tongue can now scarcely under-
stand each other. An attempt to remedy this evil is being made by means of a more
laconic verbal style, such as is observable in modern youth, due no doubt to a diffidence
and scepticism about the value of words.

In considering memory of which so much good and so much evil has been said, I
have thought it necessary to elaborate the problem, examining also the case of defective
memory in order to show the positive value thereof and the possibility of a methodic
use of it in connection with this study.

The fact that I have devoted an [entire chapter to publicity and organization
systems may cause some surprise, but we must remember that these are two important
elements of current life, for the purely theoretical side of pedagogic institutions needs
the interest and assistance of industrial organizations to attain the best results. I do
not believe that it is possible for the moment to obtain the help of these two forces, but
I trust that my work may succeed in interesting all those who have a theoretical or
practical interest in education. This is the object of my work.

In order to interest businessmen, I should have had to devote an entire chapter
to publicity and rational organizing systems, and explain the whole problem as it appear-
ed to me. I may repeat here what I said about technicalities : the popular education-
alist cannot be expected to understand and take account of the technique of advertising.

It may be argued that beside the aid of the pedagogues and the businessmen, the
assistance of the technicians is also indispensable. Though no technician myself, I
firmly believe in the progress of technique, and recall that in reviewing the book " Der
sprechende film "of Denes von Mihaly, the review Kinotechnik (1928 number 6,
page 168) said that "although this book only appeared a year ago, the cinema press
has already rendered public a whole series of new systems ".

The non-experts are inevitably of the opinion that the task of making all necessary
progress can be left with the greatest tranquillity to the technicians.

It has been a great advantage for my work to have brought it to a conclusion in
Paris, where I had the opportunity of following the phonetic courses of Professor Pernot,
and where I was able to consult the entire French bibliography dealing with the
subject.

The following introduction must be my opportunity of examining and detailing
a whole series of fundamental points of my method of teaching as, for example, who are
the persons for whom it is intended, what must be the development of the film, and
especially the animated drawing film, what is its function in the method.

Before going further into the matter, I should like to quote certain authors and
certain works and to indicate some principles which show how a question which has
already a past should be treated.

Towards the end of the last century the French physicist Georges Demeny discov-
ered an apparatus capable of making language audible to deaf mutes, to which he gave
the name of Phonoscope. Demeny explained in the review « La Nature » (1892,

-782-

page 31 1) the construction and working of this apparatus, adding, as a result of his
experiments on three deaf mute children, the following observations :

" One of the children was immediately able to read the photographed phrase . . .
the value of the experiment cannot be denied because the student had no previous know-
ledge whatever of the sentence. The movements of the mouth occurred in perfect
synchronization with the movement of the handle which worked the disc bearing the
images. When I slackened the movement, the child also slowed up the rhythm of his
reading. When I stopped the mechanism, the child also stopped ".

The talking photographs of Demeny are a long way from the talking film, but, all
the same, the suggestive method appears in them. This process, although very im-
perfect, excites the desire to imitate which is so important in the study of languages,
whether we refer to our mother tongue or to foreign languages.

In 1922, A. Sluys published a small volume entitled " La Cinematographic scolaire
et post-scolaire ", wherein the pedagogic method of M. Collette director of the Etienne
Marcel School of Paris was dealt with. M. Collette used to show short films to his
pupils and afterwards insist on them recounting what they had seen. He attributed a
special importance in this exercise to the exactitude and precision of the language em-
ployed in making the descriptions. The exhibition of these films could be repeated as
often as was necessary. It was the teacher s task to point out to the pupils the precise
terms and the best words to use in describing the film action, eliminating vague or
unsuitable expressions which as often as not are due to imperfect observation. Collette
carried out an excellent pedagogic work with this method, which is well worth while
being mentioned again, because it contains in it the idea of teaching the mother tongue
by means of the film.

Sluys is of opinion that the film can be utilized to a great extent in teaching foreign
languages, and sets forth in this connection the following statement, qualifying it, how-
ever with a perhaps : " One might perhaps also work with talking films which would
one allow one to repeat the lesson as often as necessary. Here is the principle of a method
which could very well be experimented. " Sluys' idea was a good one, but the point
of continual repetitions of the film seems a doubtful advantage.

The sound and talking film enjoys considerable use in the scientific field today.
The Phonetic Institute of the University of Paris possesses a certain number of talking
films. The sound film has also developed the teaching of music in many parts of the
world, but all this development has always been restricted to a limited circle of listeners.
In Europe, as far as I know, the talking film has not yet been utilized on any consider-
able scale as a means of teaching and education.

It may well be that this depends not only on the high cost of this new system but
also on the sense of boredom and tiredness which is given by the expression " instruc-
tional film ". The educational film is, in fact, generally considered monotonous and
of little effect. Consequently, the recreational film will always maintain its super-
iority from the point of view of attractiveness, which is all right if an artistic
character can be assured it. It is, however, certain that the educational film would
have a larger number of supporters if, as Sluys points out, it were not always made
with a rigid sense of economy. It is clear that the public accustomed to find in re-
creational films the most ingenious devices and the prodigality of a superb mise-en-scene

— 783 —

is struck by the poverty of educational films, which could certainly be produced in a more
attractive manner. No spectator likes to see economy in a spectacle purporting to have
an artistic or even simply a cultural purpose. I have no intention of going deeper
into this aspect of educational cinematography. I only wish to show that my method,
although concerned with the film as a means of education, has nothing in common
with the instructional film as such, and consequently has nothing to fear from the sense
of boredom and diffidence which surrounds it. The system is not specifically concerned
with teaching, because, on the contrary, our method and our public have quite different
aims, namely the study of a language. This aim is naturally a much more clearly
defined one that of a public which goes to a cinema, for instance, to see the life of
the star-fish. Moreover, in my method, as I have said, animated designs can be used
which never give rise to dangerous confusion. We are dealing with something quite
different from the film used in schools, where the fundamental idea is to project on
the screen what cannot be seen directly in nature. Thus a film of this kind will show
the flight of a bird, but no teacher will project a simple picture of a swallow which can
be observed directly in nature. The teaching film is always and everywhere a lesson of
things, and it is not our intention to give lessons of things, because we take for granted
that our students have a general knowledge of a practical order, and are free to devote
themselves to the learning of languages.

The peculiar atmosphere in which the instructional film operates will allow us to
draw some precious deductions therefrom for our own work. The spectators at our
spectacles, whether adults or adolescents, must not ever be given the impression that
they are being treated like children and shown films of an inferior nature. This idea
would inevitably have dangerous consequences. Economic notions such as require the
use of reduced size film should not be allowed to enter into the case, even if one forgets
the fact that reduced size films cannot be used for performances for more than 200 people.
Who will benefit from this type of teaching can easily be decided by establishing catego-
ries among the pupils, according to the professions to which they aspire, according to
their age, sex, and social class both past and present.

It must be insisted on that this system is essentially a practical one. We want
to teach people to speak. Is it possible to teach a language ? Does a language as such
and in itself really exist ? This is one of the principal ideas of Fritz Mauthner is
his work " Beitrage zu einer Kritik der Sprache", which sets out to show that a language
has no existence of its own. He maintains right through his work that "...the similitude
between walking and talking would become clearer if we consciously substituted for the
abstract word language the active verb to speak "•

If therefore we state that we desire to teach speaking it is to indicate and, here I
cite the testimony of Mauthner, that this alone can be taught. Several people believe
they have learnt a language when they can understand those who speak it or can read
or understand books in the language. There is naturally a large number of linguists
who have a very extended knowledge of a language without being able to speak it
fluently. My method is not directed to those who do not take an interest in the scien-
tific study of foreign tongues. My object is strictly practical : to teach how to speak.

A modern grammarian, Julius Schmidt in his work " Methodik der franzosische
Unterriches " states that " until a person is complete master of a language, he will not

- 784 —

be able to understand fully any text. He who does not feel the harmony, or the strength,
and realize within himself the value of every expression would do better to avail himself
of a simple translation ". This seems to be the correct point of view in the matter.
At the same time, everybody ought to convince himself personally of the correctness of
this way of thinking. It is not in any way my intention to force anyone to share my
opinions, but I only wish to affirm that practically my one desire is to teach how to
speak and consequently whenever the occasion arises, I shall say " learn to speak "
rather than ' learn a language '.

A question that is often put is what is the best age for the study of a foreign
language.

Much has been said on the great adaptability of children and their capacity to
retain words and fragments of sentences, and from this people have sought to prove
that childhood is the age when the study of languages should be begun. I must cite
here Jean-Jacques Rousseau who was of a contrary opinion when he observed : " It
may cause surprise if I say I count the study of languages among the many useless things
in education, but it should be remembered in connection with this that I am speaking
of early studies. Whatever anyone may say, I do not think that up to the age of 12
or 1 5 any child, apart from so called infant prodigies, has ever learnt two languages . . .
For the child everything can have a thousand different signs, but every idea can only
have but one form for him. The child can therefore only learn to speak one language.
Notwithstanding this, he appears to learn several, but I deny it. I have seen little
prodigies who supposed they could talk five or six languages. I have heard them talk
successively German, French and Italian, but although they used different words, they
Were speaking German all the time. In other words, give children as many synonyms
as you like, you will change the words, but not the language, and the children will only
know one tongue '.

I have accepted Rousseau's opinion as my own, but I should like to add one thing.
If children learn more than one language through practising in actual life and not through
one or more teachers' voices, as often happens with children who live near a two lan-
guage frontier, it will actually be possible for them to speak several languages, and it
will be no longer right to assert that they have merely learnt a number of words
by memory. Here, as in all other cases, the school can never take the place of life and
its power of making impression.

What has been said regarding children's memory and the motives for making them
learn several languages requires a little further explanation.

In his " Schulpadagogik ", Georges Simmel admits that the potency of the memory
increases with age, and only undergoes a certain arrest in its development during the age
of puberty probably owing to the increased intensity or the sentimental life at this per-
iod. He writes : " The memory for words which have a sentimental value is much
stronger than for figures ". When Simmel speaks of words having a sentimental value,
he is thinking probably of words which recall personal experiences, of poems read by
children and similar things. We can demonstrate as a matter of fact how, by means
of the system to which we have referred, it is possible to give methodically a sentimental
value to the words of a foreign language.

Apart from the intellectual dispositions of the pupils, we must also think of their

— 785 —

physical and organic conformation. The accustomedness to the sounds of the mother
tongue logically increases with age, and the difficulties of adapting oneself to the sounds
a foreign language also naturally become greater. The elasticity of the organic vehicle
of speech, too accustomed to form certain sounds, loses its quality and capacity bit
by bit. On account of these declining faculties of hearing and adaptability of speech,
it would seem that the best period to learn foreign languages is before one has reached
thirty years of age. General considerations of this kind have only slight importance, it
is evident, when one is in the presence of really exceptional talent, but on general lines,
it may be said that the most favourable age for the study of foreign languages is between
16 and 30.

Which class can be said to furnish the best pupils ? I remember that in compos-
ing this work I was anxious to create a method that should be, as they say in France,
within everyone s reach. I am firmly convinced of the educative value of linguistic
studies, and I forsee a social result of the highest importance for them, but I intend to
consider them especially from the point of view of popular education.

It is clear that this method does not pretend to supplant or replace the personality
of those eminent teachers of whom Herder said that each one had a method of his own.
But how many of these masters are there, and how many pupils do they teach ? I
have often had occasion to talk with young workers of both sexes, fervent students of
evening courses for the study of foreign languages. The greater part only repeated and
imitated what had been shown or said to them. Schmidt whom I have already quoted,
has observed that students copy the linguistic technique of the teacher. The basic idea
which has guided me in preparing my method of teaching by means of the talking film
has been to insist on competent and suitable teachers for all the nations of the world.

It may be objected that the same method is not practical for a notary and a
workman. This is true for the great majority of usual methods. But the use of the film
will lead to such transformations of method that I believe it to be perfectly possible to
teach individuals coming from the most opposed social conditions the same method with
equal success. The fact can be verified also in the case of radio. It will be seen later
on that my method makes large use of the history of linguistic teaching. Everyone is
interested in the historical development of words as I learnt during a series of conferen-
ces given in the most dissimilar surroundings. But the comparative study of the ele-
ments of language is another thing. In order that such a study may have a fruitful result,
it is necessary for the student to possess at least the elements of various other languages
in order to arrive at his comparison . Consequently, the comparative study of languages
cannot be immediately introduced into my method. It will become necessary to organize
various courses as, for example, courses of English for the young people who know Ger-
man, and other courses for the young folk who do not know this language.

The proportion of individuals adapted to the study of languages is also an important
consideration. Is it generally possible to count upon a good number of pupils who may
be considered suitable ? Even without consulting the psychologists, it seems quite
clear to me that in our times only a very small number of persons are likely to have
the special aptitudes required for the study of languages. The keenness for technical
studies does not accord well with a desire to study languages. In comparison with the
humanistic epochs, our century dedicates a very small interest to the study of languages.

— 786 —

The greater part of those who today learn foreign tongues choose these studies for prac-
tical reasons, which gives a decisive importance to the question of time — " When shall
I be able to speak this language ? " I propose to deal later on with this anxiety for an
immediate and practical result, which governs the prosecution of the lessons, even from
the first moment, and considerably hinders their natural development. It will be easy
to show how the film allows one to make methodical use of this inclination towards
immediate results which is so characteristic of our epoch.

Psychologists' researches confirm our doubts concerning the gift of tongues. Nets-
chajeff made a series of experiments on over 1 00 students from 11 to 19 years of age to
examine in what way they learnt by memory. It is sufficient to point out that only
5 % of the individuals examined belonged to the category of the so called " acoustic
motors ", whose auricular muscles and organs are especially adapted for study and more
markedly for the study of languages.

Unfortunately Netschajeff's experiments cannot be considered conclusive. First
of all, they were limited to subjects of between II and 19, while according to my theory
the most important period in this connection is between 15 and 30. Moreover, they
only take into account the memory side of learning a language, mechanically as it were,
which does not permit a profound and complete study of any tongue. In any case, even
if this way of looking at the matter shows a low percentage, the number of persons who
can be considered as having the requisite gifts for the study of foreign languages cannot
certainly be considered to be very high.

The fact is that the moment has not yet arrived to issue a definite opinion on the
question. Numerous students of the question of foreign tongues have attributed great
importance to visual perception, while the moment in which the organic faculties offer
the maximum degree of adaptability is always neglected, very often because it is from the
methodical point of view difficult to ascertain. What is necessary is to create a method
which will utilize and educate at the same time the sight and the hearing, so as to arrive
at conclusive results for the study of languages. Consequently, our task should be made
as easy as possible, beginning by attracting attention to teaching. It is a matter of small
concern that from the philosophic point of view it can be maintained that the concept
attention is not yet well defined.

Fritz Mauthner in his Philosophical Dictionary observes that : " All attempts to
define the substantive attention have proved useless, because nobody has been able to
determine whether this concept indicates a state or an activity, a passive or an active
element ".

Even if difficulties do exist in defining this term, it is perfectly clear, however, that
the attention does exist, and that we must take account of it without concerning our-
selves overmuch as to its philosophic value. The attention of adult pupils can be gained
in the same way as the attention of children, for anyone who is learning to a certain extent
behaves like a child. Experience and experimental pedagogy teach us that children s
spirits are attracted to perceptible things, and consequently it becomes necessary to pro-
vide, even for adult pupils, the largest possible number of perceptible things to encour-
age the sense of sight. Moreover, we should not seek to arouse the pupils attention
by means of familiar intimations but rather through surprises. The cerebral work of
repetitions and learning lessons at home will provide them with plenty of solid labour.

- 787 —

It is not absolutely certain that the French philosopher and pedagogue Edouard
Claparede is right when he maintains that spontaneous attention on the part of students
produces an increased clarity of impressions. I should be very glad if this view could
be proved to be correct. Arguing from the point of view that one learns with greater
ease when the attention is intense and has nothing to distract it, may people prefer
individual teaching, urging that the link between the teacher and the pupil should be
so intimate that nothing should be allowed to interrupt it. This may be true, and
we should in connection with this draw the reader's attention to a very special advan-
tage of the cinema teaching method which anyone can establish for himself by going into
a darkened cinema hall and seeing a projection. Unconsciously the film will seem to
be directed to him alone personally, whence we may take it for granted that the in-
tensity of the public's attention in a cinema is greater than in a theatre, where the words
cannot always be perfectly heard and where therefore the conscious activity of the brain
undergoes a heavier strain. Our method must then take advantage of this particularity
of the cinema, this impression that the film is addressing itself to each individual person
as in a private lesson.

The feeling of being part of a group is not lost however, in a darkened hall which is
occasionally illuminated. This feeling shows itself in the more important passages of
the film by means of laughter, applause and even cries of disapproval . The cinema where
the film creates at one and the same time the feeling of isolation and the sense of form-
ing part of a group can in our case possess all the advantages of both private and group
teaching. This kind of teaching is not comparable with that given to a class or course
for adults. In this former type of teaching there could appear phenomena of collective
psychology and not crowd psychology. Subtle and not easily perceptible sentiments
which disappear in a room even badly lighted.

What type of film is it proposed to use in our teaching method ? Chiefly anim-
ated drawing films which have a place already in the story of teaching. Commandon,
one of the leaders of the French cinema movement, claims to have been one of the
first to utilize animated drawings in the field of pedagogy.

Many reasons militate in favour of the use of the animated drawing film, several
of which are of a material and practical order. Konrad Walter, who has translated into
German, modifying certain passages, the book by the American F. G. Lutz on the ani-
mated drawing film, says that this type of film can be made with relatively simple
technical means. He points out also that the length of a comic film, that is 150
metres, can be obtained with 8000 photograms, which as they only differ one from
another in part only require some hundreds of drawings, which would appreciably
reduce the cost of the film. The talking animated drawing film costs nevertheless more,
even if no special devices are used. In order that the method may not rapidly lose
its value, the films must not be used as a cheap suppplement to any ordinary cinema
programme but should form part of the principal item. (See chapter on Publicity and
Organization of Teaching).

Not only reasons of a material and practical order, however, counsel the use of
animated drawings. In his book " Le Cinema'et l'ecole ", Ernest Savary says : " The
film produces a livelier reaction than either the teacher's word or the sight of a book,
or a theatre, or the reading of a romance, because it requires but a minimum of effort

— 788 —

and economizes mental labour ". Neither in this case do I propose to accept offhand
so definite a statement. It is true that the film produces a profound impression, in
general, equally as vivid as the teacher's word — though this depends on the teacher —
but it is still truer that the animated drawing which is simple, and therefore well fitted
to make an impression, saves considerable mental effort, which renders it preferable
in pedagogy to the ordinary film.

There is another and more important reason for proposing the use of the anim-
ated drawing. Our task consists in is keeping the attention and will to learn active
through the acoustic apparatus, because the optical side and the image only form a sup-
plementary element to purpose. The film, however, must satisfy all the things required
of these supplementary elements that it must render the greatest amount of service
with the least effort. In other words, it must in our case provide as much pleasure as
possible, and keep the attention alive without unduly absorbing it. This can easily
be the function of the animated drawing, which also lends itself easily to comic effects,
which are useful in certain phases of teaching.

The comic element, however, it should be remembered, is a thing to be used with
considerable prudence, and we must not confuse the animated drawings films with the
comic films of the public cinemas. Simmel has stated in the work before referred to :
" After an interesting anecdote, a diminished attention for the teaching that follows
is observable, for the excitement still continues, and prevents the teaching having its
full effect ".

We have said that the film easily arouses the attention required for study. Without
pretending to define the word attention, it may be said to be an inclination to assimilate
certain concepts and a state of mind at the moment of such assimilation. It has there-
fore a present and a future aspect. Perhaps the difficulty of defining the attention derives
from the co-existence of these aspects, which have their values at different moments.
When we speak of the attention, saying that the film easily holds it, we are thinking of
its present aspect and of the excitement which is produced by the reception of the sen-
sations. With regard to its future aspect, it would be better to speak of it as disposi-
tion, and the expression disposition to learn would then be perfectly in place. A con-
cept closely connected with disposition is inclination. One's task indeed is to lead the
pupil towards comprehension, to awaken in him the sense of understanding. That
which the pupil understands gives him a sense of satisfaction, and prepares his mind
and increases his receptivity for further lessons. This preparation permits him to
understand better.

One of the major pedagogic advantages of the film would appear to be its great
capacity for creating dispositions. Dominating as it does time and space, it can connect
material and spiritual elements, thanks to which, without the intermediary of any ex-
planation, it arrives at creating dispositions or states of mind. This especially depends
on its representations of movement and its creative faculty, which is so close to the
spectator's creative faculty as to able almost to take its place.

Better to understand this point, it will suffice to quote one example. Suppose
the numbers up to twelve have been taught a few moments before an interruption.
After the interruption, the twelve numbers are shown, written one after another on
a circular surface. They will be read attentively just because they are marked on a

— 789 —

circular surface. When the number three is written after number two, and four after
five and so on, everyone will suppose that the face of a watch is being illustrated, and
we shall obtain what we have already called the disposition to learn. Understanding,
attention, inclination and curiosity are awakened at the same time by this pedagogic
procedure. It may be added that in the instance taken, the effect will be greater
if the numbers are written one after another not quickly, but very slowly, so that
the pupils have, without noticing it, a little pause before learning the next object, which
must be presumed to be unknown to them at that particular moment.

When I said that thanks to the film it is possible to teach simultaneously a man
of the people and a lawyer, I was thinking of this creation of special dispositions
for the film, which can be provoked in any individual.

In dealing with the film, I do not urge an exclusive use of the cinema. If we were
fanatics, we would cast aside every possibility of another kind of aid to visual teaching.
But we do not intend to limit ourselves to a formal dogmatism. We only desire to set
forth our system, and hoping to have made it clear, we assert the usefulness of the
film and especially the animated drawing film, which is of the greatest interest for
teaching foreign languages.

To show an inclination towards a direct method does not mean to confine one-
self solely to films. In agreement with the majority of pedagogues, we are of opinion
that the film ought to be used for showing movement, and the still projection for illus-
trating objects in repose.

To teach in a new language the words walk, run, jump, we should use the animated
drawing film, but to teach, for example, the names of the various parts of the human
body, fixed projections would be better suited.

The same thing happens or ought to happen in the matter of the exclusive use
of a foreign language. In the following chapter, I will show why I think it necessary
to prepare the student with an introductory conference in his own language. I will
demonstrate that there are some moments when the mother tongue must be used.

The moment has not arrived to proceed to the examination of these details, im-
portant though they are for our purpose. I shall deal with them later on. Dogmatism
has little to fear from the realization of this method of teaching and I am sure I shall
have the collaboration, both of the pedagogues and of industry, which has certainly
no particular liking for negative absolutism.

(to be continued)

F. JiJER Marbach.

— 790 —

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Legislation

THE CINEMA CENSORSHIP IN THE REPUBLIC OF COSTA RICA

Working of Censoring office. — Though
in the republic of Costa Rica, there is no
complete legislative system for the censorship
of films, there exists, all the same a censor
charged with examining the theatrical and
film productions. In general, the censor's
work is relatively light, for there is no
local film industry, and almost all pictures
arrive after having already passed through
the censorship of the nations producing
them in Europe or the United States.

The only legislative measures which touch
the work of censorship indirectly, but are
really more especially concerned with safe-
guarding children's morals are those con-
tained in the decree of July 1, 1920, N° 108,
later modified by a circular of the governor
dated May 23, 1924.

The fundamental rule is that all films
destined for public exhibition must be exam-
ined by the censor, or, failing him, by the
governor of the province. The censor
must decide which films are suited to the
special mentality of children.

There is, therefore, no possibility of ban-
ning films by the executive organs unless
the intervention of the police is invoked
for reasons of public order (internal policy)
or on account of danger to good internat-
ional relations (foreign policy). The cen-
sor must limit his activity to establishing
two categories of shows, afternoon and
evening. The first are open to everyone,
including children, while the second class
is only available for adults.

The Seen and considered " and the
" Whereas " preambles to the decree of
July 1 , 1 920 are worthy of note, and explain
its purport.

" Whereas children, without any restric-

tion, frequent cinemas day and night, either
alone or accompanied by adults ;

" In view of the fact that the type of spec-
tacle given in the theatres and cinemas is
not submitted to any previous censorship
and therefore there is nothing to prevent
children attending unsuitable shows that
take no account of the respect due to minors,
and give them mistaken and terrible pictures
of life . . . This is partly the fault of the
business houses, which are anxious to fill
the cinemas and theatres, and partly the
fault of the parents, tutors or others having
the care of children who do not understand
their responsibilities or the damage which
may come to children from negligence in
controlling their attendance at public shows"
Another section of the preamble reads :

The frequent attendance of children at
these spectacles accustoms them to vice,
to a soft life, and to luxury, and alienates
them through feelings of disgust and laziness
from that austere disciplined form of life
which shapes the honest and laborious ci-
tizen . . .

" The ordinary representations of Apa-
ches, detectives, crimes and more or less
immoral loves falsify the spirit of children,
pervert their hearts, and make them live
in a fantastic, unreal, complicated world,
amid all the excesses of humanity, among
manifestations of strange sentiments likely
to destroy illusions. Such pictures of life
can check the growth of idealism by a
premature and badly understood knowledge
of life, which in such cases should be seen
only by the adult and not by children ....

" The child's physical and moral health
must be maintained and developed in suit-
able surroundings. During the night, the

— 794

child should sleep in order to preserve its
energies and to calm the excitements of its
delicate nervous system, in order not to harm
its physical development and to be fresh
and ready for its duties in the mornings . . .

Criteria of the Censorship. — Following
the clearly and definitely expressed principle
that maxima debetur puero reverentia, the
chief classes of films to be rejected by
the censorship come under the following
headings :

a) those which have an obviously im-
moral or sensual character, such as make
them suggestive and dangerous for children's
spirits,

b) those which deal in or exalt crime,
or put criminals forward as heroes or at
any rate in a sympathetic manner. De-
tective films come under this ban.

Working of the Censorship. — Practically,
the decree of 1920 is carried out in the
following way ;

a) minors of 14 years or less can only
attend day-time cinema performances, be-
tween 7 and 8 in the evening ;

b) during this time, only films strictly
adapted to the mentality and spirit of chil-
dren are to be given ;

c) notwithstanding that the films shown
come under the qualification of films for
children, the police or government authori-
ties can always modify the performance,
substituting other films for those being exhib-
ited by the cinema owner or lessee.

d) day-time shows must also be ap-
proved by the censor of theatres, or by the
governor of the province, and must bear a
notification of such approval;

e) non-observance of the obligations
imposed on exhibitors by the decree of the
censor or his representatives will imply var-
ious penalties, including suspension for
different periods of the license to exhibit
films or give theatrical performances.

*

Official reports, communicated directly
to the Rome Institute inform us that a

bill is under consideration to settle in a
definite manner the question of the atten-
dance of minors at theatres and cinemas.
In any case, as a provisory measure, the
rules and regulations here summarized
indicate the clear and lofty intention of the
Costa-Rica government authorities to safe-
guard the spirit and mentality of children.

The legislation of the Republic of Costa
Rica, in connection with the censorship,
show its value by its simplicity. Rather than
create a mere film censorship, the authori-
ties have attempted to improve on the Bel-
gian method and enforce a system which safe-
guards the spirit and mentality of minors,
leaving adults to exercise their own respon-
sibility of self-criticism and self-control in
deciding what spectacles they shall or shall
not visit.

We have said an improvement on the Bel-
gian system. In fact, the Costa Rica Repub-
lic does not concern itself with deciding
which spectacles are suitable for minors by
means of the usual posters and signs, " Chil-
dren not admitted ", etc. Such signs are now
out of date, and only constitute an incitement
to break the regulations. It does not even
classify any particular number of films as
being " Suitable for Children " or " suitable
for young people ".

All it does is to divide clearly and logically
cinema shows into two classes, " afternoon
performances " and " evening performan-
ces '. In the case of the former, only shows
recognized as being fit for children may be
given. If adults like to attend these per-
formances, so much the better for them
from the moral point of view. In the even-
ing, children and adolescents are not allowed
to frequent the cinema, while adults can see
whatever shows they like, according to their
way of thinking.

The regulation is a good one from the hy-
gienic point of view also, in respect of the
health of minors, who have not only the
right but the absolute need of repose.

The system of control thus excogitated
proves in its great simplicity and practicality
to be one of the best in existence today.

— 795 -

THE CINEMA CENSORSHIP IN THE REPUBLIC OF SAN SALVADOR

In the Republic of San Salvador, there
is no single law dealing solely with cine-
matographic censorship, but there does
exist a general group of regulations (issued
on July 26, 1923) on the control to be
exercised on public spectacles.

The authorization of the censorship com-
mission must be obtained in advance for all
kinds of public performances, after which
a permit will be granted by the local mun-
icipal authorities.

Censorship Commission. — The examina-
tion of cinema films is entrusted to censor-
ship commissions, formed of a variable
number of councillors, according to the
number of public places of amusement in
the cities or districts where such commis-
sions operate.

The censors are nominated by the polit-
ical governors in the chief towns of depart-
ments and the heads of the municipalities in
the minor centres of the republic. Once
the nominations have taken place, the names
of the censors must be notified to the local
authorities and to the impressarios of public
amusements.

In order to be a candidate for the post of
censor, the applicant must.

1) be over 25 have a good reputation,
and have his residence in the place where the
duties of censor are to be exercised ;

2) have sufficient culture and taste to
judge the works submitted to him compet-
ently;

3) not have any degree of relation-
ship with theatrical or cinema impressa-
rios, nor have capital invested in any such
enterprises.

The censors remain in office for two years,
and are eligible for reelection for a similar
term, if they have carried out their duties
in a satisfactory manner.

In those places where no censorship
commissions exist, the work of censoring

will be carried out by a municipal councillor
chosen by the city council.

Rules of Censoring. — The censors must
witness an exhibition of the films under
consideration and are obliged to make a
written report to the Chief of the Munic-
ipal Council on its artistic value and on
the interest it may arouse in the public.
They must then also classify the film it being
considered according to the value they place
on it, that is N°. 1 , if it is considered ex-
cellent, No. 2, if good, and No. 3 if only
of medium value, No. 4 if not good, and
No. 5, if reprehensible. When the film is
ready for public exhibition, the censor must
indicate the category assigned on the side
of the picture.

The basic criteria which guide the cen-
sors in judging films are to reject at once
films which on account of their immoral
content or for the dangerous political ideas
they contain are capable of causing more
harm than benefit to the public.

One censor at least must attend the per-
formances of every show given in the theatre
for which he is responsible.

The censors are under obligation to see
that the regulations are properly enforced,
giving notice within 24 hours of every in-
fraction of the laws which they observe.
It is also part of their task to see that the
cinema operator projects the film in a pro-
per fashion, and they have power to suspend
a picture when they see that the projection
is not taking place in a technically correct
manner.

The censorship commission must note in
a register kept for the purpose all films
examined by them, with indications of the
parts composing such films and with a brief
note of the same and a comment on the parts
censored.

The authorization to project a film is
given in writing by the Head of the municip-

4 Ice ingt.

- 796 -

ality after the approval of the film by the
censorship commission.

Minors. — Children of less than five
years are not admitted to any spectacle what-
soever, while children of less than ten are not
permitted to go to evening performances.
During the afternoon performances, to
which minors are admitted, the programme
must only contain films which have as their
aim the moral and spiritual improvement
of children.

In order to establish the age of children,
the regulations concede the amplest powers

to the police, the superintendents and to
the doctors attached to public halls and thea-
tres.

Puniskments — The censors must exercise
care that the projections are made in accor-
dance with the orders emanated, and that
all the regulations are duly respected. They
have authority to invoke the aid of the police
to enforce their decisions.

Fines can be levied to the amount of 10
and 100 colons for the first offence, and
double these amounts for subsequent in-

fractions of the rules.

G. DE F.

MEXICO AND HER FISCAL SYSTEM FOR FILMS

A decree published April 20 last in Mexico
regulating the country's customs dues in
the matter of films is sufficiently important
to merit mention.

The decree in its scant wordage deals
briefly with the matter. It establishes the
following customs dues in substitution of
those previously existing :

Sound films in Spanish, from 12 to 17
to 20 piastres, according to the case ;

Sound films in other languages than
Spanish, from 35 to 45 to 75 piastres, accord-
ing to the case ;

Discs for Spanish sound films, 5 pias-
tres.

Moreover, if the importer is a producer
(that is in case of a Mexican branch office
of a firm of producers) he will pay the mini-
mum fee. If the importer is not a producer
(this fact is to be proved by a certificate
issued by the government authority of the
country whence the film comes) he will
pay a higher duty.

There are other interesting regulations.

The tendency of the dispositions in the
decree is quite clear. Protection in the highest
degree for non-American films and favoured
treatment, both directly and indirectly, for
the national production.

The regulations, in view of which a dimin-
ution of duty in the case of importer-pro-

ducers, is made, shows the clearest desire to
impede as far as possible film producers
(especially American) setting up establish-
ments or branch factories in Mexico.

Is thde any danger for the European film
industry to be seen in the decree ? None, for
the moment, as the Bulletin de la Chambre
Syndicate Francaise (No. 94 of September
15, 1932) points out, in view of the fact that
the taste of the Mexican public has shown
no partiality for the European type of film.
As to the future, the case is different. When
European firms have produced in a more or
less distant future some good films, they
will find the Mexican market practically
closed to them.

This is a form of protection which is as
good as any quota system, and shows once
again that if the influence of the principle
of nationality has its political value, it is also
a grave danger for trade in general.

All countries, without distinction or re-
gard for their political or social tendencies,
are dominated now by one unopposed prin-
ciple which is to go on raising up tariff bar-
riers, which ought on the contrary to be
eliminated, barriers tending to prevent a
work of art like the film demolishing the
life and autonomy of a nation ! Right or
wrong from the international point of view,
the principle remains unchallenged.

- 797 —

y

AUTHORS' RIGHTS IN IRAQ

An interesting controversy has developed
lately regarding the existence and the degree
of protection for author's rights in the field
of the cinema in Iraq.

The matter began with the introduction
into Iraq of the French film, " Le Million ",
of which exclusive exhibiting rights were
granted to Tel Aviv, but which was shown
by other exhibitors, legally or illegally as
the case may be.

The French consul at Bagdad, addressed
the following letter to the Tobis firm :

"... I have the honour to bring to your
knowledge that the problem of protecting
authors' rights in cinema works in the king-
dom of Iraq has not escaped my attention.
In fact, on more than one occasion, I have
taken steps with the local authority, without,
however, arriving at any appreciable results,
because the legislation in Iraq on the ques-
tion of authors' rights does not contain any
regulations concerning the protection of
cinema works.

" I am now pleased to be able to inform
you that after my last steps the Iraq author-
ities have decided to proced to a reexamin-
ation of the existing legislation in the matter,
so as to provide, without distinction, for
protection of authors' foreign rights in liter-
ary and artistic works and the application in
Iraq of the international code in the ques-
tion of such rights ".

At the same time, the Bagdad press pub-
lished the following note :

" The minister of Justice has prepared
a bill, the object of which is to modify the

legislation in the matter of authors' rights.
The regime established by the Ottoman
government is still in force in Iraq. The
evolution of legislation, however, has rendered
this system incomplete, in as much as it pro-
vides no protection for drawings, photographs
or cinema works, based upon the works of
writers. The regime in question, moreover,
made no provision for respecting the inter-
national law in the matter of authors' rights.
The modifications that have been proposed
put an end to this state of things ' .

Whille waiting to learn the precise nature
of these modifications, it will suffice to point
out that the question of authors' rights has
up to now been regulated by article 293 of
the Bagdad penal code. This provided only a
general protection against persons translating
or reproducing a book or an article in contra-
vention of individual rights of anyone holding
the exclusivity of the subject matter. Theat-
rical works were, therefore, excluded owing
to the phrasing of the article. As a matter
of fact, there was the possibility of constru-
ing the words in one or more fashions, as
is generally the case with most laws. In
giving interpretations, the courts have on
more than one occasion gained the victory
over dialectical and formal literalness. But
in any case, it was necessary to have recourse
to a magistrate, with consequent litigation
and uncertainty and with the chance of
failing in the case and having one's applica-
tion rejected. It is a good thing therefore
that the legislation has intervened to remove
all possible doubts.

798

Metro

ayer

Information and Comment

VISUAL INSTRUCTION, ITS VALUE AND ITS NEEDS

By Carl E. Milliken

Ten years had passed. Will Hays, pres-
ident of the Motion Picture Producers and
Distributors of America, looked back upon
a meeting of the National Education Asso-
ciation in 1922 at which he pledged the mo-
tion picture industry to co-operate in a
program looking toward the use of motion
pictures in the schoolroom. And wondered
how well that promise had been kept !

To those of little faith, the year 1932 had
brought, along with the economic depression
throughout the world, a foreboding that
the effort to make motion picture technique
available to teachers had failed. A few
educators had become pessimistic, not so
much of the technique as of what they
considered a dearth of acceptable educa-
tional pictures.

Mr. Hays, seeking to appraise the merit
of such criticism, secured the co-operation
of F. Dean McClusky, Ph. D., director of
the famous Scarborough School, to make
a survey of this situation.

The appearance of Dr. McClusky 's re-
port, based on the studies conducted during
the latter part of 1931 and the early part
of 1932, in the spring of this year, was par-
ticularly timely for another reason. We
had had in America two organizations in-
terested in visual education. Dr. McClusky
was at the time president of the National
Academy of Visual Instruction, and had
arranged that the spring meeting of this
organization should be held jointly with
the Visual Education Department of the
National Education Association. At this
joint meeting the two organizations were
amalgamated with the prospect that their

combined organization will give new impetus
to visual instruction in our American schools.
The report of the survey, which was present-
ed at the meeting just mentioned, was mim-
eographed, but the requests for it so far
exceeded the copies available that publica-
tion was decided upon.

Rather than publish it serially, as was
desired by some of the leading journals on
visual education in this country, it has been
printed in its complete form and is now
available from the Mancall Publishing Com-
pany, 7 West 44th Street, New York City,
for § 1 .00. The report has been attract-
ively illustrated and includes pictures of the
home of the International Educational
Cinematographic Institute and of the dele-
gates to the first convention held there.

It is not my purpose to review the report
in detail. It includes a summary of educa-
tional pictures made in America and else-
where throughout the world, a review and
a digest of the various experiments to de-
termine the relative acquisition of knowledge
through the picture method as compared
with the oral and written methods of instruc-
tion, a study of the effectiveness of trans-
mitting ideas and instruction through pic-
tures as evidenced by modern advertising
practice, rotogravure sections in the news-
papers, the increasing illustration of text
books, and the exhibits of museums.

It is not so much the number of schools
using visual instruction, the projection ma-
chines discovered active in classrooms,
in short, the physical equipment for visual
education, as the general progress in in-
terest and in understanding and appreciation

— 800

of the new technique that gives to the survey
a sense of satisfaction with what has been
accomplished and an optimistic outlook for
the future.

Interspersed through the report are Dr.
McClusky's interesting comments on the
findings. For instance :

" In our normal thinking process, one never
has an isolated idea, the counterpart of the still
picture. The ' stream of thought ' is contin-
ually on the move. It may be that the motion
picture secures its educative power from the
fact that it is a counterpart of thought ".

Similar interesting comments have come
from the folk engaged in production. It is
enlightening that Dr. W. R. Whitney, one
of the leading technical authorities of R C A
Photophone, Inc., who has concentrated
his experimentation with pedagogical films
on such subjects as " The Action of Forces
in Space ", " Constitution and Transforma-
tion of the Elements ", " Arrangement of
Atoms and Molecules in Crystals " and " Oil
Films on Water ", should say :

" // is probably easier for Jackie Coogan
to learn to break a window perfectly and for
Charlie Chaplin to fix it one hundred percent,
than for a scientist to appear excited over tel-
ling an old story to a cold gadget in a white-
hot room. The fact that the film shows the
defect so perfectly heightens my respect for
the motion picture art '. .

In concluding, Dr McClusky points out
in a series of terse paragraphs what he con-

siders the responsibilities of educators and
schools toward a further development of
visual education in teaching and what res-
ponsibility he conceives the motion picture
industry, as the creator of motion picture
texts, must assume toward the completion
of a task better begun than most educators
realize.

I may add one paragraph which has signi-
ficance principally because of Dr. McClusky's
association with visual instruction since 1 922
when he became the secretary of the im-
portant research committee of the general
study above mentioned and because of his
continued activity as one of the leaders in
the field of secondary education in this
country :

" Modern education has become very com-
plex. It is the fashion to criticize its methods
and practices. Terrific pressure is being
brought to bear on educators to train children
in all phases of modern life. Present methods
will not suffice for that accomplishment. Only
through the greater efficiency of visual aids
can the curriculum be expanded to accomplish
the desired goal. The vital need will be integ-
ration of the varied subject matter presented
and that will increasingly become the func-
tion of the teacher ".

Those who have had access to the report
say of it that it is a handbook of information
of such value that it should be possessed by
anyone engaged directly or indirectly with
visual instruction.

A UNIVERSITY FOR TEACHING BY THE FILM

TO BE OPENED IN LONDON

An important move in the field of educa-
tional cinematography has been made by
Sir James Marchant in collaboration with
Sir Oswald Stoll, and consists in opening
in London a university where instruction
will be given solely by the film.

Sir Giles Gilbert Scott has prepared the
plans for the university, which will have a
central hall and several minor halls for
conferences, fitted with cinema projectors.

A planetary Zeiss telescope will be installed
in the dome of the building.

The films to be shown will be extended
over entire courses, or will deal with special
experiments carried out by experts in the
various branches of human knowledge such
as history, science, geography, travel, liter-
ature, the technics of industry, "languages
and technical instruction.

The meetings will take place both in the

— 801 —

daytime and in the evening. There will be
fees for inscribing oneself to the courses or
lessons. Colleges and schools will be able
to hire the films of the university, and auto-
cinemas will travel through the length and
breadth of the country to project films
dealing with agriculture, livestock, and
so on.

The university will also include an ordin-
ary cinema, in which foreign films will

be shown in their original versions. Sir
James Marchant, the propounder of the
idea of this Institute, is one of the foremost
figures in the world of educational cinemato-
graphy in England. According to his fig-
ures, during last year cultural films to the
number of 86 were shown in colleges and
schools to 14,650 students.

In all probability, the university will be
built somewhere near Oxford Street.

THE CINEMA COMMISSION OF THE ASSOCIATION
FOR SEX STUDIES

The cinema commission of the Associa-
tion for sex studies (A. E. S.) recently met
to elect its officers and to establish its pro-
gramme and objects. It chose as President
M. Charles Delac, president of the French
Syndical Chamber of Cinematography and
M. Emile Vuillermoz, Conservatory profes-
sor, and dramatic critic of the Temps. As
secretary general, M. Jean Benoit-Levy,
secretary general of the French committee
of the International Institute of the Educa-
tional Cinema was elected and M. Jacques
Tiberge as assistant secretary.

Dr. Toulouse, president of the Association
for sex studies outlined the programme of
the association, and showed how the cinema

could be a potent means of propaganda in
favour of the action undertaken for the
regeneration of the race and for develop-
ment of all the forces of the country.

After an exchange of views, in which
Messrs Toulouse, Charles Delac, Vuillermoz,
Jean Chataigner, Dr Devraigne, Dr Coman-
don, Prof. Simonnet, Maurice Liber, Lucien
Viborel, Dr Cavaillon, Bruneau, Paul David,
Dr Perret, Emile Roux-Parrassac, Maurice
Goineau and Jean Benoit-Levy took part, a
plan of work was laid down for a close
collaboration with the public authorities and
especially with the ministers of Education,
Public Health and the Under-secretanate
of Fine Arts.

FILM WEEK IN BELGIUM

In order to demonstrate in the best poss-
ible fashion the important place occupied
by the cinema in social and artistic life
today, the Belgian Professional Association
of the Cinema Press has organized, in coll-
aboration with personages of the Belgian
cinema world, a week consecrated to the se-
venth art.

This cinema week will take place from
Friday 9th December to Saturday 17th
December. It will be presided over by a
committee of patrons. The organizing com-
mittee has held its first meeting under the
presidency of M. Julien Flament.

Everybody in Belgium who for any reason
is interested in the cinema will lend his

support to the project. Political personali-
ties, lecturers, popular universities, artistic
associations, educational and recreational
clubs, cinema clubs, cinema firms and mana-
gers of cinemas will take part in making the
event a success.

We are able to announce that the festival
will close with a grand evening cinema spec-
tacle, when numerous film artists will be
seen in entirely new numbers.

The same day a cinema banquet will be
given, while on the 16th December an extra-
ordinary performance will be given.

During the week, the cinema producers
will exhibit their best films for the season.
The various groups taking part in the cinema

— 802

week will give special projections. The The Cinema Week will interest not only

Rouge et Noir has taken the initiative for a Brussels, but all the large provincial cities
public debate. of Belgium.

THE EDUCATIONAL SOUND FILM IN THE BRITISH FLEET

The British Admiralty is at present en-
gaged in installing sound film apparatus in
the fleet. An inquiry was opened in con-
nection with the matter, and the conclusions
pointed to the necessity of purchasing sound
film machinery and sonorizing the silent film
apparatus actually existing.

The report stated that in general there
was nothing against the forming of coopera-
tives among the personel of the fleet for the
purchase, when means permitted, of an ap-

paratus among the many types on the market.

All the reports on the matter, however,
agree in urging the necessity of the creation
of a central hiring and distribution office,
but such a bureau can not be expected to
come into being until a sufficient number
of ships possess sound film projectors.

A circular has been issued to all the com-
manders of the fleet, calling their attention
to the matter, and asking them to watch
the developments of the case with attention.

— 803 -

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— 804

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51, Via Sallustiana :: ROME :: 38, Via S. Basilio

Profits paid to policy holders for 1931
increased to 3.50 per thousand of insured capital

It is a fact that as from the company's financial year 1930, persons insured
by the " Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni „ were made participators in the
company's profits, and for that year the distribution of such profits amounted
to 3 per 1000 of the sums insured.

It was forseen that the company's excellent financial position would event-
ually permit a still larger participation in the profits by policy-holders, and as a
matter of fact

FOR THE FINANCIAL YEAR 1931

in consideration of the prosperous results obtained by the company, the Board
of Directors has decided to increase the distribution of profits to those insured
with the Institute to 3.50 per 1000.

This increase has a most important consequence, since it affects profits cal-
culated on several thousands of millions of lire of insured capital.

In fact, the sum of the profits set aside in the company's last balance sheet
in favour of the owners of savings entrusted to the Institute amounted in round
figures to

15,600,000 LIRE

so that the first two distributions of profits (1930 and 1931) show a total of

29,000,000 LIRE

paid to persons insured with the Institute, which demonstrates clearly the
increasing strength of the Company, and at the same time establishes between
it and its supporters a continually strengthening bond of interest.

Technical Notes

THE NEW WESTERN
ELECTRIC SOUND APPARATUS FOR 16 mm FILMS

The Western Electric Co. has decided to
offer its own interesting contribution to
the practical solution of the problem of the
reduced size sound film for family, amateur
and cultural propaganda purposes. It has
chosen, naturally enough, the sub-standard
size, but has used instead of a photo-
acoustic system a gramophone synchronizing
system, with discs giving 33 and 1/3 turns
a minute.

The new sound projector is easily portable.
With the exception of a screen the whole
apparatus can be packed into two suit-cases,
one of which contains the projector itself
with disc support, while the other carries
the loud-speaker and the amplifiers. Alum-
inium has been used as much as possible
in order to make the apparatus as light and
easily portable as possible.

The head of the projector is mounted on
a moveable support which is capable of giv-
ing the optical projection axis a positive ele-
vation of 15 degrees, and a negative one up
to 5 degrees.

The projector has two lenses. At a dis-
tance of 12 metres, it can give a perfectly
luminous image measuring 1 .80 metres by
1 .50. The illumination is supplied by a
normal projector lamp. A voltmeter allows
the tension of the lighting circuit to be con-
trolled. Moreover, a variable resistance
permits of compensating possible oscilla-
tions in the light supply. The apparatus
is furnished with a ventilation system in or-
der to prevent excessive heating of the film
and to allow fixed projections be shown with
it. The small turbine which creates the
current of ventilation is worked by a perfectly

silent motor which does not in the least
disturb the acoustic reproduction.

The motor of the projector which also
works the disc support plate is of the induc-
tion type of 1 /20 HP with a speed variable
from 3540 to 3560 turns a minute. Be-
tween the motor and the apparatus a friction
coupler has been introduced in order to
take up the shocks due to starting the mach-
ine. As soon as the machine has reached
its normal velocity, the friction coupling
ceases to work, except in the case of exces-
sive resistances being present, when the
device helps to preserve the machinery from
abnormal strains, which might cause a
breakdown .

Both the mechanical and the electrical
parts of the apparatus have been devised so
as to prevent the working of the machinery
in any way disturbing the acoustic reproduc-
tion. The machine is therefore perfectly
silent, a vital necessity for a projector which
is intended to operate not in a closed cabin
but in the same room with the audience.
Even the elctric motors have been chosen so
as not to cause disturbance in the ampli-
fying circuits.

The motor is mounted on four supports
consisting of four adjustable springs which
determine its vertical position and on four
rubber discs which fix the horizontal po-
sition. The lay-out of the various parts
of the disc-carrier is most interesting. The
track which is very short is worked by the
motor with a reducing gear on an endless
thread. Beneath the intented wheel which
turns the axis of the system there is a com-
pressed felt cylinder, the dimension and the

806 -

resistance of which to the rotation have been
calculated in relation with the weight and
lie of the disc with the object of forming
a regular mechanical filter. The least ten-
dency of the disc to oscillate is damped down
by the presence of the felt cylinder.

The amplifying part has been constructed
with the greatest care in all its particulars.
The power of amplification is sufficient to
allow for good audition for a public of sev-
eral hundred persons. It works off the

A. C. mains, and the energy consumed is
about 90 watts.

The loud-speaker has been carefully
planned, and no effort spared to obtain
as natural a reproductions as possible. Nasal
tone and roughness, present in many loud-
speakers, owing to excess of low tones, have
been eliminated, thus improving — in cer-
tain elements of the electro-acoustic scale
of reproduction — the tone of the medium
and high frequencies.

— 807 —

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— 808

A modern system for
the modern traveller!

Provide yourself in advance with

" 1 1 1.

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MICH COMMERCIALE ITALIANA

in lire, French francs, marks, sterling

or dollars

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BANCA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA

v J

Review of periodicals and newspapers

Review of Periodicals and News-
papers.

In a conference held at the Ladies' Club
of Ottawa, Mrs S. Baldwin indicated the
cinema as a field in which woman's beneficent
action can be profitably exercised, especially
in preventing children from witnessing im-
moral spectacles, in the interest of both the
families and society itself. (The New York
Times, 16-VIII-1932).

The Motion Pictures Research Council
of the United States has begun the public-
ation of a report on the results of its inquiry
on the influence exercised by the cinema on
young people. This is the first of a series
of inquiries for which the organ in question
was constituted five years ago. The other
points to be made the subjects of inquiries
are : the international influence of the cin-
ema in favour of world peace and the or-
ganization of the cinematographic industry
from the social point of view. (The Times,
London, 17-VIII-1932).

The directors of the London Council
Schools have drawn the attention of the
County Council to the much discussed pro-
blem of the influence exercised by the cin-
ema on children, and have urged the adop-
tion of rules which will exclude once and
for all children from spectacles in which
films classed in category A are projected.
These are films recognized by the British
Board of censors as unsuitable for children.
(Today's Cinema, London, 18-VIII-1932).

The Rev. W. Younger, President of the
Methodist Conference, in a speech de-
livered at Blyth, maintained that the contin-

ued increase in divorces was due to the
influence of the cinema. (The DAILY TELE-
GRAPH, London, 26-VIII-I932).

Results of an inquiry recently held in
London on the attendance at the cinema of
children from 3 to 15 showed that 13,5 %
do not frequent the cinema at all, 9 % twice
a week, while 48 % go irregularly. Of
children under five years, 63 % frequent the
cinema. (La Cinematc-GRAPHIE FranCAISE,
Paris, 27-VIII-1932).

Mr A. C. Cameron, Secretary for Educa-
tion delivered an address at the annual
meeting of the British Association, in the
course of which he pointed out the great
influence of the cinema from the intellec-
tual and social point of view both on chil-
dren and adults. He urged the necessity
of having a truly national film production
in England. (The Daily Telegraph, Lon-
don, 2-IX-1932).

Politics.

Mr Walter Nebuhr has produced for the
Peace Films Foundation of New York a
pacifist film entitled " Must War be ? "
The film illustrates certain particularly im-
portant world events and especially the
armaments of the big powers. (The Film
Daily, New York, 6-VIII-1932).

M. Georges Bonnancour has written a
scenario on the life of Aristide Briand,
apostle of peace. As soon as the film is ready,
it will be shown at Geneva before the dele-
gates of all the nations of the League. (The
Daily Film Renter, London, 23-VIII-
1932).

— 810 —

At the Embassy Theatre of New York
there has been lately a regular projection
of political films. Roosevelt, Hoover and
Curtis are the three personalities that have
figured oftenest of late on the screen. (The
New York Times, New York, 29-VIII-
1932).

Both the Republican and the Democratic
party are preparing numerous propaganda
films m view of the forthcoming Presidential
election in the United States. (VARIETY,
New York, 2-VI 1 1-1932).

Allied Exhibitors of Chicago have de-
cided to forbid in their cinemas the pro-
jection of any film having a political pro-
paganda character. (Variety, New York,
30-VIII-1932).

In an article entitled " Hollywood films
and the Working Classes , Mr Somerset
Logan deplores the excessively bourgeois
character of the American films, with which
he contrasts the Soviet cultural production
made for the benefit of the proletariat.
(Experimental Cinema, Hollywood, No. 4
of 1932).

Religion.

In the closing speech at the International
Catholic Congress of Brussels, Cardinal Van
Hooey, Primate of Belgium exhorted the
catholics to unite their efforts to exercise
an effective control on the morality of cin-
ema productions. (The Universe, Lon-
don, 5-VIII-1932).

The Pope, in a letter addressed to Mon-
signor Janssen, Archbishop of Utrecht urges
catholics to make a wider use of the
cinema, which he considers a new and
marvellous means for apostolizing ". (The
Universe, London, 19-VII 1-1932).

To the list of films made by missionaries
for purposes of religious propaganda men-

tioned in our review may now be added the
following : " the film of the missionaries of
Don Bosco dealing with the work of Italian
missionaries in India and America, that on
China by the Parma missionaries, and the
more recent " Christian civilization in the
Dark Continent ", showing the lives of
the Servants of Mary and the Mantel-
late sisters made by Father Alexander Fer-
raris, now exhibited with success in some
of the Italian cinemas. (OsSERVATORE Ro-
mano, Vatican City, 22-23-VIII-1932).

Richard Muckermann states in an art-
icle entitled " Katholisches Volk in Kina ",
that the moment has come for German
Catholics to take an active part in the de-
velopment of the national cinema industry
in view of the convincing influence of the
cinema as a means of propaganda. (DEUT-
SCHE FlLMZEITUNG, Munich, 2-IX-1932).

Father Muckermann, speaking at the Cath-
olic Conference of Essen on the subject
of " the Cinema and the philosophic con-
cept of life ", stated that it was in no way
the desire or intention of Catholic Action to
give the cinema a pronouncedly clerical
character, or to load it down with pedago-
gic ideas, because, after all, a film is really
a theatrical thing, meant to entertain the
masses. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 5-IX-1932).

Through the initiative of Monsignor
Wienken, the " Katholische Filmarbeits-ge-
meinschaft Berlin " was formed in Berlin
on August 30 last. This is the Catholic
Association of Cinematographic Action. Nu-
merous personalities of the artistic, political,
cultural and educational world took part
at the initial meeting. This new association
will concern itself chiefly with censorship
matters and the utilization of the cinema
from the Catholic point of view. The
suggestion made by several members of the
association to create a film-producing organ-
ization was rejected for reasons of economy.
(Licht-Bild-Buhne, Berlin, 3-IX-1932).

— 811 —

Documentary Film.

The special correspondent of the Times
at Nairobi in an interesting article deals
with the way in which documentary films
are made in East Africa, and stresses the
necessity for the government to watch the
taking of films both from the point of view
of the protection of the natives and to avoid
the destruction of the wild animals. (The
Times, London. No. 46.208 of 10-VIII-
1932).

A film entitled " The Malaiguine Expedi-
tion " is being made in Russia to illustrate
the heroic conduct of the crew of the ice-
breaker in the work of saving the mem-
bers of the Nobile expedition. Has the
Italian general arrived at Leningrad to assist
at the making of the film? (La ClNEMATO-
graphie Franchise, of 13-VIII-1932).

Jean Bernard-Derosne has been entrusted
with the part of Vandal in a humoristic-
documentary film on the most important
health and pleasure resorts in France. (La
Cinematographie Francaise, Paris, 13-
VII I- 1932).

Pathe Pictures has made a film of the
Rossman expedition to the North Pole.
The film is entitled " The dangers of the
Arctic ". (The Daily Film Renter, Lon-
don, of 15-VIII-1932).

serting that the public does not want any
more documentary films. M. Coissac makes
this statement in view of the vast number
of interesting things such films can show.
He mentions in this connection the fine
documentary films created at the beginning
of the cinema industry by M. Felix Mes-
guich, who by tracing in short films the
various aspects of life in certain regions of
France and in countries abroad, was able
to show how, thanks to the cinema, it is
almost possible to establish a human geo-
graphy. He concludes his article by stat-
ing that in the field of the documentary
film there is still a great deal to be done,
because there are still innumerable places
little known or not known at all. (Cl-
NEOPSE, Paris, No. 156 of August 1932).

The Photo Sound Corporation of Canada
has made a film showing the construction
of the dike of the Abitibi canyon, which took
two years and 43,000,000 dollars to build.
(Today's Cinema, London, 10-IX-1932).

The Artistic Film.

G. W. Pabst will produce for the Nelson
Film Co. the cinema version of Cervantes'
romance Don Quixote. (The TlMES, Lon-
don, 9-VII-1932).

The didactic Film.

" Butcher " has made a series of four Mr James Marchant states that as a result

documentary films entitled " Musical Gems of the Sunday opening of cinemas, the

of Ireland ". These sound films reproduce schools which use the cinema in teaching

the songs of the best known Irish poets can apply for financial subsidy in case of

and musicians. (The Cinema, London, need to the proper authorities. (News

17-VIII-1932). Chronicle, London, 9-VIII-1932).

The Geographic Film Corporation has
been constituted at Columbus (Ohio) to
produce documentary films and films on
fashion. (Motion Picture Herald, New
York, 27-VIII-1932).

The Education Department of Ohio will
support in the forthcoming scholastic year
the use of both sound and silent films in the
schools. (Variety, New York, 23- VI II-
1932).

G. Michel Coissac shows in an article The manager of the cinema at Nilvange

that the cinema directors are wrong in as- (Moselle) has organized a scholastic com-

J — Icel ngl.

812 -

petition among the children of the district
between 8 and 12 to learn their impressions
after seeing a projection of the film " Byrd
at the South Pole ". (La ClNEMATOGRA-
phie Franchise, Paris, 27-VIII-1932).

The National Council of Teachers of
English will begin next autumn to act on
its own initiative in the matter of choosing
films adapted for the schools. It is calculat-
ed that the material so chosen will be dis-
tributed to 60,000 American teachers. (Mo-
tion Picture Herald, New York, 27-
VI 1 1- 1932).

A. Collette, referring to the old criticisms
and suggestions that continue to be made
on educational films, states in an article
that it would be desirable to have special
films destined for students in the different
courses, that should be in perfect harmony
with their intellectual development and
their age, but at the same time it is not
fair to demand in the beginning of a new
method of teaching that the material placed
in the teachers' hands should be immediate-
ly perfect. (ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 156 of
August, 1932).

Dr Foveau of Courmelles comments
some very interesting points of a conference
held by M. Mare and published in the
" Ecole chez soi ", a scholastic review of
the Public Works office and Post and Tele-
graphs on the educational and instructional
cinema. (ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 158 of Au-
gust, 1932).

The president of the National Academy
for Visual Education announces that in the
United States there are at the present time
640 educational films in course of prepar-
ation. (ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 156 of Au-
gust, 1932).

Some interesting excerpts of a report made
by the businessman Sig. Musso regarding a
definite and detailed programme of cinema
education to be tried in Italian schools have

been published. From the report, after
noting the importance of cinematography as
a means of education and propaganda, we
learn that the new original sound projector
invented by the Italian Sandro Michetti
permits of schools taking advantage of the
great benefits obtainable from the use of
sound films with expenses that are much
less than in the case of other apparatus.

It is proposed to obtain the funds to
defray the expense of employing the sound
film in schools by applying a special educa-
tional tax at the rate of 9 lire per annum
for each scholar — apart from those can
pay nothing — in the elementary schools.
The other schools, such as the Middle
and High Schools would pay 30 lire per
year per pupil and the university students
would pay 50 lire a year per head. (La
Scuola Fascista, of August 1932).

The Cultural Film.

The intelligent initiative taken by the
director of the Cinema Royal of Grenoble
is considered worthy of praise. The di-
rector, when presenting a film by Fritz
Lang of a psychological character not easy
to understand, explained by word of mouth
to the audience the author's intentions.
(Hebdo Film, Paris, 13-VIII-1932).

Professor E. A. Henry, director of the
Library of the university of Cincinnati,
is of opinion that the cinema will settle a
great problem, namely that of allowing
students to consult, without making long
and expensive voyages any book or rare
manuscript which will be previously have
been filmed and preserved in the local li-
brary. (Motion Picture Herald, New
York, 27-VIII-1932).

M. Jean Benoit-Levy continuing his
indefatigable propaganda for the educational
film, gave a conference at Bordeaux accom-
panied by projections of his own films on
the following subjects :

813

1) The cinema in teaching and edu-
cation ;

2) The role of the cinema in the coun-
try's economic life ;

3) The Cinema and Urbanism ;

4) The cinema and religious teaching.
(ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 156 of August 1932).

The conferences which will take place in
future in the new central library of Sheffield
will be illustrated by moving pictures. (The
Daily Film Renter, London, 3- IX- 1 932).

The Scientific Film.

Audio-Cinema Inc. will shortly produce
for the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. a
film illustrating the discovery by means of
the microscope of a number of microbes
and the best methods of fighting them.
(The Film Daily, New York, 1 1 -VIII-
1932).

The University of Chicago has undertaken
the production of numerous films divided
into sections ; the first section dealing with
physical science contains 20 films. (Cl-
NEOPSE, Paris, No. 156 of August 1932).

Captain Robert A. Smith filmed the solar
eclipse of August 31 last from an airplane
at a height of 20,000 feet. (The New
York Times, New York, l-IX-1932).

Hygiene and Prevention of Disease.

The Watch Committee of Leeds agreed
to the exhibition of special projections of
hygiene films for children in various quar-
ters of the city during " Health Week "
which took place from the 2nd to the 8th
of October. (Today's Cinema, London,
22-VIII-1932).

Six hundred and sixty children were
present at Birkenhead at the projection of
some hygiene films. Among the subjects
dealt with in the films were cleanliness, the
structure of the eye, and the measures to

be taken to avoid diphtheria. (The Ci-
nema, London, 9-IX-1932).

A news message from Los Angeles states
that only through the use of the film was
it possible to ascertain the winner in an
obstacle race. (The Daily Telegraph,
London, 5-VIII-1932).

Jurisprudence, Taxation, Legislation
for the Cinema.

The " Spitzenorganization " of the Ger-
man Cinema Industry has presented to the
Prussian minister of Finances a protest
against the increase in the tax on films in
which the principal parts are interpreted by
children. Up to now, the tax consisted in
a fixed fee of 3 marks per projection, but
from now on it will be necessary to pay
3 marks for each child appearing in the
film. (KlNEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, 2-VIII-
1932).

The Latvian government has abolished
the quota system for films. All foreign
films are now admitted in Latvia, but the
taxes payable for their import have been
increased 50 per cent. (La Cinematogra-
PHIE FRANgAISE, Paris, 13-VIII-1932).

LlCHT-BlLD-BuHNE of Berlin (23-VIII-
1932) publishes the text of the new regu-
lations governing the quota in Austria which
becomes operative September 1, 1932. It
is published by the Cinematograph Office
of the Vienna Chamber of Commerce.

Three children of Littlehampton (Sus-
sex), found guilty of theft were condemned,
to stay away from the cinema for two years.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 31-
VIII-1932).

The Council for the Austrian Cinema
assembled in general meeting approved the
new regulations regarding the quota fixed
for foreign films. (Kinematograph, Ber-
lin, 3-IX-1932).

5 — lee ingl.

-814

On September 6th last, the new customs
duties on imported films went into force.
The duties on positives are now 2000 marks
per quintal. The negatives are exempt
from duty. Unexposed film and exposed
but undeveloped film pays a duty of 600
marks per quintal. (Film Journal, Ber-
lin, 4-IX-1932).

Censorship.

The Turkish government has promulgated
a new law on cinema censorship. As a
result of this law, every film must be placed
before the censors, whether made in Turkey
or abroad. All films containing sugges-
tions of religious propaganda, or films which
offend the prestige of the army or offend
good morals or are dangerous for social edu-
cation are forbidden. Anti-Turkish films
are also forbidden, as well as films which are
in any way offensive to countries enjoying
friendly relations with Turkey. All films
shown in Turkish cinemas must have sub-
titles or running comment in the Turkish
language.

As a result of the recommendations of
Will Hays to the movie houses which still
continue to engage in publicity contrary to
public morals, the American producers have
decided to nominate a commission composed
of the publicity executives of the different
firms which exercise a kind of censorship
on this publicity. (La CINEMATOGRAPH IE
Francaise, Paris, 13-VIII-1932).

It was settled at the Ottawa Imperial
Conference not to modify the quota system
in force in connection with the import of
American films, but to institute a censor-
ship. (The New York Times, New York,
19-VIII-1932).

the copyright law in Germany and Austria.
The section dealing with the cinema is par-
ticularly interesting.

Statistics.

It is calculated that the present shutting
down of 5600 cinemas in the United States
is causing a loss to the film industry of
1,300,000 dollars per week. Out of the
25,000 persons constituting the cinema pop-
ulation of Hollywood, 650 only have the
guarantee of fixed contracts. All the rest
are engaged by the week. In order to
limit the number of the unemployed in
Hollywood, the introduction of the four
day week is foreseen. (VARIETY, New York,
2-IX-1932).

During the cinema year 1931-32, 201 films
were submitted to the French censorship.
Of these, 102 were French films, 12 foreign
films made in France, 28 foreign films
made abroad, 30 films dubbed abroad, and
29 foreign films dubbed in France. (Le
ClNEOPSE, Paris, No 157 of September
1932).

Industry and the Film.

Sir William Morris will shortly present
at the Phoenix Theatre in London an in-
dustrial film made in his own Cowely works.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 5-IX-
1932).

Technical Education.

The programme for the academic year
1932-1933 at the university of Berlin includes
lessons on the problems of colour cinemato-
graphy, radio-telephony and copyright mat-
ters. (Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst, Ber-
lin, 26-VIII-1932).

v/

Copyright Questions.

Le Droit d'auteur, Berne of 15-VIII-
1932 publishes a report on the reform of

Syndical Organisation.

A. Zukor, President of the Paramount
stated recently that the present crisis seemed

-815-

to be taking a turn that was favourable for
the cinema, as for more than a month there
had been noticed a strong improvement in
box office business. (The Daily Film
Renter, London, 16- VI 1 1-1932).

New Review.

Under the auspices of the " Syndicat
National des Directeurs », a new cinema
review has been published in Paris, entitled :
" Le National Cinematographique ». (The Ci-
nema, London, 17-VIII-1932).

La Cinematocraphie Franchise of Paris
(No. 721 of 27-VIII-1932) announces the
creation in Portugal of a cinema centre for
the production of sound films.

An art cinema Club as been opened in
Paris at 10 Avenue dejena, with the object
of gathering together all those who do ar-
tistic work in the film world, such as authors,
producers, actors, and so on. (Cineopse,
Paris, No. 156 of August 1932).

With the object of nationalizing the cin-
ema industry, the Latvian government will
shortly create a company for film producing
which will be under the direct control of
the ministry of the Interior. (The Cinema,
London, 7-IX-1932).

Technique.

A report from Prague states that M. An-
tonin Votechowski has completed his in-
vention on which he has been working since
1926. The object of the invention is to
allow the projection of films in semi-illum-
inated rooms, or even in the open air,
without the pictures losing anything of their
sharpness and clearness. (Le NouVELLISTE,
Lyons, 6-VIII-1932).

According to the REICHFILMBLATT of Ber-
lin, 13-VII-1932, Hans Neumann of Frank-

furt on Rhine has invented a new system
of cinema installation, by means of which
all the orders which are given to the tech-
nical staff during a film projection can be
communicated from a central cabin inside
the projection cabin, without the public
being in any way aware.

The composers R. Rodgers and L. Hart
have suggested a new form of musical tech-
nique to be called " Photographic Music ",
which accompanies the film in all its action.
(The Film Daily, New York, 16- VI II-
1932).

A new apparatus for registering sound
invented by the Rev. Konemann has been
placed on the markets of Berlin and Paris.
The inventor is a German Catholic priest.
The Apparatus is called the " Eidophon ".
(Today's Cinema, London, 20-VIII-1932).

La Cinematocraphie Francaise of Paris
(No. 712 of 25-VIII-1932) publishes an
article by L. C. Bostwick of the Bell Tele-
phone Laboratories on A Loud-speaker
sensitive to the highest audible frequencies ".

Le Fascinateur of Paris (No. 291 of
August 1932) publishes an article of an
exclusively technical character on an auto-
matic system of closing operating cabins for
cinemas using inflammable film.

The Cinema of London (No. 2192 of
7-IX-1932) publishes an article of a techni-
cal character regarding the measuring of
noises.

Television News of New York (No. 4
of September-October 1932) publishes an
article regarding a new system of luminous
valves suitable for photo-acoustic reg-
istration based on the principle of the vi-
brations of very fine sheets of metal.

— 816 —

The Varied Life of the Film.

As the result of an inquiry made in Ame-
rica it was learnt that the public does not
insist any more on seeing silent films. As
a matter of fact only 3.8% of persons ques-
tioned showed any longing for a return
to the silent film, while all the others were
in favour of the sound film.

The German Cinema Syndicate " Deut-
sches Lichtspiel Syndicat " has started a com-

petition among students for the best manu-
script of a film illustrating the life of
those students who in order to continue
their studies are obliged to take up some
occupation. (Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst,
Berlin, 1 1 -VII I- 1932).

La Cinematographie Francaise of Paris
(No. 720 of 20-VIII-1932) publishes an
article by M. Mario Roustan entitled " Vers
la discipline des activites " in which he
states that the cinema, like other industries,
has need of intelligent organization.

— 817 —

CULTURAL SECTION

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— 818

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Bibliography

Edifices publics pour villes et villages by Emile
GuiLLOT. 2nd Edition, revised and added to
by Marius Bousquet, Architect. 1 vol, 785 pp.,
with illustrations (Dunod, 92, rue Bonaparte,
Paris), 1927.

This work, which has a technical and juridical
character, is published in the collection entitled
" Library of the Engineer attached to Public
Works ". The book contains eight chapters,
which deal respectively with : edifices for public
education ; administration offices and public utility
constructions ; hospitals and public relief build-
ings ; military edifices ; religious buildings : build-
ings for Fine Arts and sport ; commemorative
and funeral structures and various buildings.

A mere recapitulation of the chapter headings
cannot hope to provide even an approximate idea
of the importance of the book, but in a brief review
it is not possible to do more, especially when one
notes that each chapter is subdivided into a num-
ber of headings with sub-titles and secondary
divisions. The three first chapters are especially
full of detail, and it is remarkable that amid such
minuteness of detail and among so many things
concerning house-building and house-furnishing in
various styles and ways, no mention is made of
the cinema or of the requirements for its instal-
lation. The fault is not attiibutable to Messrs
Guillot and Bousquet, who in this work have
necessarily had to keep within the official regu-
lations on scholastic buildings. This indeed is
their policy in regard to all the kinds of buildings
which they treat, and the fact makes the book,
besides being interesting from the technical and
professional point of view, (building procedure,
material estimates, etc.) an authentic collection of
laws, regulations and practical rules dealing with
the types of buildings under discussion. The
volume is enriched with historical notes, numerous
photographs and drawings, plans, etc., which con-
tribute notably to increase the interest of the work.

Cinema halls logically are to be found under
the theatre section. (Chap. VI. Edifices devoted
to Fine Arts and Sports) and also form the sub-
ject of a special study which examines special con-

structions, fitting out and furnishing of halls and
the police regulations in force for such places.
Although the book, which we can call notable
without fear of exaggerating, is five years old, it
maintains its interest. Doubtless, during the last
five years, new exigencies and fresh possibilities
have altered and evolved the technique of build-
ing. To mention only talking picture studios and
projection halls, acoustic necessities have imposed
special researches and new forms on engineers
and architects. During the last five years aiso,
the principle of applying the cinema to teaching
has made immense progress and, as we have already
suggested, it is logical to expect that regulations
more in keeping with the new times may envisage
the installation of cinemas in edifices destined for
purposes of education. No doubt this additional
material will appear in a third edition of " Edifices
Publics ", edited by Marius Bousquet, with the
same care he has shown in the volume under review,
where he has followed the lines laid down by the
author.

L'Acoustique archilecturalc by GuSTAVE Lyon.
I Vol. 70 pp. with drawings. Frcs 15 (Film
et Technique), 78 Avenue des Champs Elysees,
Paris), 1932.

We made reference to this book in our April
number when mentioning " Propos de la Cabine "
which we propose to review later. These two
works are the first volumes in a new collection
" Film et Technique " published under the general
denomination of " Bibliotheque technique du ci-
nema ».

In « L'Acoustique Architecturale », which fills
very usefully one of the lacunae we noted in " Edi-
fices Publics ", M. Gustave Lyon convinces us
that he is not only a technician who knows his
subject thoroughly, but also a technician who
has had occasion to try out theory through numer-
ous and varied experiences, some of which are
remarkable. The reader cannot but derive profit
from the author's knowledge and experience.

Anyone interested for one reason or another.

820

and in major or minor degree, in the problems of
architectural acoustics will undoubtedly find this
book invaluable. The reader will learn many
things and enrich his general culture with the
book, for Mr Lyon seeks to render the most diffi-
cult scientific principles comprehensible, illustrat-
ing them with simple examples. This is especially
•shown in the two chapters, " Fundamental and
first laws of Acoustics " and " Sound Isolation ".
The further one goes into the book, the more
one becomes convinced that it is not only a
work of popular science but a technical and prac-
tical treatise of real value. The chapters, " Pre-
liminary study for a conference Hall " and " Pro-
ject for a hall with reserved seats ", " Placing
of the Microphones in a registering studio " " Pro-
ject ior a fitted-out Studio ", " Ventilation of
halls " are written chiefly for specialists, though
the general reader will find interesting information
and facts set forth by Mr Lyon in a simple and
easily understandable manner.

This work is made more interesting by the
reproduction of an article by Lucien Fournier
which appeared in 1909 in " La Nature ", in which
Lyon's work at that time in tracing the causes
of the execrable acoustics of the halls of the Tro-
cadero and improving them is set forth. This
fact alone is sufficient to give a clear indication
of the competence and experience with which the
chief problems of architectural acoustics are treated.

Leu propos de la cabine by P. Graugnard. Preface
by A. P. RlCHARD, Vice-President of the French
Cinematographists. I Vol. 97 pp. with illustra-
tions. (Film et Technique, Paris), 1932.

As the title indicates, the volume under review
is a practical and technical manual for the cinema
producer and operator, a book " by a professional
for professionals " as Mr A. P. Richard says in
his preface.

With the rise of the sound film, the projection
cabin has become the vital centre of the cinema,
as cinema directors have bit by bit understood
instead of thinking as they did for a long time
that the nerve-centre was the box-office. The
public's requirements in sound projection have

rapidly dominated this too narrow business view,
and if the exhibitor is anxious that the box-office
should work well, he must first of all look after
the projection cabin. The latter, however, has
become for many cinema owners or renters who
have little or no knowledge of the technique of
the sound film a kind of sanctuary which they
scarcely dare enter, a sanctuary in which the oper-
ator becomes day after day the most considerable
personage in the business, having in his hands
the present and the future of the cinema. It is
also possible to forsee that each new improvement
in the cinema (stereoscopy, coloured films, ecc.)
will make the operator the real and authentic
deus ex machina of the enterprise.

Graugnard starts from this point to develop
his argument that cinema managers and operators
ought to have a good practical knowledge of the
technique of the projection of sound

It is not necessary to make an analysis of a work
which is chiefly technical. The chapters deal in
a complete and minute fashion with: 1) current;
2) alimentation of sound projectors; 3) break-
downs in projectors ; 4) improvement of existing
installations. The sixth chapter deals with the
problem of small halls and the fifth discusses " per-
sons interested ", that is scholastic associations,
schools, cultural and popular clubs, etc., which
have modest budgets, and are not in a position to
buy the necessary apparatus for sound films.

In this latter chapter, written especially for
such institutions and entitled " Our construc-
tions ", there is to be found practical advice for
the construction, for example, of a preamplifier
for accumulators, a mixed pre-amplifier, an am-
plifier in sectors, a separate amplifier for pre-am-
plifier and other mechanical devices of the great-
est utility.

Of course, the construction of such apparatus
presupposes on the part of the constructor a cer-
tain knowledge of electro-technics. At the same
time, one must be grateful to Mr Graugnard for
making it possible for persons having this know-
ledge to put it into practice and especially for
having thought also of those who use the cinema
as a means of teaching, education and healthy
amusement.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — t L'Universale • Tipografia Polijlotta.

— 821

The BILDWART furnishes information on
all questions bearing on Cinematography, it
organizes and spreads film activities in the
domains of Science, Art, Popular Education,
Religion, Child Welfare, and Teaching ~ <*■

'" Der Bi I dwarf "

(The Film Observer) Popular Educational Survey

Monthly Illustrated Review of the German
Cinematographic Association, the Reich Union
of German Municipalities and Public Utilities.
The " Bildwart " Supplements :

" FILMRECHT " (Cinematograph Copyright);
" PHOTO UND SCULE " (Photo and School);
" BILDGEBRAUCH " (Film Uses) ;
" MKROPROJEKTION " ;
"PATENTSCHAU" (Patents* Survey).

This Review is recommended by the German Educational Authorities

===== Specimen Copy sent free of charge on application =====
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GOVERNING BODY.

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of Rome, President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTRE~E Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. /. C.
FINEGAN Thos., President of the Eastman Teaching Films, Inc.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T., Esq., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMIERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MARTINEZ-SIERRA Mme Maria, Member of the International Committee for the

Protection of Infancy.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela. Doctor of Letters, ex-Director of the Girls' Lycee of

Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.

Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Gimeno, Jose Maria

de FeO, Giuseppe JORDAN, H.

de LAVALLAZ, Maurice STORER, Edward

Apollonio, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. NOVEMBER 1932 N. II

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

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INDEX

Page

Draft Convention for facilitating the International circulation of films
OF AN EDUCATIONAL CHARACTER. — Report submitted by the second Committee
for the Assembly 827

L. VlBOREL

* * *

Production methods for propaganda Films on Social Hy-
giene 833

Visual aids in Classroom Teaching 840

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

Public Attendance at the Cinema (conclusion) 845

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

F. JUER-MARBACH : Language Teaching and the Talking Film (continuation) . 857

DOCUMENTARY FILMS

Art Films

869

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

Educational Cinematography (HoARE Conference) — " My England " : First
production of Egyptian Art Cinematography (by E. M. ZlNGSEM DE VlL-
LIERS) — " Drowsy Drugs " : Educational Film (by E. M. ZlNGSEM DE
Villiers) 875

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 887

BIBLIOGRAPHY 899

DRAFT CONVENTION

FOR FACILITATING THE INTERNATIONAL CIRCULATION OF FILMS

OF AN EDUCATIONAL CHARACTER. REPORT SUBMITTED BY THE

SECOND COMMITTEE TO THE ASSEMBLY

We have always kept our readers informed on the developments that have taken
place for settling — by a convention with the I. I. E. C. — the question of abolishing
customs duties on films of an educational character. We are pleased to be able to an-
nounce that a new step of a decisive nature has been made, and that the solution of
the question, so long hoped for by producers and users of educational films, is imminent.

We should like to remind our readers that the draft of the original convention was
forwarded at the time to the governments of member states as well to governments of
non-member states of the League of Nations by the General Secretariate of Geneva for
information. The resulting protocol, following the suggestions made by the govern-
ments interested was received at Geneva to be placed before the Assembly of the League
for its approval at the October session.

Our readers can therefore see that after the latest news of the progress of this con-
vention, the I. I. E. C. has not been content to await calmly the development of events.

The second Commission of the Geneva Assembly which has authority in the mat-
ter entrusted the preliminary examination of the protocol to a sub-committee. This
sub-committee, composed of Messrs Holsti, for Finland, Sir William Malkin for
Great Britain, PlLOTTI for Italy, PELLA for Rumania, STODOLA for Czecho-Slovakia, and
presided over by J. BONNET for France, and at the sittings of which Dr. Luciano De Feo,
Director of the I. I. E. C. was present laid before the Second Commission a draft con-
vention, the text whereof follows : —

Draft Convention.
(List of Heads of States).

Believing that educational films contribute towards the mutual understanding of peoples,
in conformity with the object of the League of Nations, and consequently encourage moral
disarmament ;

Convinced that it is highly desirable to facilitate the international circulation of such
films, which constitute specially effective means of ensuring physical, intellectual and moral
progress ;

Noting that educational films are insufficiently known and that their international
diffusion is too limited ;

Considering that Customs duties constitute a serious obstacle to the circulation of these
films and that States do not obtain any great financial advantage as a compensation for this
disadvantage :

Have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries the following :

- 828 -

(List of Plenipotentiaries).

Who, having communicated their full powers, found in good and due form, have agreed
on the following provisions :

Article I.

For the purposes of the present Convention, there shall be regarded as films which may
be of an international educational character, in general, films based on didactic principles,
that is to say :

(a) Films designed to supply information with regard to the League of Nations
and other international organisations of States which are officially recognised by the High
Contracting Parties ;

(b) Films prepared for use in education of all grades ;

(c) Films intended for occupational training and guidance and films for the scientific
organisation of work, ;

(d) Films dealing with scientific or technical research or designed to spread scientific
knowledge ;

(e) Films dealing with health questions, physical training, social Welfare and relief.

Article II (old Article V).

The High Contracting Parties undertake to accord, within six months from the coming
into force of the present Convention, exemption from all Customs duties and accessory charges
of any kind, except statistical fees and stamp duties, in respect of the import, transit and ex-
port of films of an international educational character produced by concerns or institutions
established in the territory of one of the High Contracting Parties.

They agree that the provisions of the preceding paragraph apply to educational films
' in either of the following forms :

(a) Negatives, printed and developed ;

(b) Positives, printed and developed.

In the case of sound or talking films, the benefits of the present Convention shall also be
accorded to all forms of sound reproduction such as records and acoustic films.

The High Contracting Parlies further untertake not to subject the films referred to in
the first paragraph of this article to internal taxes (in connection with sale or circulation or
of any other kind) other or higher than those to which educational films produced in the
country concerned are subject.

Article III (old Article VI).

Every film for which exemption from Customs duties is to be claimed in accordance
with the present Convention shall be submitted to the International Educational Cinemato-
graphic Institute for examination, and the Institute, if satisfied that the film is of an internat-
ional educational character within the meaning of Article I, shall issue a certificate to that
effect in the form shown in the Annex to the present Convention. On presentation of such
certificate, the necessary facilities for the submission of the film to the national authority com-

- 829 -

petent to grant exemption from Customs duties shall be accorded by the customs and other
departments concerned of the country into which it is desired to import the film.

The decision of the competent national authorities as to whether a film is to be regarded
as entitled to exemption from Customs duties in accordance with the present Convention
shall be final, subject to the provisions of the following article. The said authorities will
notify the International Educational Cinematographic Institute of their decision.

Article IV (old Article VII).

1 . // the authorities of the importing country refuse to grant exemption from Customs
duties to a film because they do not admit its international educational character, the Gov-
ernment of the country where the concern or institution which has produced the film is estab-
lished may, if it considers that it has an interest in the circulation of the film on national
cultural grounds, make friendly representations to the Government of the importing country,
and the two Governments shall consult together on the question.

2. The point to be determined shall be solely whether the film falls within one of the cat-
egories in Article I.

3. If no agreement is reached between the two Governments, the question shall be re-
ferred to two experts, one chosen by the International Educational Cinematographic Institute
and the other chosen by the Government of the importing country, but having no official con-
nection with that Government. If the two experts are agreed, their decision shall be accepted
by the two Governments.

4. It is understood that the foregoing procedure shall not apply when the refusal of the
competent authorities of the importing country to exempt the film is based on the ground that
it is not in accordance with the educational ideas or methods of the country, or on other
grounds of public interest.

Article V (old Article IV).

The International Educational Cinematographic Institute shall prepare as soon as pos-
sible and periodically publish a catalogue of the films to which it has issued a certificate in
accordance with Article III. The catalogue shall also state the decisions taken by the com-
petent authorities of the countries into which importation has been sought. This catalogue,
to be published in the five official languages of the Institute (English, French, German, Ita-
lian and Spanish), shall reproduce in respect of each film the information contained in the
certificates. It shall be communicated to the High Contracting Parties. The said Parties
undertake to encourage, by such means as appear to them to be the most effective, the circula-
tion of the catalogue published by the Institute.

Article VI (old Article VIII).

Nothing in the present Convention shall affect the right of the High Contracting Parties
to censor films in accordance with their own laws or to adopt measures to prohibit the impo rt
and transit of films for reasons of public security or order.

- 830 -

Article VII (old Article IX).

The High Contracting Parties undertake jointly to consider means of granting the
privilege of reduced tariffs or free carriage in respect of the transport of the films of an in-
ternational educational character referred to in Article I.

Article VIII (old Article XII).

Disputes as to the interpretation or application of the present Convention not relating
to the decisions of the competent authorities referred to in Article III shall be submitted
to the Permanent Court of International Justice.

If the High Contracting Parties between whom a dispute has arisen, or any one of them,
were not parties to the Protocol dated December 16th, 1920, relating to the Permanent Court
of International Justice, the dispute shall, if they so desire, be submitted, in accordance with
the constitutional rules of each of them, either to the Permanent Court of International
Justice, or to an arbitral tribunal in conformity with the Convention of October 18th, 1907,
for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, or to any other arbitral tribunal.

Article IX (old Article XIII).

The High Contracting Parties shall communicate to each other and to the International
Educational Cinematographic Institute within six months following the coming into force
in their territories of the present Convention :

(a) The names of the organisations entitled to grant exemption from Customs duties
in accordance with Article III ;

(b) The measures taken to ensure the execution of the provisions of the present Con-
vention.

Article X (old Article XIV).

The Governing Body of the Institute shall draw up regulations concerning the procedure
to be followed by it in order to carry out the present Convention and the fees to be charged
by it for issuing certificates in accordance with Article III and publishing the catalogue
referred to in Article V. These regulations shall be submitted for approval to the Council
of the League of Nations.

Article XI (old Article XV).

The present Convention, of which both the French and English texts shall be authentic,
may be signed at any time before. . . . {six months) on behalf of any Member of the League
of Nations or any non-member State.

Article XII (old Article XVI).

The present Convention shall be ratified. The instruments of ratification shall be
deposited with the Secretary-General of the League of Nations, who will notify the deposit
thereof to all the Members of the League of Nations and to the non-member States, including
the dates at which such deposit has been effected.

- 831 -

Article XIII (old Article XVII).

On and after . . . any Member of the League of Nations and any non-member State
on whose behalf the Convention has not been signed at that date may accede to it.

The instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the League
of Nations, who will notify such deposit and the date thereof to all the Members of the League
of Nations and to non-member States.

Article XIV (old Article XVIII).

The present Convention shall come into force ninety days after the Secretary-General
of the League of Nations has received ratifications or accessions on behalf of at least five
Members of the League of Nations or non-member States.

In respect of each Member or non-member State on whose behalf an instrument of ra-
tification or accession is subsequently deposited, the Convention shall come into force ninety
days after the date of the deposit of such instrument.

Article XV (old Article XIX).

1 . The present Convention may be denounced after the expiration of a period of three
years from the date at which it comes into force.

2. The denunciation of the Convention shall be effected by a written notification ad-
dressed to the Secretary -General of the League of Nations, who will inform all the Members
of the League and the non-member States of each notification and of the date of the receipt
thereof.

3. The denunciation shall take effect one year after the receipt of the notification.

Article XVI (old Article XX).

1 . Any High Contracting Party may declare, at the time of signature, ratification
or accession, that, in accepting the present Convention, he is not assuming any obligation in
respect of all or any of his colonies, protectorates or oversea territories or the territories
under his suzerainty or mandate; the present Convention shall, in that case, not be applicable
to the teritories named in such declaration.

2. Any High Contracting Party may subsequently notify the Secretary -General of the
League of Nations that he desires the present Convention to apply to all or any of the ter-
ritories in respect of which the declaration provided for in the preceding paragraph has been
made. The Convention shall, in that case, apply to all the territories named in such noti-
fication ninety days after the receipt thereof by the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations.

3. Any High Contracting Party may, at any time after the expiration of the period
of three years provided for in Article XV, declare that he desires the present Protocol to
cease to apply to all or any of his colonies, protectorates or oversea territories or the terri-
tories under his suzerainty or mandate. The Convention shall, in that case, cease to ap-
ply to the territories named in such declarations six months after the receipt thereof by the
Secretary-General of the League of Nations.

- 832 -

4. The Secretary-General of the League of Nations shall communicate to all the Mem-
bers of the League of Nations and to the non-member State the declarations and notifications
received in virtue of the present article, together with the dates of the receipt thereof.

Article XVII (old Article XXI).

The present Convention shall be registered by the Secretary-General of the League of
Nations as soon as it comes into force.

M. Pella, reporter for the Second Commission, laying his report and the plan before
the Assembly, asked the Assembly to approve the following resolution :

The Assembly,

Notes with satisfaction the result of the work accomplished by the Special Committee
which it had appointed to examine the draft Convention for facilitating the international
circulation of films of an educational character ;

" Is of opinion that the changes proposed by the Special Committee are calculated to
facilitate the accession of several of the States to this Convention, which, in its broad outline
has received the approval of numerous delegations, but considers that these changes call for a
fresh examination on the part of the Governments concerned ;

' And, having regard to the importance that attaches to a speedy settlement of the
question, requests the Council to convene a meeting of Government delegates at whatever
time it considers most suitable, but if possible at the time of the forthcoming extraordinary
session of the Assembly, provided always that all the Governments have been able to examine
the new draft Convention. At this meeting, the delegates, being in possession of full powers,
Would be called upon to decide whether the proposed Convention, with or without amendment,
is to be opened for signature by any Member of the League or any State non-member. In the
meantime, the Governments concerned might send their observations to the Secretary-General.

The approval of this resolution by the Assembly at the October meeting con-
stitutes the best possible hope for the future. As has been said, the Assembly now agrees
to consider as an urgent matter, to be decided under the auspices of the League of Nations,
the solution of a problem which is urgently desired by all those who see in what may
worthily be called educational films not only a means of knowledge and spiritual elevation
but also a messenger of peace for all men of good will.

PRODUCTION METHODS FOR PROPAGANDA FILMS
ON SOCIAL HYGIENE

By Lucien Viborel,

Director for propaganda of the National
Committee of Defence acainst tuberculosis,

Secretary General for propaganda
of the National Bureau for Social Hygiene.

It is a matter of the greatest urgency to bring to the knowledge of the
public the resources at its disposal in Social Hygiene and at the same to
educate it regarding all that is in any way a menace to health.

Several conferences have been held from time to time in theatres, normal
schools, exhibitions etc. preceded or followed by the distribution of illus-
trated pamphlets showing the work of penetration — in France and North
Africa — by the travelling squads of the Special Bureau of National Hy-
giene. At the same time, the most convincing method of demonstration
and persuasion is the film.

Popular conferences and conversations in schools do not secure a large
public attendance, and only render their maximum efficacy when they are
illustrated by a film.

Before going into detail regarding the work of the Cinema Library
created in 1922 by the National Committee of Defence against Tubercu-
losis and by the National Bureau of Social Hygiene in 1926. I should
like to insist on the fundamental task of the production of propaganda
films for social hygiene. Films specially made for the thesis to be developed
and aimed at the public concerned in the question have had a full success. It is
necessary to take due account of this essential fact.

The same subject can and must assume different aspects according
as to whether shown to elementary school students, to our future teachers
in normal schools, in urban centres or in workshops or villages.

We must not forget that our task is to educate the public, to guide it
methodically towards a knowledge and conquest of fresh ideas. Produ-
cers of propaganda films have not always kept this idea before their eyes.
We have had some admirable efforts, some of them almost perfect, but they

— 834 —

have not come within the well defined limits of a definite programme. We
have not as yet traced this gradual and methodical programme of produc-
tion which will increase the efficacy of our educational movement. This
should be the first and principal concern of our producers.

We want films adapted to the centres where they are shown, drawn
from subjects the importance of which should follow the graduation of a
regular well-conceived plan. Then we shall see a natural and harmonic
increase in the results of our campaign of propaganda.

It is natural that in order to obtain these results a collaboration be-
tween producer and educationalist is indispensable with the object of
handling films of this type. Such collaboration would be able to judge
in precedence to whom the films should be presented, and would have some
knowledge of the capacity for attention of the various publics and the degree
of their understanding of the problems to be treated. With a due acquain-
tance of the needs and limits of public understanding, such collaboration
will be in a position to guide and inspire the scenario writer and producer
of the film, thus duplicating the chances of eventual success.

Our cinema library has a large stock of films dealing with the various
aspects of teaching social hygiene, with a total that reaches some 500 films
of the most varied kinds, all dealing in one way or another with sanitary
or social education. The following are the principal subjects:

Fundamental principles of hygiene : cleanliness, air, water, dental
hygiene, fight against attic dwellings, insects, good milk, prevention of social
scourges, infantile mortality, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, cancer.

Tuberculosis. — 119 films deal with this subject.

In order to spread knowledge on preventive cures and methods of
repression of the disease, films have been produced on sanatoria, preven-
tion methods, dispensaries, etc.

We will mention, among others, the following : " The sanitary village
of Passy Praz-Coutant ", " The Bligny Sanatorium ', " The Leon Bour-
geois Dispensary ", " The Marine Sanatorium of Roscoff ", " The Ville-
min di Nancy Hospital-Sanatorium ", " A Colony of the Grancher Found-
ation ", " A Popular Sanatorium in Italy ".

TuBERCOLOSlS, ITS CAUSES AND PREVENTION form the material for the
following films : " Tuberculosis, its causes and the lessons it teaches ;
" External Tuberculosis " ; ' Tuberculosis among the Poor ", to which

- 835 -

may be added, " Prevention of Tuberculosis by hygiene and vaccination
with B. C. G. ".

Mention may also be made of the films " The Fight against Tubercu-
losis " ; " The Social Task of the Visiting Nurse ", the great dramatic film
' The Force of Life " and the comic films " Mr Piff " ; " Don't Spit "
" Frank's Day ", " The Sacred Veil " etc.

Child Education. — We will mention in this connection eleven fine
films : " Child Hygiene " ; " Two Methods " ; "A Day in the Life of a
New-born Baby " ; How to cure our Little Ones " ; " The Treatment at
Salbris " ; two big dramas, " The Child's Rights " and " Maternity " writ-
ten by the famous cinema author Jean Benoit-Levy, and ' The Future
Mamma " by Dr. Devraigne, gynaecologist at the Paris hospitals.

The latter film provides in seven lessons the completest and most
attractive form of instruction in the matter of bringing up children.

Dangers of venereal disease. — Fourteen films of great interest
provide assistance in fighting the venereal danger. Among them may be
mentioned : " A social disease : Syphilis " ; " Causes and effects of Syphilis " ;
■' Anti-venereal repression in France " — as well as two films with a ped-
agogic tendency, " How shall I tell my child ? " and ' I must tell " (animat-
ed drawings). We have then three fine dramatic films, " The Kiss that
kills ", shown in the big cinemas of Paris, " Once upon a time, there were
three friends ", and for propaganda in North Africa, in an Arabian edition
" Story of the Thousand and Second Night ".

Cancer. — The film " Cancer, Social Scourge " shows the ravages
caused by the disease, its curative treatment and the present state of anti-
cancer methods.

Attic Dwellings. — The film " Children's Souls " by Jean Benoit-
Levy has been shown in the Paris cinemas, obtaining a most flattering suc-
cess. Finally, " The Sacred Veil " by Dr Devraigne justly exalts the fruit-
ful work and life of devotion of the social nurse.

General and contagious diseases. — Subjects of various kinds, all
of them having an influence on the public, have been grouped together under
this heading.

— 836 -

a) Contagious Diseases. — One documentary film is on marsh fever,
" Malaria ', another is entitled " How contagious diseases are caught " and
is shown with animated drawings, while a third on diphtheria arouses con-
siderable attention.

b) General Hygiene. — The films dealing with this vast subject are
very numerous, and among them the following may be mentioned : " The
Fly Peril ", " The Common Fly ", " The Blue Fly ", a scientific film " Care
of the Body ", a film showing some bad habits and how to correct them,

' The Mosquito ", "A clean tooth never gets Caries ", " The Spring ", a
propaganda film on the benefits of water, " The Hygiene of Milk " and
" The Good and the Bad Dairyman ".

See Internat. Review of the Cinema, May 1932; Ueffort de pro-
pagande d' hygiene sociale pres le cinematographe en France.

Our cinema library receives a continuously increasing request for
films, and the number of projections is steadily rising. In 1929, there were
1300 projections against 500 in 1930 and 8000 in 1931.

I should like to point out that as a result of our interest in the matter,
collections of films have been formed and stored in the principal regional
bureaux where cinema teaching is undertaken, including the Bureau for
Cinema Teaching and Education in Paris, the Northern Bureau, the Acad-
emy of Montpellier in the South West region and at the Algiers Bureau
of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine.

Poland, Egypt, Roumania, Uruguay, Belgium, Brazil and Spain have
applied to our cinema library which has developed and maintained
connections with all organizations concerned in teaching hygiene through
the film, such as the Hygiene Committee of the League of Nations, the
Commission of Cinema Studies of the International Institute for Intellectual
Cooperation, and the International Institute of Educational Cinematography
of the League of Nations.

It seems to me useless to insist any more on the power of pene-
tration of the film on children's minds, but what can we judge the value
of the film as an educational means for adults to be ? Our inquiry among
French Teachers has shown the educational value of the cinema for the
adult.

Cinema technique during the last years has become enriched with a
new power, the sound and talking film, which can be useful to the educational
film for its lessons.

If the entertainment cinema tends towards the theatre now that it is

— 837 —

a sound cinema, the teaching and propaganda methods acquire an undoubted
superiority owing to the sound and talking film.

Created by an efficient technique judiciously employed, the film, as
such, may become an element of certain success because it speaks. We
do not refer only to the attractive qualities of an agreable voice, of the in-
terest aroused by persons who behave as in real life with all the charm of
the unforseen and the variety of their behaviour and gestures, but we should
like to point out that the talking film is able to express, without tiring the
audience, all that it is necessary for the audience to know.

The silent film uses sub-titles to which objection may be made. They
are often incomplete and inexact owing to the desire to throw the fewest
number of words possible on the screen so that the public may be able to
read them. On the other hand, with a minimum of four or five lines which
pass rapidly across the screen there is the risk that the sub-title will not
be properly read. It is no secret to state that most of us feel guilty of not
having deciphered a number of sub-titles of films we have seen, either be-
cause they were handwritten or believed to be boring.

To sum up the matter : I. Omissions or obscurity due to excessive
brevity are capable of making sub-titles useless. II. Long sub-titles
distract the public's attention and are not read to the end.

In the two cases referred to, the object of the sub-title is not fulfilled,
and the consequences will be especially serious for films seeking to popularize
science, or educational or propaganda films. Such a state of things would
be fatal, and it is clear that educational and scientific films have all to gain
from being spoken and sound films.

A talking film develops an idea right up to the end without tiring the
spectator and under conditions approaching reality in a way that does not
admit of argument. The text is merely the faithful reproduction of the
theories it is desired to propagate.

Is it possible to measure the power of attraction and influence of a film
produced in an atmosphere of reality creating a lively current of sympathy
between the actors and the public ?

Cannot we imagine the rapid spread of the theories of Pasteur if they
had been illustrated by himself before an attentive and understanding
public ?

The National Committee of Defence against Tuberculosis is in a pos-
ition to offer fresh material and new ideas in this connection, and it owes
this fact to a capable technician who has placed all the resources of his science

- 838 -

and the magic of his art at the disposal of social endeavour. I mean M. Jean
Benoit-Levy.

" Creating immunity against TB with hygiene and vaccination with
" B.C.G. " is a talking film in which the creator of the serum, Prof. Albert
Calmette speaks in collaboration with Prof. Leon Bernard, who has proved
its results.

The film B. C. G. therefore places before the eyes of the public the
irrefutable and definite text which the two scientists have composed them-
selves, and which never varies wherever the film may happen to be shown,
in whatever country or city. Entire humanity can listen to the words of
Professors Calmette and Bernard, follow their experiments and tests on
the screen, learn the real history of the serum B.C.G. the work it involves,
and the results that can be obtained from it. The film will be the exact
and perfect picture of their completed work and the full explanation of
their theory. The importance of a work spread round the world in this
fashion is easily grasped.

It is no longer indispensable to organize tours of our earnest lecturers
throughout the world both rural and urban in order to educate the public.
The film carries to all countries both lecture and lecturer.

The National Bureau of Social Hygiene has sonorized " Anti-Venereal
Methods in France ". Next December, a new film will be ready " One
Penny for Health ", intended to mark the educational value of the national
campaigns for the Anti-Tuberculosis postage stamps.

The special value of the film lies in the address by Professor Leon
Bernard.

The public learns from the scientist's mouth of the big effort made
in France by the national campaigns for the antituberculosis stamps. To
the inevitable mental question which everybody puts, " What have been
the results of this campaign from the point of view of mortality ? ■' two
graphs and the definite answer of the professors reply saying : " The results
have been an undoubted lowering of the death-rate from tuberculosis in
France ".

Those who have seen and understood this film will never forget it.
Is it an international film ? Can we send the film which has enjoyed the
fullest success in France about the world without alterations ?

I do not think so.

The French results can be proved and repeated in every country, but
special adaptation is necessary.

-839-

It is necessary to take account of the moral atmosphere of the regions
chosen, to consider local customs and the nature and the spirit of the
inhabitants.

We are convinced that a film — even when successfully produced —
if it is not made in the country where it is shown must have something lack-
ing and sometimes will reveal mistakes.

Only technical and scientific films speak a universal language because
they do not conflict with the habits or customs of a foreign country.

The film " Prevention of TB with the B. C. G. serum ", or the other
scientific film on the technique and application of the Ramon anti-diptheria
anatoxin for example, will be everywhere easily understood. Not only the
documentary but the educational film the purpose of which is to persuade
and convince, must take account of the subtle differences of mentality and
opinion and the reality of the facts which we have set forth.

If we want to lead the fight for health in the world, we must produce
various educational films which must contain those special elements of suc-
cess indispensable for the particular countries and conditions where it is
proposed to show them, while these instruments of success should also be
distributed with criteria of prudence, method and common sense.

(Translated from the french).

2 lee ingl.

VISUAL AIDS IN CLASSROOM TEACHING

Various types of visual material have been used in teaching for centuries. Old time
pedagogues were quick to see the value of the chart, the map, and illustrations. More
and more the educator today is employing the " seeing experience " in his instruction.
First on the list of " seeing experiences " of visual aids is the excursion. Many people
think only of the stereograph, stereoptican slide, and moving picture as visual aids. But
the most vital of all is the one that gives the child first hand contact. The children, who
only read about the fire station cannot be as interested in it as the group that has visited
it, talked to the firemen, watched them scale their long ladders, and examined the fire
apparatus.

An art class was studying and painting sky and water. Had this class not visited
the water front and made actual observations, their paintings would have been merely
photographic reproduction of the teacher's work.

I never see a valley without thinking of my own first impression of the word " val-
ley " — a very regular depression between two steep and regular inclines — the teacher's
hasty sketch. In this day of automobiles and school busses such inaccurate ideas need
never be formed. Now we can take our classes to see this work of nature and our chil-
dren will have correct mental images of a valley. So I shall repeat, the excursion, the
living experience, is the most complete visual aid to instruction.

There are, however, many times when it is impossible to make use of this aid. What
then will be used to round out and make accurate concepts of the information given
by the printed page ? Photographs, prints, exhibits, charts, maps, globes, stereographs,
stereoptican slides, and motion pictures are the visual aids commonly used in schools
today.

Many of these have been used for a long time, while others such as the motion pic-
ture are quite new to us.

There can be no doubt that more correct mental images are formed when the
" seeing experience " is added to instruction. This is not the only advantage. There
is a great deal to be taught during the first six years of a child's school life, and we must
use such technique and tools as will economize time. Bonds of learning are more
quickly formed where instruction is accompanied by definite, accurate, clear cut mental
images. New reading systems recognize this when they make as part of their primer
material pictorial dictionaries of the entire vocabulary to be taught. The illustrations
accompanying such words as many, news, on, of, are very interesting and certainly help
in making more meaningful such difficult words.

Thus by the use of such visual aids as excursions, photographs, prints, exhibits,
charts, maps, globes, stereographs, stereoptican slides, and motion pictures a definite
saving of time is made and the child's mental images are accurate.

— 841 —

We come now to the use of these visual aids, which is often unskilful and haphazard.
The very name given to this material tells how it is to be used — as a help, an aid, not
as an end in itself. To herd children into an auditorium and merely ' show pic-
tures " is not a skilful or economic use of the educational film. That the children
do get a certain amount of information from just " seeing " a film is certain, but how much
more it would be if the film were used more scientifically. Care must be taken too
that the use of lantern slides does not become just a showing of one picture after another.
Carefully chosen slides illustrate information that might otherwise be vague. The
points brought out by the slides should be thoroughly discussed, thus supplementing
the text book material. Such procedure will not permit the use of a great number
of slides during one lesson. In the selection of photographs and prints the teacher must
be sure that they give correct ideas of size and color.

The next question is, just how should these visual aids be used to the best advantage
in teaching reading, arithmetic, physiology, nature study, and geography in the first six
grades.

In the first year of school, reading is the important subject. The skilful first grade
teacher knows that actual experience is the greatest stimulus. So before the children
read about the playhouse, they make one. It is complete in all details. There it stands,
the product of busy little hands. And as the children read about the playhouse and
family in their primers they visualize their own playhouse family. In another unit there
is a story of a dog show. How much more real is the reading after a dog show has been
made. These children have a little dog walking on a big, red ball and a big dog stand-
ing on his head in their show too. As they read they visualize these things that
acthey have made, and new words are learned more quickly and meanings are more
accurate.

One of the first steps used in developing a reading lesson in primary grades is the
study of the illustrations accompanying the story. This study of pictures stimulates
interest. After enjoying the pictures that illustrate a certain lively second grade story,
we say, "Let's read the story and find out just how the rope, the waterfall, and the spider
helped Pouchy Pelican '.

A third grade reader contains a fine unit on birds. We try to use this always in the
spring when the birds have arrived. During the study, excursions are taken to the woods
to see the birds in their natural homes. Stuffed models and a collection of nests are
on display m the school room. Pictures of birds are displayed on the bulletin boards.
To introduce the unit a splendid bird film is shown. As each bird is studied, a home made
lantern slide picture of the bird is projected on the board. To summarize the unit
the film is again shown and the children paint pictures of the birds for their bird books.

It can easily be seen that without such visual aids this study of birds would never
be as real to the child, and impressions could be very wrong.

The lantern slide picture introduces a variety to word drill that is very welcome.
The slide which contains the picture of words to be studied is projected on the black-
board. The teacher writes the names on the objects as the children point them out.
The game is to see how many words are remembered when the picture is flashed off.

The use of all these visual aids should be carried on into the upper grades where
reading becomes literature. Stories of knights and castles, foreign lands, famous inven-

— 842 —

tions, in fact nearly all things that children read about should be accurately illustrated
so that correct mental images are formed.

The arithmetic lesson that makes use of visual aids will get a far better response
than the one where none are used. The school store is a real stimulus for making change
correctly and finding the amount of bills. When the little child can see and touch the
objects he counts, the arithmetic lesson will be a delightful game. Attractive food
charts for planning and finding the cost of school luncheons, picnics, and parties can be
made from magazine advertisements. The teacher who realizes the importance of
using visual aids will depend upon them to help her in the teaching of such difficult pro-
cesses as carrying in addition, division with and without remainders, fractions, and
mensuration. Here the " seeing experience " greatly lessens the amount of time neces-
sary for intelligent understanding.

We have always been told that actual contact is vitally important in the study of
nature. Considering natural science as a study apart from the rest of the curriculum,
this may be true. But now there is a very close correlation between nature and every
other subject taught. The reading, geography, physiology, or English lesson may stim-
ulate a desire to know more about beavers, rubber trees, correct food, pets. Whenever
possible, the observation of the living thing in its natural environment would be ideal, but
it is often impossible and impracticable. Here is where the moving picture is invaluable.
The child can observe in fifteen minutes natural phenomena that would otherwise take
days, perhaps months or years to see. Usually the film contains such clever graphic
diagrams and microphotography that the story is quite complete. To illustrate : a
second grade was reading a story about beavers. They were very much interested in
the stories and pictures of these clever animals, but it was very hard for the children to
understand how an animal could bring down trees and build dams. A film was avail-
able that showed beavers at work. It answered all the questions perfectly and the chil-
dren were given an understanding that they otherwise could not have had.

A fifth grade class was studying Alaska. They were more than ordinarily interested
in the volcanoes of the Pacific Region. Encyclopedias and books on science, even pic-
tures were not able to explain these phenomena sufficiently well to satisfy these young-
sters. Some weeks later, however, the film Volcanoes was received. The subject was
reviewed and a list of the things the children wanted to know was prepared. Then they
saw the film. A discussion followed which showed that the picture had cleared up the
vague ideas and given an intelligent understanding. Had the moving picture been
available at the beginning of the study, much less time would have been spent because
the film so well explained the written discussions.

The educational film has a very important place in the teaching of physiology also.
By means of this visual aid certain important facts about food, teeth, posture, and clean-
liness may be taught to even first grade children. Older children understand clearly
just how food is digested when the next book discussions are supplemented by the mov-
ing picture on the subject.

In one of our classes there was too great a percentage of underweight children. An
investigation showed that the children could have had the necessary amount of milk
and other nutritions foods but, as often happen among American children, they refused
to eat the foods they needed. The teacher decided that a thorough food study should be

-843 -

the basis of the physiology lessons. This study was introduced by the discussion of
foods of baby animals. After an interesting conversation that brought out the fact that
milk is the food of little animals, a film on milk was shown. This picture showed chil-
dren's pets drinking milk and then went a step further by showing several healthy chil-
dren at breakfast and supper. Milk of course was an important part of the meals . After
the children saw this picture, there were many things to talk about, and the teacher let
them talk until they had been very thoroughly discussed. The next lesson was a trip
to a large dairy farm where modern equipment is the keynote. Then followed a trip
to the milk plant where the milk is pasturized and bottled. The lesson that followed
these trips was a discussion of the things seen. The film, " Wisconsin Dairies ", was a
complete summarization of the excursions and proved more interesting and easily
understood because of the lessons that preceded it. Then each child was measured and
weighed. During an arithmetic lesson this was compared to the normal weight scale,
and the number of pounds each child had to gain in order to have normal weight wa s
found. The next problem was to determine the foods that would help them to gain.
They had learned that milk was the most complete food. So they decided to drink
milk. Interest ran so high that they weighed and measured each other each week and
kept a graph of their gain which was very material.

This is but one of a series of lessons in physiology which has brought fine results
in our classes since we supplemented the text book with the moving picture.

In the subject of geography visual aids are a veritable Carpet of Bagdad ca rrying
the students swiftly and surely to faraway places, giving them an intimate point of view
they could not have otherwise.

Wherever possible the excursion should be used. Certain physical features taught
in geography can be found in any locality. There is no better way for children to
understand the meandering of a stream than by following the stream's course. Shore
lines, beaches, cliffs, valleys, soil formation, weather can all be best understood
through contact. And when direct contact is impossible, other " seeing experiences "
must be used. Such visual aids as photographs, prints, post-card views, and manufac-
turers' exhibits can be had for almost nothing. The agents of foreign railway and
steamship lines sell for a small price the finest posters illustrating the famous places we
hear and read about.

What interesting things are told by maps and globes ! From them we can determine
zones, climate, winds, rainfall, surface, drainage, probable crops, and population. The
modern geography text book is rich in maps. Most of them contain fine product, po-
pulation, railroad, political and physical maps. Where these visual aids are intelligently
used they open wide the door to geographical knowledge .

There is no finer way to introduce a new unit in geography than by the moving
picture. Interest is stimulated so the pupils want to know more about the subject.
Then follow several periods of study of text books, pictures, stereographs, and the mov-
ing picture material itself. After this study, the second showing of the film and the
discussion following it, summarizes the unit nicely.

It is clearly understood in our school system that the visual material is to be cor-
related with other subjects in the curriculum, that it is to be preceded by a certain amount
of preparation and followed by a check of some kind. So the moving picture as a visual

— 844 -

aid in geography is never just a " picture show ". When used as an introduction to a
country or section of a country, certain objectives should be set up for the children to
look for in viewing the film. In the film Alaska with which we introduced the study of
that country we set up these objectives :

1) What are 4 industries of Alaska?

2) What are 3 of the farm products ?

3) What kind of people are the natives ?

4) Why have white people gone to Alaska ?

The picture answers these questions as you will see. (Show film, Alaska).

You have seen in this picture that the industries of Alaska are farming, mining,
lumbering and fishing ; that the crops raised are gram, cabbages, and potatoes ; that the
natives are Eskimos ; and that the white people are teachers, farmers, fishermen, lum-
bermen, and miners. Pupils prove their statements by describing the part of the pic-
ture that gave the information. Types of checks that may follow the showing of a pic-
ture are the oral discussion, written test, oral or written paragraph. A peep-show formed
a check on the films of Washington's Life and Times in a third grade class, while a sixth
grade made a " shadow play " after seeing the same films.

It is through careful preparation for the seeing of the educational film and the
check that follows, that this form of visual aid is raised from the plane of mere entertain-
ment.

Realizing the important place that visual aids have m modern education, the De-
partment of Education of Pennsylvania has made the subject of Methods of Visual
Educat on a requirement in all State Teachers' Colleges. Correct technique in this
b ranch is but a part of the technique of the other subjects in the curriculum. For this
reason courses of study should list the visual material available in the school system just
as text books are listed, and teachers should be taught how to use it scientifically. When
these two, ample visual aids and correct use of them supplement our work in the class-
room, we shall be assured of interest, economy, and efficiency in both teaching and
learning.

/. /. E. C. Inquiries

PUBLIC ATTENDANCE AT THE CINEMA

(conclusion)

Character of frequency of attendance (groups 3 and 6 of questions).

A fact of interest can be learned from the nature of the attendance at the cinema,
that is, if the cinemas are frequented by the students in the afternoon or evening, and
whether in the week-days or on holidays. This inquiry derives additional value from
the fact that it is of necessity connected with a consideration of the phenomenon of phy-
sical eye fatigue caused by the cinema, and also with the question as to whether the
cinema may constitute an element of danger and distraction for the scholars.

The results of both inquiries have already been published in the pages of this Review,
and we shall mention again the conclusions drawn later on.

In the following table the numerical data relative to the nature or kind of cinema
attendance will be found, divided by centres, age and sex.

DAYS OF ATTENDANCE
Boys:

Weekdays
Holidays .

Weekdays
Holidays .

Afternoons
Evenings .

Afternoons
Evenings .

10-12 years

Large Small
Centres Centres

Total

940
1990

158

1553

3543

13-16 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

706
2286

189
794

Total

895
3080

17 years and upwar d

Large Small r~ ,
Centres Centres

2049
2251

HOURS OF ATTENDANCE
Boys:

35
71

Girls :

1125

179

1304

365

145

510

177

20

1825

934

2759

452

193

645

198

24

2084
2322

197
222

994

149

1143

831

119

950

1647

7

1654

545

1568

3113

2006

804

2810

2467

85

2552

Girls :

735

76

811

142

60

202

77

21

98

995

1045

3040

498

239

737

274

34

308

— 846 —

The total number of replies obtained from the two groups of questions under exam-
ination can be seen from the following figures :

Days of Attendance :

Replies : 1 7,659, whereof 1 3,022 from boys and 4,637 from girls ;

Hours of Attendance :

Replies ; 17,418, whereof 12,222 from boys, and 5,196 from girls.

In respect to these queries, there is a clear majority both from boys and girls and
from all centres of inquiry and for all ages for attendance during working days and during
the evening. The proportions vary according to the following table :

Days of Attendance :

Boys :

Girlt

Large Centres

Small Centres

Large Centres

Small Centres

Weekday

Holiday

Weekday Holiday

Weekday

Holiday

Weekday Holiday

10-12 years. .

. 32.08

67.92

9.23 90.77

38.13

61.87

17.67 8233

13-16 » . .

. 23.59

76.41

19.23 80.77

44.67

55.33

42.89 57.11

17 upwards .

. 47.65

52.35

33.01 66.99

47.20

52.80

45.45 54.55

The frequency of attendance on holidays diminishes with the age, both for boys
and girls, and especially for the latter. The phenomenon is easily explicable by the
greater variety of amusement offered on holidays in the way of excursions, sport in the
open air, and closer family life, all of which are more noticeable on Sundays than on
weekdays.

Another fact is that in the smaller centres, although the general tendency remains
about the same, the percentage of those who frequent the cinemas on holidays is, espe-
cially for the boys, very much higher than for urban centres or the chief towns of pro-
vinces. In the villages and small towns, there is of course, much less opportunity of
distraction than in the cities. The cinemas are open very often only on the days of
rest from factory or agricultural labour, and it is logical that the young people are
attracted to amusements with greater intensity on these days.

Hours

of Attendance :

Boys

;

Girls :

Large

Centres

Small C

-entrcs

Large

Centres

Small Centres

Aitnoon.

Evng.

Attn.

Evng.

Artn.

Evng.

Aftn. Evng.

10-12 years. .

. 30.15

60.85

8.67

91.33

25.82

74.18

6.78 93.22

13-16 ' « .

. 29.29

70.71

12.88

87.12

22.19

77.81

20.06 79.94

17 years up. .

. 40.03

59.97

7.61

92.39

21.94

78.06

38.18 61.82

The variations in frequency of attendance in this group of questions are more
remarkable than for the preceding one. Both in larger and smaller centres, both for
boys and girls and especially the latter, the preference for evening visits to the cinema
is clearly shown. There is, however, a big disproportion between the figures for the
boys and those for the girls. The boys show for urban centres a maximum of evening

- 847 -

attendances for the class of between 13 and 16 years of age, for the reason that at the
age of 17 and upwards they are probably attracted by other forms of amusement
(theatres, concerts etc.) which reduce in a marked manner the desire to frequent the
cinema. In the case of rural centres, the proportions of evening attendance of the
boys are very high, and reach on the average 90 per cent.

In the case of the girls, the evening attendance is very high in the more import-
ant centres. In fact, it is higher even than for the boys, and is probably due to the fact
that in the evening they can enjoy the company of their parents more easily than in the
afternoons. In urban centres the proportion decreases notably in direct ratio with
increasing age.

It is also worthy of note that the percentages of frequency of attendance in the
evenings are much higher for the children as compared with the adolescents, which fact
again probably depends on the possibility of having company in the evenings.

Following the class of parents' occupations, we have the following results :

Days of Attendance :
Boys :

Parents' Occupations
Workmen. Agric. Pvte. Mns. Emplys. Prof. Shopkpr?.

Weekdays 730 452 371 1196 446 741

Holidays 2575 1547 551 1936 744 1387

Girls :

Weekdays 437 219 151 569 207 368

Holidays 1030 581 137 862 228 637

Hours of Attendance :
Boys :

Afternoons 709 394 294 1038 451 768

Evenings 2448 1576 560 1815 657 1231

Girls :

Afternoons 247 143 65 339 121 193

Evenings . 1089 652 182 958 278 347

Days of Attendance :

Total Weekdays

Workmen 4772 1167

Agriculturists 2799 671

Men of Pvte Means 1210 522

Employees 4563 1765

Professional Men 1625 653

Shop-keepers 3133 1109

Holiday*

24.46

3605

75.54

23.97

2128

76.03

43.14

688

56.84

38.68

2798

61.32

40.12

972

59.88

35.40

2024

64.60

The highest attendance on holidays is given by the classes of the agriculturists and
workmen, who are perhaps those who chiefly dispose of the holidays to take a little enter-

- 848 -

tainment. Nor is there anything to argue from the fact that the replies to the ques-
tionnaires come from the children and not the parents, because in working class families,
the children generally assist their fathers and mothers in their work, even if they do not
use their leisure time in work of their own, the income from which goes to swell the
family budget. The children of shopkeepers occupy the third place in the category,
while the lowest attendance on Sundays and holidays is returned by the children of per-
sons of private means and professional men whose children rarely, or not at all, assist
them in their work.

The maximums and minimums are shown by the following table :

Weekday Attendance : Holidays :

Men of Private Means Agriculturists

Professional Men Workmen

Employees Shop-keepers

Shop-keepers Employees

Workmen Professional Men

Agriculturists Men of Private Means

Hours of attendance :

Total Afternoon % Evening %

Workmen 4493 956 21.28 3537 78.72

Agriculturists 2765 537 19.63 2228 80.37

Private Means 1101 359 32.60 742 67.40

Employees 4150 1377 33.18 2773 66.82

Professional Men 1507 572 37.95 935 62.05

Shop-keepers 2924 961 32.86 1963 67.14

As was the case for the holidays, the highest attendance in the evening hours is
shown by the categories of agriculturists and workmen who are obliged, both parents and
children, to utilize the afternoons in the best method possible for their work The lowest
evening attendance is to be observed among the professional and employee classes, and
this is probably due to the fact that they have possibilities of finding other forms of
amusement in the evening apart from cinema.

The progressions from the maximum to the minimum can be seen from the follow-
ing table :

Afternoon Attendance : Evening Attendance :

Professional Men Agriculturists

Employees Workmen

Shop-keepers Persons of Private Means

Persons of Private Means Shop-keepers

Workmen Employees

Agriculturists Professional Men

Has attendance during weekdays at the cinema, and therefore during school days
and in evening hours, any effect on the physical condition of the children or on their
activity or diligence or sense of duty ?

— 849 -

With regard to the first point — tiredness — a report containing the opinions of
experts in the field of cinema technique and infantile physiology and psychology as well
as data drawn from an inquiry carried out by the I. I. E. C. among children and youths
of scholastic age was published in the pages of this review in the May number of 1930,
which was dedicated generally to hygiene problems. With the regard to the second
point, it may be recalled that the I. I. E. C. issued in 1930 a questionnaire prepared espe-
cially for teachers which brought in a remarkable number of replies (over 3000), the re-
sults of which were also published in this review during 1931.

The conclusions arrived at during those inquiries in so far as they concern the pre-
sent report are as follows :

Visual Fatigue — is accentuated if the cinema is frequented in the evening. The
cerebral work of the day, especially in organisms v/hich are not yet physically and phy-
siologically developed tends to aggravate the evil consequences deriving from the contrasts
and intensity of the light. It is clear, however, that the phenomenon of eye fatigue
is numerically of not frequent occurrence and in general diminishes with increase in age.
The figures already published which included major and minor centres were as follows :

Major Centres : Minor Centres :

Boys Girls Boys Girls

10-12 years 32.37% 33.77% 24.45% 29.97%

13-15 years 22.94 « 25.20 « 23.11 « 25.86 «

16 years and upwards 20.88 « 20.50 « 29.82 « 8.70 «

Physical Fatigue is also accentuated by evening attendance at the cinema which
aggravates the effects of the day's work. The number complaining of this trouble was
very small. It was higher in the larger centres than in the small, where life is healthier
and simpler, and less abundant in emotional stimuli and therefore calculated to develop
greater physical resistance.

The figures were as follows :

Major Centres : Minor Centres :

Boys Girls Boys Girls

16,44% 17.17% 6.68% 8.92%

With respect to the action of the cinema on the scholastic activity of the children,
the teachers queried answered by a great majority that there could be no doubt of tht
utility of the cinema as a recreational element, as a scientific and cultural means, and as
an indirect aid to scholastic teaching, which excludes any possibility that the film may
be considered as a dangerous distraction or harmful element in pedagogic activity.
Another charge had to be faced, namely that the theatrical film in its present day con-
ditions contained, especially for very youthful spectators, psychological elements calculated
to injure a proper concept of life and to give the youthful audience the impression that
life is not, as it ought to be considered, a duty towards themselves and humanity but a
pleasure, or a potential source of immorality or incitement to crime, something in fact

- 850 -

utterly opposed to the children's family and scholastic duties tending indeed to lead t'h em
to desire to do anti-social acts .

These observations are gathered in the course of the teacher's life and are therefore
connected with the phenomenon of attendance. There is little doubt that if the danger
in question did really exist, more frequent attendances at the cinema would only have the
effect of aggravating it. This would especially be the case when we consider that while
during afternoon shows projections of a family character are often given, this is not so
in the evening shows, or on holidays when the exhibitors, anxious to have their houses
as well filled as possible, are not concerned with the quality of the shows or their moral
and educational value.

Nature and Character of attendance.

The seventh group of questions considered the manner in which the pupils to whom
the questionnaires were distributed, attended the cinema, that is whether alone, or in the
company of friends, or relations.

In the following table, the figures for the three points under discussion are given with,
as usual, reference to centres, age and sex.

NATURE OF THE ATTENDANCE

Alone ....
With friends .
With relations

Alone ....
With friends .
With relations .

10-12 years

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

211

600

1984

25

195

2545

Total

13-16 years

Large Small
Centres Centres

Total

17 years and upwards

Large
Centres

Small
Centres

Bovs

Girls :

Total

179

390

304

194

498

1196

31

271

871

571

218

789

1970

50

1247

3231

2076

489

2565 !

1158

22

243

268

2

147

149;

11

10

319

514

62

125

187

60

14

551

3096:

553

59

612

301

11

1227
2020
1180

21

74

312

The total number of replies for this group of questions is 18,004, divided as follows

Boys
Girls

12,771
5,233

For both sexes the lowest figures are given for attendance alone without the company
of either friends of relations, The figures here are lower for the girls than for the boys,
as the following proportional table shosw : —

-851 -

Boys:

Lar?e Centres Small Centres

Alone With friends Relations Alone With friends Relations

10-12 years 7,55 21,46 70,99 10,54 15,97 73,49

13-16 years 10,30 19,35 70,35 21,55 24,22 54,23

17 upwards 27,66 45,66 26,78 30,09 48,55 21,36

Girls :

10-12 years 0,90 7,06 92,04 21,83 28,66 49,51

13-16 years 0,32 10,05 89,63 44,42 37,76 17,82

17 upwards 2,96 16,12 80,92 25,72 42,86 31,42

The diversity between the individual groups and the two sexes is quite remarkable.
The boys frequent the cinema alone in a much higher proportion than the girls in the
large centres, while the figures for the girls are higher both totally and proportionally
than the boys in the smaller centres.

Attendance in the company of friends shows a progression in direct ratio with
increase in age. Although the figures here are lower for the girls than for the boys, they
are higher in the smaller centres than in the major ones.

This fact which is worth observing is easily to be explained. In the case of the larger
centres, the girls have fewer chances of being accompanied in consequence of the greater
distances. It is therefore logical that their families prefer to have them accompanied
by relations to public shows rather than send them alone or with persons about whose
conduct or morals they can know little.

The figures for attendance with relations show that the boys give low figures for both
large and small centres. The girls show very high percentages in this respect for the
more populous centres, while in the case of the minor centres they prefer to go to the cin-
ema either alone or accompanied by friends.

The division according to the occupations of the parents without reference to age
or centre is as follows : —

Manner of Attendance :
Boys :

Parents' Occupations
Wrkmen Agric. Pvte Means Emplys Prof. Shpkprs

Alone 544 271 184 433 178 476

With friends 918 525 280 727 434 739

With relations 1791 1293 466 1932 608 891

Girls :

Alone 139 137 18 29 26 68

With friends 227 144 47 132 54 113

With relations 1021 512 205 1160 338 767

The varieties in the manner of attendance are also revealed in an interesting manner
if one examines the kinds of occupations of the parents. It can be seen from the follow-

-852 -

ing proportional table that it is not correct to assume, as has been don e in other similar
inquiries, that the large mass of children and youths who frequent th e cinemas either
alone or in the company of friends is composed of children of the workmen and agricul-
tural class. The higher figures come from the professional classes and from those pro-
fessional classes that are best off. financially speaking, and most occupied in intellectual
work.

The highest isolated attendances are to be observed in the case of the children of
persons of private means and shop-keepers, while the minimum is registered by the chil-
dren of employees and agriculturists. The highest figure for attendance with friends
is to be seen among the children of men of the professional class and the shop-keepers,
while the minimum is found among the agriculturists and the employees. In other
words, those who go oftenest to the cinema accompanied by relations are the children
of employees and agriculturists, while the minimum in this case is attributable to the
children of shop-keepers and men of private means.

Manner of Attendance :

Total Alone % With friends % With reltns %

Workmen 4660 703 15.08 1145 24,57 2812 60.35

Agriculturists -2782 308 11.07 669 24.04 1805 64.89

Private Means 1200 202 16.83 327 27.25 671 55.92

Employees 4113 462 11.23 859 20.88 3092 57.75

Professional Men 1638 204 12.46 488 29.79 946 57.75

Shop-keepers 3054 544 17.81 852 27.89 1658 54.30

The phenomenon under consideration is not easily explained. That the children
of men of private means and professional men should provide high figures for the second
category is understandable owing to social conditions and the number of relationships
between the various families. The maximum given for the third category of manner
of attendance, that is, by the children of employees, is also logical. We can understand
that this class as a consequence of its mental attitude and habits would naturally prefer
to undertake the surveillance of its children even when they go to places of amusemen t
so as not to let them run the risk of the dangers inevitably inherent in isolated attendance
or attendance with friends. The other returns, on the other hand, offer difficulties and
complexities for analysis which would be worth a more detailed examination. Such
would, however, not be within the scope of the present statistical study.

For this group of questions, we may make the following summarized table : —

Manner of Attendance :

Alone With friends With relations

Shop-keepers Professional Men Employees

Men of Pvte Means Shop-keepers Agriculturists

Workmen Men of Pvte Means Workmen

Professional men Workmen Professional Men

Employees Agriculturists Men of Pvte Means

Agriculturists Employees Shop-keepers

- 853 -

Do you like the Cinema? (Question 1).

This first question aimed at obtaining from the children a purely general impression
of the effects on their spirits of seeing film shows. Analyses of a psychological character
and emotional appreciations arising from witnessing moving pictures will form the mat-
erial of another and quite different inquiry which is being examined and worked on at
the present moment.

There is no doubt that the cinema in one way or another delights young folk. The
figures prove it beyond discussion, and render any comment on the fact out of place.
A simple division between those who declared themselves enthusiastic devotees of the
film and those who were not in favour of it gives the following results : —

Large Centres :

Small Centres :

Boys Girls

Boys Girls

9790 4114

2781 1682

142 81

41 26

In favour 9790

Not in favour

Thus we have a total of 18657 answers to this question, that is the entire number
of the questionnaires which were in the affirmative for one question at least, or for one
statistical indication.

The proportional figures, small as the figures not favourable to the film are, worked

out as follows : —

Large Centres : Small Centres :

Boys Girls Boys Girls

In favour 98,57 98,07 98,55 98,48

Not In favour 1,43 1,98 1,45 1,52

We can see from the foregoing figures a slight preponderance of the feminine an-
swers contrary to the cinema in comparison with the males.

In the matter of age and category of parent's occupations, the returns are not par-
ticularly significant. However, as a matter of supplementary interest we add the fol-
lowing figures : —

Age :

10-12 years

13-16 years

17 years and & upward

ys Girls

Boys Girls

Boys Girls

Not in favour 13 5 45 23 125 79

It may be said, without going into proportional figures that the percentages cor-
respond exactly to the numerical returns for the age groups. There is therefore a larger
number of votes contrary to the cinema in direct ratio with the increase in age, that is
as the possibility of reasoned criticism and of the selective sense augments.

Parents' Occupations :

Workmen Agric. Private Means Emplys Prof. Shop-kprs

Not in favour. . 59 47 21 94 18 51

that is to say the proportion for the single categories show the following progression of
votes contrary to the cinema : employees, workmen, agriculturists, men of private means,
shop-keepers and professional men.

- 854 -

Opinions on the Cinema (Question 4).

As has been noted, the proposal was to induce the young people to give with a word
or some simple phrase a synthesis of the impressions awakened in them by the cinema.
The following results were obtained : —

Larce Centres : Small Centres :

Boys Girls Boys Girls

It is amusing 5932 3995 2145 1642

Instructive 4893 3729 2212 1637

Educative 1714 1521 615 389

It is a pastime 19 17 21 5

Pleasant and moving 32 58 18 3

It is boring 113 22 12 7

Provokes f :tigue :

in the eyes 28 5 9 6

physically 12 1 4 2

to the brain 4 — I —

Makes one sad 4 — — 2

Pictures don't reflect real life 2 — 1 —

Little educative value or is immoral 15 6 4 7

Always danger of fire 3 1 — 1

Theatre much better 2 I 1 1

It is not possible to establish the number of the answers, because masculine and
feminine relations expressed only one opinion while others gave more than one answer,
while again others, while answering some points in the questionnaire were silent on this
point.

The most interesting replies from the psychological point of view {the pictures do
not reflect real life and the theatre is much better) came from lads of 1 7 or more years,
dwelling in the more populous centres. The charge of immorality, returned in 32 cases,
was almost entirely framed by adolescents or youths of over 13 years (the young men over
17 only formulated this accusation four times) in great part girls coming from smaller
centres, where in all probability the love of a simple life and respect for morality are
especially high.

The criticisms of fatigvfe, apart from that referring to brain tiredness, come for
the greater part from children under 12. This phenomenon is only being touched on
lightly in this examination for the reason that it has already formed the subject of a more
ample and detailed inquiry by the Rome Institute.

Among the replies in favour of the cinema those which insist with a great number
of votes on the instructive and educational value of the cinema are worthy of being not-
iced. A general glance at the figures shows that this opinion is more prevalent in the
smaller centres than in the large, and more among the girls than the boys. With regard
to age, the educational value of the film is stressed especially by the age groups of 10-12
and 13-16 years. In the matter of categories, it was the children of the workmen, the
agriculturists and the employees who most insisted on the educational and instructive
value of the film.

855 -

CONCLUSION

The conclusions to be drawn from this study may be summed up in brief form.

According to the class of the cinema, the tendency of the minors is always to improve
the tone of the show both as regards the hall where the pictures are shown and the pictures
themselves. On the other hand, popular cinemas are preferred by the children of work-
men rather than the children of intellectual workers.

Monthly ATTENDANCE increases with the age, and is higher in the case of the boys
than the girls. The highest figures for attendance come from the children of intellectual
workers, and the lowest figures from the sons of the working classes.

Days OF ATTENDANCE. There is a preference for holidays on the part of the younger
children, while adolescents and youths prefer the weekdays.

Hours OF ATTENDANCE. Evening hours are preferred in rural centres by the boys,
and in urban centres by the girls.

Manner or Modality of Attendance. The highest figures and proportions for
the large centres without reference to the matter of age, are given by those who prefer
to attend the cinema in the company of relations, while in the smaller centres there is a
marked tendency for the children and young people to frequent the cinema alone or
in the company of friends.

Workmens' children, moreover, prefer to frequent the cinema in the company of
relations, a fact not observable in the case of the children of intellectual workers.

The whole trend of the general opinions goes to substantiate the value and impor-
tance of the film from the cultural and educational point of view.

G. DE Feo.

J let ingl.

856 -

.***»,

UUrrtd
Cpdmmaunt

9H

^i^i

PARAMOUNT

SHATTERS ALL PAST RECORDS WITH
SURGE OF GOLDEN PICTURES

***

— mmnMBW v*b"" ■»

/. /. E. C. Studies

LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THE TALKING FILM

THE MOTHER TONGUE AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

" The love we feel for our mother tongue recalls the
sentiments awakened in us by the woman we love".

Fritz Mauthner,

(Bcitragp. zu einer Kriiik deT spracht. III, page 227).

The ideal which anyone who seriously desires to learn a foreign language sets be-
fore himself is to know it thoroughly in a certain period of time as he knows his mother
tongue. (We will not bring in the famous but much abused expression " become mas-
ter of the language "). To know a foreign tongue means to be able to understand it,
write it and say everything in it. This implies a complete knowledge of the mother
tongue also, at least for the greater part of those persons who have an intellectual train-
ing. Such a knowledge does not, of course, imply an acquaintance with those technical
and special expressions which none of us can be expected to know, but only the current
idiom.

We can usefully refer to a point made by Mauthner when he calls attention to the
notable difference between active and passive linguistic knowledge. In the first vo-
lume of his Sprachcritik., speaking of the average of adults who possess an intellectual
culture, he says : " This active knowledge is not inferior to the passive knowledge in
the matter of nouns and verbs ".

The same thing happens in the case of the mother tongue. But when it comes
to learning a foreign language it is supposed to be necessary to acquire a maximum
degree of both active and passive linguistic knowledge, which is ridiculous, contrary
to the nature of things and unattainable. The attention of every student should be
drawn to this point, which, as a rule, is known only to linguists.

It is often supposed that an already developed memory and a practised will power
will permit the obtaining of results such as can be reached by children whose memory
is still fresh and who do not learn with any special object. Numerous methods have
been devised with the object of arriving at this ideal. As we have no intention of being
confused with the pedagogues, in order to make the objects and intentions of our Work
clear, if our researches should oblige us to recognize the existence of a notorious infer-
iority of adults as compared to children, who learn things as it Were in play, We should
like to stress the fact that it is preferable to create a new method, the difficulties of which
can be understood and appreciated, rather than to build up a method on abstract ideas
that have no other reality save the fantasy of theoreticians.

Let us ask this question to begin with : how does the child learn its mother tongue ?

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From whom, in what moments, why and with what success can he learn by heart the
necessary words and the language ?

First of all, the child is born in the heart of the people from whom it learns the
language. If we realize what it means to learn a language and hear the sound of it from
birth, (even when the hearing is unconscious) we shall understand the inferior position
of an adult who sets out to learn a foreign language. The child knows the cadences
of his language long before he makes his first attempts to speak it, for he has heard it
spoken around him for a long time. In a certain sense, he learns to pronounce at the
age when he begins to lisp or begins to utter words without exactly speaking. The
adult has to solve the problem of pronunciation and speaking at the same moment, that
is he must make a double or even a triple intellectual effort if we take account of
the effort required of his memory. Moreover, the child enjoys the advantage that his
organ of speech is similar to those of all the other individuals of his language, so that
it is rare for him to encounter difficulties in pronouncing correctly. When for instance
the word " Schliissel " is too difficult for him, he simply says " Hiissel ", and is not the
only one to be satisfied because all those around him are equally pleased. The adult, on
the other hand, who is learning a language is repressed and corrected from the beginning.

A child learns his mother tongue from his relations and the persons charged with
his education, from the persons in fact for whom he feels the most affection. He learns
his language while developing the deepest and noblest sentiments of which a human
being is capable. We know that at the age of three the affectionate period of a child's
life begins, and this epoch is prolonged until the age of six. It is during this period
that a child's power of elocution, or what may be called his oratorical power develops.
The feelings stirring in a child at this age make him a creator of words and an artist in
elocution. What happens with the adult ? This happy creative age of from three to six
has disappeared for him, and no one can recreate it. We ought to be very satisfied if the
talking film, utilizing various interesting elements evoking and giving life to a certain
intellectual enjoyment, can replace even feebly the early impressions and sensations.

We have already remarked the fact that every individual who wants to learn a lan-
guage begins by asking " When shall I have finished ? " It is certainly not his fault,
but depends on the system of life of our epoch. The child has illimitable time in front
of him, he can begin when he likes, and even if he is a son of the people, he is per-
fectly aware that up to a certain point backwardness in talking cannot be taken
as a criterion of intelligence. This comes about chiefly because the child is not urged
on or constrained by anyone and also because, in the matter of language, he possesses
that plentiful freedom of life, which is essential for success. Paradoxical as it may
seem, our facility in using our mother tongue does not depend on the fact that we speak
it well, but on the manner in which we learnt it. We have not been troubled by the
necessities of time or of showing results, and with regard to the latter our teachers have
given proof of rare tenderness and infinite goodness.

Why does the child speak ? It is without doubt in the beginning because he pos-
sesses the organs of speech with all the muscles and the sense of hearing. But this
is not the only motive. The child has also a spiritual impulse to make him speak. Be-
sides the need of communicating with his kind, he feels a impellent desire to give names
to things. The psychology of the unconscious teaches us that words are not only sounds

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and noises. The word, the name is power. Moreover, we have heard talk of the vast
power of words which have so important a function in magic rites, religions and super-
stitious customs of peoples. There is nothing to be surprised at that the word like the
image is power. Primitive peoples used to destroy the images of their enemies, thinking
in this way to conquer them.

The word has the same power as the image. It is indeed generally considered as
a sound image. If adults are not as sensitive to sound images as to visual ones, this
is principally due to many centuries of false education, during which too great and pre-
mature importance was given to sight to the detriment of hearing. We ought, on the
contrary, to assert that for children who are slow in developing and of meagre intellec-
tual formation, the sound image has the same value as the visual image.

To possess a thing it is necessary to indicate it with exactness, not only to be able
to communicate with our kind. When the child pronounces the words " My horse "
he has the toy, holds it in his arms and repeats uninterruptedly " horse, horse ", thus
making it known to himself that he possesses it. It is from this agitation of sentiments,
this desire to possess that the difficulty of learning a foreign language derives. Further
reference to this point will be made later on. This delicate side of language consisting
in the difficulty of pointing out things is felt only once in one's life, in the period of
infancy, and we shall see what obstacles spring up from this fact when one sets out to
learn a foreign language.

The child learns to speak for another reason also, because it is the best way to learn to
think. In reality, as is known, one does not think in a language but with the aid of a
language. The child, when speaking, exercises his reasoning faculties, especially with the
aid of that part of language which is nearest to logic : grammar. Nothing, however,
is more difficult than to learn to think in a second and different manner, and this is
probably the reason why Rousseau maintained that a child is not able to learn more
than one language, and this also explains the difficulty of correcting a grammatical
error once acquired.

We have formulated the question : with what results does the child learn to speak ?
Some people may find the question superfluous. The result ought to be that the child
learns to speak with a certain grammatical correctness, but there is no doubt that this
stage is only arrived at through infinite difficulties.

Children with backward intellectual development have been observed to express
themselves in a curious manner. Albert Liebmann in his work " Die Sprachstorun-
gengeistuz zuruckgebhebener Kinder " has described it pointing out that such children
compose their sentences with only a few of the most important works : " The greater
part of the nouns and some verbs, the articles, adverbs, pronouns and prepositions, etc.
are suppressed. This interesting deformation of language is called agrammatism ".
Liebmann points out that this phenomenon is quite usual among children of two years.
A statement which fits in perfectly well with the theory that places the period of the
child's spiritual and intellectual development in its third year. It may be noted that
the people who are near the child consider its lisping and ungrammatical way of talk-
ing, which are normal at that age, as a perfect language. Only a very bad pedagogue
would wish to improve the ungrammatical phrases of a child of two. The only result

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would be to deprive the child of the pleasure of talking and make it more difficult for
him to learn the language.

Let us now turn to adult students. For the majority, the beginning a new language
is pleasant. One learns a whole series of nouns, verbs and numbers and one has the
impression that one is making rapid progress. The pitfalls of grammar are still dis-
guised, but will shortly appear. It is generally the struggle with the grammar which
discourages the greater part of the students and makes them give the matter up with
a declaration that the whole thing is too difficult. Their situation, to begin with, is
like that of a child of two. They speak more or less ungrammatically, and the most
advanced students make an effort to pronounce the two or three most important words
in the sentence, allowing the others to be guessed or altogether neglecting them. I
once taught German to an American lady of marked intelligence, a doctoress in medicine
who, from temperament, spoke quite ungrammatically but saw no reason why she should
try to alter her manner of speaking.

Though one allows children of two years liberty to express themselves at their will,
correcting them from time in such a way that they scarcely perceive it, the mistakes
committed by adults, on the other hand, must be corrected with due severity. It might
be pointed out that adults ought to have every interest and desire to be corrected by
their masters in order to acquire a precise and complete knowledge of the language,
but if this is true theoretically, practical psychology shows us that, on the contrary,
every mistake is a source of discontent, and that a great number of mistakes and the
resulting interruptions required for correcting them notably diminish the desire to learn.
There are folk possessing strong wills who delight in overcoming difficulties, but these
are exceptions which go to prove the rule.

I am willing to admit that the worst moment in a course of teaching a language
is the ungrammatical period. Would it not be possible to create a teaching method
which should take account of this period, instead of eliminating it arbitrarily and unsuc-
cessfully, a method which would permit the teaching bit by bit of a grammatical form
of speaking? In any case, as is generally true of problems of methodology, it becomes
a matter of choosing between two evils.

The positions of the child and the adult who speak ungrammatically are quite dif-
ferent. The adult who learns to speak through an act of will is never abandoned by
his other conscious faculties. If he pronounces a phrase without being corrected by
the master, he will be convinced that he has pronounced it correctly. The child, on
the other hand, modifies his language with the greatest ease. He will pronounce cor-
rectly one day what he mispronounced the day before, just as he will throw away one
toy to pick up another. The adult is much less malleable, and holds to what he has
learnt, even if it is a mistake. Every teacher of languages knows in fact how diffi-
cult it is to correct errors which are long-standing ones with the pupil. There is a great
deal more to be said on the subject and other inquiries of a practical nature are neces-
sary. In my book, in the chapter " Methods of Teaching " will be found precise exam-
ples of the way in which it is proposed to organize teaching in order to obtain, in the
study of a language, the most correct form of expression possible.

We have not yet concluded our considerations on the manner in which children
and adults learn a language. It is necessary to answer the question " Does the child

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learn some Words, or a language ? " If we are to put our trust in superficial observa-
tions, it might be thought that the child only learns Words, which is an error. The
child who is ignorant of any language utters sounds and lispings which for him are full
of meaning. The first word which children utter is " mamma ", and with it they express
the most various things, as for instance, joy at seeing their mother, their sorrow when
she is absent, the wish to see her when is not with them and a whole series of ideas.
The child speaks with all its personality (expression of the face, modulation of the voice,
etc.). He succeeds it makimg himself understood to the point that even when he^does
not speak he is listened to with an attention which comes chiefly from affection.

Notwithstanding this, it would seem that the child learns words, especially if he
repeats for long hours at a time, syllables full of or devoid of meaning, in the form of
sounds or sound images. This manner of learning words is an exercise of ability for
the tongue, a mechanical exercise which is certainly one of the most important parts
of learning a language. In this particular too, the child enjoys a considerable advan-
tage which is also increased by the fact that he does not engage in language exercises
unless he finds pleasure in them. It is just about the same time that he begins to learn
to embrace and to take foods of various kinds. The adult, on the other hand, has his
sexual life already formed, in which the oral function finds but a secondary part.

But we ask again, does the child learn a language ? Let us go back for a moment
to what we have said regarding the need to indicate and give names. The child does
not learn a language, but learns to indicate, to give names. It may be asked what is
the difference? Languages themselves are instruments of indication. This is true,
but the interior need and necessity of knowing can only be experienced once in a life-
time. From this point of view, it might be argued that the study of a foreign language
is an intellectual fraud because no spiritual need for it is felt and in fact a very con-
siderable number of elect spirits know no other language but their maternal one. Those
who do not learn a foreign language for eminently practical motives, do so in order to
enrich their spirits. Although this form of enrichment is a noble thing, it will never
be anything more than a spiritual luxury.

I have often had occasion to hear simple folk say : " To indicate a table, the word
Tisch is used in Germany ". These simple natures will never say, " Table is translated
Tisch in German ". A table is always a table. Mauthner's work, which I have already
quoted, contains two interesting paragraphs on this matter which arrive at analogous
conclusions. He says : " The paroxysm of the linguistic sense is to be found in the
opinion of an inhabitant of the Alto Adige or Italian Tyrol. ' The Italians call a horse
cavallo. For us it is a Pferd, and cannot be anything else but a Pferd ". It will be
recalled that we have already expressed the opinion that in a certain sense the mother
tongue may be an obstacle to the study of a foreign language. The foregoing example
is typical. The Southern Tyroler finds the foreign language absurd. But are not we
just as mentally backward as the Tyrolese peasant ? No, for we never express ourselves
as he did, but this will not prevent us feeling a similar sentiment when we laugh at a
foreign word or expression if it seems funny to us. When we hear people talking
in a language of which we do not know even the origins, we feel in addition to a lively
sense of curiosity, a sense of gaiety which is rather near the comic.

It is because the words of our mother language are not only sounds but also mean-

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ings that they are full of value. Psychologists number words among the things devoid
of sense, at any rate for he who learns them, but the teacher's first duty is precisely that
of giving a meaning to all that, which to begin with, had no meaning. It becomes fun-
damentally a question of method. Ebbinghaus has shown that it takes ten times as
long to learn things devoid of meaning as it does to learn those that have meaning. If
we consider the observations already made on the study of language for children and
adults, we shall see that the adults are in a evident state of inferiority. What advant-
age have they? Their only strong points seem to be their more practised memories
and their capacity to reason. There is no doubt that their memory is more trained,
even when it is more tired, but the reasoning faculty which is lacking in children, even
if it can be considered a real assistance, often enough proves to be of no great advantage.

Attention has often been drawn to the fact that the child up to its sixth or eighth
year considers every word as a proper name. From the time he grasps this proper name
and its meaning, he gives free play to his fancy. Thus every man he sees in the street
is considered by him as his uncle or something of the kind. If children up to their
tenth year learn a foreign language more easily and rapidly than adults, this depends
on the fact that this disposition of their spirits makes them liken everything to proper
names. This faculty of playing with words has long since disappeared in the case of
an adult. For example, when a adult travelling learns that the oak is a tree, this makes
him think of others trees, like pines, birches or beeches. At first sight then, it would
appear that by learning the word, his language had become richer than the child's, who
only understands one object for the one word. But in reality the case is not so, because
the adult is only a poor rich man, for this logical conception of a tree will tend to dim
the seen image of the oak. In this way, a logical idea which in general is hard to retain,
will weaken the visual perception which is more retentive. It always comes back to
the question of method, and in order to explain the meaning of the word tree, it is well
to show various kinds of trees including the most diverse types. This example of the
study of words proves nothing against the exercise of the reason in general. But we
can see this from this that the word is only a small part of language.

We will examine now how adults speak a foreign language, leaving out of the case
of those adults who have more than one mother tongue. Four types of individuals may
generally be observed : those who are almost mute : those whom timidity or lack of
self-assurance prevents from expressing themselves, or who express themselves like
timid children with a " yes " or a " no " or an " I don't know or a ' maybe " ;
those who seek to pronounce long sentences but stutter without interruption, making
both themselves and their listeners nervous, and finally those who speak incorrectly,
but are well aware of the fact, do not bother about it, and are unconcerned as to the
unpleasant effect of their words on their hearers who are masters of the language
being spoken.

Stammering and timidity are almost usual, and I think it Well therefore to study
these two matters a little. With regard to the extensive consequences of timidity, 1
should like to go into detail and especially on that form known as " trac " and that
of fear which is noticeable among candidates for an examination, because the symptoms
observable in the practise of a foreign language seem to have a distinct connection
with these two phenomena.

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Speaking of the need to indicate, or name we have remarked on the power of the
word, which is a vast subject in itself. As is well known, all direct methods of teaching
a foreign language endeavour to eliminate translation on the principle that by trans-
lating one never learns to speak. If this point of view were correct, it would be obvious
that translation ought to be reduced to a minimum, but we are convinced that translation
will continue to be used and is indeed necessary. It will be used even if the teaching
method does not require it. The beginner must translate because only his mother
tongue gives him a sufficient sense of security and certainty, and he feels that it is only
this sentiment which allows him to express himself. It is a phenomenon, and at the
same time an intuitive law, because everybody perfectly understands that he will not
be able to speak until he is sure of what he says. Individuals who think deeply and rea-
son logically are just the very ones who find it hard to learn a language, in contradis-
tinction to lighter spirits who are less given to reasoning. For this reason men as a
rule are less ready in learning a language than women. The sense of being absolutely
secure of possessing in one way or another the fittest word is much less felt by women
than by men. This sense of security is, in a final analysis, a sexual phenomenon, and
with it goes a special liveliness of spirit. The feeling of having expressed themselves
badly acts on many men like an incorrect solution of a problem for a mathematician.
This is a case of " trac ", which is a consequence of doubt as to the exactness of
what has been said and prevents a continuance of speech. This phenomenon can exist
in such an intense form with a scientist as to bring him to doubt of the correctness of
his deductions his observations and efforts, and leads almost certainly to cerebral illnesses
and often to suicide. We find in the fear of speaking a language which is but imper-
fectly mastered the germ of this dangerous phenomenon.

It will be admitted on all sides that many people stammer when speaking a foreign
language. It may be that a further observation has been made that there is no exces-
sive stammering when one speaks to oneself or when makes an effort to think in the
foreign tongue. It has also been noticed that stutterers to not stutter much if they
talk to themselves. Albert Liebmann, in his book " Stotternd Kinder " refers to this
fact, and notes its importance, and we are in full agreement with him. The phen-
omenon recurs when a person has learnt a part by heart, and wants to repeat it before
the public. This timidity in elocution is another phase of the phenomenon of " trac ".

But which is the public and who is the critic ? Public and critic are joined at the
same time in the person to whom the address or the remarks are being made. He is
credited with having a perfect knowledge of the language in question and of being able
consequently to take up the role of critic.

It might be objected that timidity does not enter into the case, for the reason that
having a different mother tongue, it is perfectly understandable that one cannot speak
a foreign tongue correctly. There is, moreover, no doubt that the interlocutor who
is at one and the same time public and critic will speak his own language much more
easily than any foreign tongue. Since this is intuitively obvious, we must recognize
that this form of mental confusion is not a logical one, but is developed in the sub-con-
scious mind which finds itself awed somehow by a particular force emanating from the
interlocutor. What does this kind of ascendency consist of? In our opinion, it has
two elements. Mauthner has already noted that conversations in the family circles are

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or can easily be elliptical. It thus comes about through the effects of family life that
linguistic slovenliness is as often as not unperceived or disregarded, for the parties to
the conversation fill in the gaps intuitively through their knowledge of the mentality
of the person speaking.

'* The greater the difference between the spiritual attitudes of the persons convers-
ing, so much more must the requirements of grammar be respected ". Mauthner
gives as examples Parliaments, tribunals and the numerous addresses made in our time
before various associations. It is clear that persons who speak different languages
have a spiritual outlook much further apart than the members of a Parliament or a trib-
unal. The man who speaks a foreign language is obliged to express himself correctly
and grammatically, even if what he says goes little beyond the limits of a simple ques-
tion. A foreigner obliged to stick strictly to grammar observes often enough with some
surprise how people expressing themselves in their mother tongue put together simply
and easily the most complicated sentences. Everyone who has lived out of his own
country for a certain time has noted this fact and has asked himself : " Why cannot I
express myself so well and so simply? " Here is precisely the knot of the whole ques-
tion. It is the formation of the short and simple sentences which is more difficult for
the person who does not feel the sense of a spiritual communion with his interlocutors

The problem of rhythm is also probably of the first importance. The observations
regarding stutterers who when alone and talking to themselves speak almost correctly
may be called to mind. Something of the same kind takes place when one speaks a
foreign language mentally. Albert Liebmann who observes this fact adds : " It is
useless to oblige children to speak slowly when their parents speak more than usually
rapidly. Children spontaneously take the rythm of speaking of those near them ".

From the point of view of a foreigner not very advanced in a certain language every
native seems to him to speak it fluently. Each one of us unfortunately feels the need
of adapting himself to a rhythm which in the true sense of the word gives the tone. This
is the reason why when we are alone, we speak or we think that we speak more correctly
than when we are in company of someone for whom the language we are using is the
mother tongue. The majority of persons are both confounded and irritated by these
special phenomena, but very few note the fact that when they speak mentally they can
follow the slowest rhythm they like. It is perhaps the case that there is a conflict
between two rhythms in which the weakest and the slowest is always in a condition of
inferiority. A quotation from Madame de Stael's " De l'Allemagne " would seem to
support this idea. ' The first time I saw Schiller was in the salons of the Duke and
Duchess of Weimar in the midst of intellectual society. Schiller read French very
well, but he had never spoken it. I maintained the superiority of our dramatic system
over all others. He did not refuse to take up my challenge, and without concerning
himself with the difficulties and slowness of his Way of talking French, without any
fear of the opinions of the listeners who were opposed to his ideas he spoke out of inti-
mate conviction. I relied, to begin with, on my French arms, vivacity and sprightliness,
but soon I realized what Schiller was trying to say with so many words. I was struck
by this simplicity of character which urged a man of genius to engage in a struggle in
which his words might fail him "...

The passage should be read with attention. The author stresses the importance

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of the conclusion of the incident, in which she recognizes the greatness and simplicity
of Schiller's character, and we should be grateful to her for a piece of evidence which
shows the correctness of the poet's observations. At the same time, she is also referr-
ing to a contrast between two different speaking rhythms, when she speaks of the vivac-
ity and rapidity of the rhythm of speech as a French quality. The great French author-
ess then points out that only a man like Schiller could stand up against this unequal
advantage. Even without a Madame de Stael, and taking less difficult and complex
subjects than a defence of dramatic systems for an argument, there is no doubt about
the inferiority of the slower and less agile rhythm.

After what I have said there will be little doubt about the difficulty of learning to
speak a foreign language well. The matter becomes one not merely of method but a
pedagogical problem. This is the reason why in the chapter " Publicity, Organization
and Teaching ", it is shown how it is possible to exercise a pedagogical influence on
students and young people with means borrowed from the technique of advertising
and publicity generally.

One of the essential concepts in that chapter is that what lives in our profoundest
ego and expresses itself through the mother tongue cannot attain the results of our me-
thod unless account if taken of the student's mother tongue. To adapt the teaching
of a language to the mother tongue of the student is an indispensable necessity, and
we must make further reference to this in other chapters of this work. Teaching should
always take account of the pupil's mother tongue, that is, of its phonetics, its grammar
and its general plan.

Phonetics. Let us suppose that a Japanese is learning another language. Few Jap-
anese make any difference between the letters " 1 " and " r ". If we pronounce
the word ' place slowly to an intelligent Japanese who is mentally adapted to the
study of tongues, we shall find that he will write " prace ", because often when he hears
" 1 " he thinks it is r ". In such cases, it is naturally necessary to make use of numer-
ous exercises, including the letters in question. It will be necessary for some time
to make the student practise words like " rose ", " livre ", etc., because in an entire
sentence these sounds are not easily traced. Although, as a general rule, it is well to
begin teaching by giving sounds and single words, and only later written exercises (See
Chapter " Preparation for Teaching ") exceptions can always be made for exceptional
cases.

Grammar. The method of teaching languages of Comenius (1592-1670) took
us a step forward. Several very useful principles were the result of his system, and
one of them, dealing with the question of grammar, may be referred to here : " The
rules of grammar cannot be taught unless the language is perfectly understood. The
instruction should be limited to illustrating the grammatical differences between the
language being taught and the student's mother tongue.

This principle cannot be pondered upon sufficiently, because the most important
rule of all depends on it, namely that there is no grammar for all nationalities, but a
special grammar for each nation. This rule is followed by a number of excellent teach-
ers and by many excellent hand-books on teaching. The psychological basis of this
method is clear : the grammatical rule which establishes a comparison between the
foreign language and the language which is already known (the mother tongue) will

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show many similarities. There is no contradiction here. We are partisans of the direct
method, and we are anxious, as far as it is possible, to eliminate translations. Nev-
ertheless, we insist on frequent comparisons between the grammar of the language
being taught and the student's mother tongue, which, in effect, amounts to translation.
This is true, but when we speak of grammar, we mean reasoning and judgement, and
no reasoning or judgements can be made without comparisons.

Grammar is only one part of a language and of the system of teaching, the other
parts of which — as for example the study of words — are extraneous to it. We can
therefore perceive the necessity of keeping down to the lowest limits translations based
on logic.

We have stated the necessity of taking account of the student's mother tongue.
The study of the association of words is a much fitter subject for pupils who are well
advanced in their course than for those who are only beginners. Mauthner says :
' There is hardly a French word which has not the same sphere of association as the
corresponding German word. Let us consider the associations of the words Empereur
and Kaiser, Amour and Liebe, Monde or Welt, Ville or Stadt ". Perhaps in this list
Mauthner has included a superfluous word, which he would have done better to omit.
In the sphere of associations, the word Kaiser does not correspond to Empereur. It is
of small importance that the word Empereur is more or less untranslatable which supplies
us with another argument for proving the impossibility of translating every word. I
think it possible and desirable that our method of teaching should bring within the
reach of all social classes linguistic considerations of the type hitherto examined, and
I will endeavour to show in subsequent chapters how this task can be accomplished.

(to bz continuzd).

F. JiJER Marbach.

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The documentary Film

ART FILMS

Three new series of genuinely artistic
folk-lore films are announced for early exhib-
ition by the Cines Co of Rome. The films
in question are subordinated to one essential
idea, which is to show, in short meterage

to catch on the celluloid a fleeting moment or
some out of the way scene. The first series
of Cines shorts includes the following films :
— Assist, Tarquinia, The Imperial Forums,
Roman Monuments, Zara, Paestum, The Crib.

From the film « Assist o.

films, special pictures of the life of the country
without wasting time in attempting to pro-
duce spectacles on a huge scale. The films
propose to give an insight into the most
characteristic elements of the country's life,
art and popular traditions. With more com-
plex methods and using a more finished
technique these films follow the character
and idea of amateur films which are made

The films are artistic-archeological recon-
structions with a background of popular trad-
itions. One of the most important of the
series is Tarquinia which shows the precious
archeological material discovered up to today
in the excavations, about which even in Italy
not a great deal is known to the general
public. Paestum shows us the tremendous
architectonic work of the Greeks, and Roman

870 —

From the film "Roman Monuments ».

From the film « Tarquinia >

— 871

Monuments reveals the latest finds in the field
of Roman antiquities.

The second series of " shorts ' has a typ-
ically industrial character and includes
" Feeding Rome ", Dry Docks at Genoa, A Day
in the Shipyards of Monfalcone. We see the
great liners built or being built in the Ital-
ian shipyards and the intense life of the
workmen and sailors. The series will be
completed with films dealing with methods
of urban transport, orphanages, hospitals etc.,
so as to give a full picture of the life of modern
Italy. The third series of " shorts " is in
course of preparation.

This will present films dealing with the
life and activity of the major figures among
Italian artists, including Giotto and Michel-

angelo. An attempt will be made to show
the lives of exceptional artists by means of
a kind of synthesis illustrating their works
or particulars of their pictures or sculptures,
selected in such a way that the spectator
may see and understand the artist's thought
almost with the eye of the trained student
of art without being aware of any conscious
effort on his part.

The production of the three series of
" shorts " has another advantage, which is
that of having given an opportunity to a
group of young cinema producers who have
been enabled to demonstrate clearly and
precisely their capacity in a form of cin-
ema art which is far from being an easy
one.

Ice Ingl.

872 —

1/

S. A.

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873 —

Dramatized Education

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with the RCA Victor

Photophone Portable

YOU have witnessed, we are sure, the extraordinary difference
in student attitude at an illustrated lecture from that in the
regular class room.

Imagine then, the immense worth of talking pictures as ap-
plied, wholly or in part, to your educational scheme.

The modern educator, naturally interested in producing higher
than standard results, will find, in the R.C.A. Victor Photophone
Portable, the exact answer to his needs .... an instrument, which,
by its elasticity of purpose, simplified design, and extremely low
cost, is distinctly qualified for educational work.

Thousands of institutions, public and private, are now enjoy-
ing the benefits of the R.C.A. Victor Photophone Portable.

Whether your interest is in the educational, commercial or enter-
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able and profitable investment. The Portable Equipment is available
in either 16 mm or 35 mm size. Write us for further details.

R. C. A. Victor Company, Inc.

International Division

CAMDEN, N. Y. ~ U. S. A.

— 874 —

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Information and Comment

EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

A paper prepared for Section L of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

by F. A. HOARE.

If research and experiment should be
regarded as the essential preliminary to
practical application, the prospect of real
progress in the educational use of cinemato-
graphy was never more hopeful than it is
to-day. There is no need to do more than
refer to the almost unanimous approval
with which films have met as a result of the
investigations already conducted into their
use in education. The two major pieces
of experimental work — that conducted
by the Historical Association with films in
history teaching, and that carried out by
the National Union of Teachers and certain
local Education Authorities in Middlesex
with sound films — have both been the sub-
ject of published reports. Moreover, the
report of the Commission on Educational
and Cultural Films — " The film in National
Life ' — has reviewed and crystallised the
educational argument, in addition to fo-
cusing the whole film problem in its national
and international settings. It is significant
of the effect of all this work upon public
opinion that Parliament has now made pro-
vision for the establishment of a Cinemato-
graph Fund, to be administered under the
Privy Council Office " for the purpose of
encouraging the use and development of
the cinematograph as a means of entertain-
ment and instruction ". The immediate
objective of those who have been instru-
mental in securing this action by Parlia-
ment is the establishment of a National Film
Institute. Its possible constitution and
functions will be the subject of comment
at this meeting, and the only reason for re-

ferring to it here is to express the view that
the exercise of a wise discretion in the de-
velopment of this project should provide a
powerful stimulus to the film industry and
to the serious use of cinematography in
science and education.

The purpose of this paper is two-fold ;
it is first to express some views on the part
which films can play in the new orientation
of school work ; and, second, to discuss some
of the modern developments in the technique
of cinematography as they affect education.

The trend of educational theory and prac-
tice in this country has been profoundly
affected by three reports issued in recent
years. These are the Hadow Report, the
Report of the Committee on Education and
Industry, and the Report of the Committee
on Education for Salesmanship. Broadly
speaking, the effect of these three reports
has been to divert the attention of teachers
from the traditional academic approach to
education and to impress them with the need
for re-organising their curricula and recon-
sidering their methods so as to develop a more
" realistic ' trend to their courses of study.
In other words, the pupils' studies in Eng-
lish and modern languages, history and geo-
graphy, mathematics and natural science
were to be re-planned (and were to be " re
lated more closely to the living texture o
industrial or commercial or rural life ")
In short, the schools were required to read
just themselves to the needs of the industna
age and to have regard to the occupationa
prospects of the older children. Vocationa
training was to be eschewed, but the intro

- 876 -

duction of a prevocational bias and the uti-
lization of the environment in connection
with school work were generally approved.
During this period the more cautions con-
tinued to utter warnings about the dangers
of teaching becoming too utilitarian and
of the possible narrowing effects of reference
to the immediate environment except as a
preliminary to a wider outlook upon the
world at large.

This task of bringing the schools out the of
quiet academic backwaters of tradition into
the main stream of modern commercial and
industrial life has presented teachers and
administrators with grave difficulties. Much
has been done by cutting away the dead
wood from the curriculum, by re-casting
syllabuses and schemes of work and by
the introduction of various practical activi-
ties, such as handicraft and science, into the
schools. Nobody, however, would claim
that these changes by themselves can de-
velop in the pupils a consciousness of the
world of trade and industry in which they
will be required to spend their working days.
Much of the so-called practical work in handi-
craft and science is as abstract as the literary
work which stood condemned because of
its lack of reality and because the desire and
ability to acquire book knowledge and to
master generalisations and abstract ideas
is more limited in extent than was at one time
supposed.

It is precisely in the provision of this es-
sential element of concreteness or reality
that the film in education finds its ultimate
justification. Many teachers regard the
cinematograph merely as an additional vi-
sual aid, directly in the line of succession
with such well-established instruments as
the blackboard, picture, chart, diagram and
the lantern slide, or the more novel episcope
and epidiascope.

Such a limited conception of its place and
scope in the educative process leads to the
expression of views about the form and con-
tent of educational films and the means for
their projection, which fail to take full
advantage of the enormous possibilities of

this new teaching device. If the cinemato-
graph is nothing more than a visual aid,
strips of pictures projected on to a screen
and illustrating processes or phenomena
or events, will meet the need, but if the school
cinematograph is to be the means of enlarg-
ing the experience of the pupils by portraying
before them a world at work and by relating
school work in geography or history, econ-
omics, science, or mathematics to the real
things of life, the kind of film required and
the technique of its projections and use as-
sume a different character altogether.

This, then, is the chief claim of the sound
film to the serious attention of educationists.
It is the means for supplying a portion of
that essential concrete experience without
which the child's study may, to quote the
Hadow Report, " be little better than a
sterile commerce with abstractions ". (" The
child's power of acquiring knowledge de-
pends largely on his experiences. The more
limited these are in number and variety,
the more difficult it is to acquire a real know-
ledge from books ". (Hadow Report). The
teacher is continually faced with this pro-
blem of how to overcome the cramping ef-
fects of a limited mental horizon on the part
of his pupils. The utilisations of the local
environment does not effect that broadening
of interests so essential to the development
of adaptability and resourcefulness. The
film is the means of displaying before the
eyes of the pupil educational material drawn
from all parts of the world, which will de-
velop a clearer conception of world problems
and will widen and enrich his knowledge
and sympathies by intercourse with human
movements and achievements which are
universal in their significance.

Let us consider the application of this
general principle in educational cinematogra-
phy to some of the branches of school work,
bearing in mind the generally acknowledged
need for linking the schools with industry.

As long ago as 1923, when the film in
education was first considered by the Im-
perial Education Conference, Mr. J. C. Sto-
bart, then one of H. M. Inspectors of Schools

— 877

wrote : — " This, then, is the first use of the
film, to show life to beginners in the art of
living ". The Middlesex Report called for
films depicting the lives of people in foreign
countries, showing the effects of climate and
other factors upon their occupations and
social customs. It urged the need for a
liberal supply of films of natural phenomena
— waterfalls, icebergs, mountains, volcanoes,
eclipses of the sun and moon and studies
of typical human activities in various parts
of the world, for example, tea, sugar and
rice growing, mining for coal and gold, cattle
and sheep rearing, rubber growing, iron
and steel industries, shipbuilding and en-
gineering feats, such as the construction
of mountain railways and bridge building.

The use of such films as these, in conjunc-
tion with history, geography, science and
language studies, should enable the pupil
to acquire a better appreciation of the in-
dustrial commercial and economic relation-
ship of Great Britain and foreign countries.
Sir Stephen Tallents in his admirable
pamphlet " The Projection of England ",
has elaborated the theme of ' screening
England's cardinal features in art, science,
commerce and industry in such a way as
to " create a belief in her ability to serve the
world under the new order as she has
served it under the old ". What the schools
need, however, is a series of well produced
films dealing with the staple trades, trading
customs and facilities, methods of transport,
social customs and habits and economic de-
velopment — both of our own and foreign
countries — so that the international inter-
dependence of mankind can be realised and
the contribution of the separate nations to
world prosperity can be properly assessed.

Films of this kind should supply that vi-
talizing and invigorating quality of which
nearly every school subject stands in need
to-day. Science teaching above all other
forms tends to depreciate into mere abstrac-
tion under orthodox school treatment by
lecture and laboratory demonstration. Here
the application of scientific principles to
industrial processes can be treated by films

more effectively than by any other means.
For example, the application of science to
the cotton industry or to mining or metal-
lurgy can be effectively taught through films
realistically produced and faithfully repro-
duced, so that the pupil can, by submitting
to the illusion of reality, secure vicarious
experience in actual industrial processes
and add thereby to the sum of his personal
knowledge. Such films will serve two main
purposes : they will give reality to school
by linking it with life, and they will form
a natural part of the arrangements for relat-
ing the curriculum to the future occupational
environment of the pupil.

It will be generally conceded that such a
contribution to education is an immediate
need of to-day, and if this somewhat am-
bitious claim for the use of films in education
can be sustained, as those who have exper-
imented believe, the problem of films and
their projection assumes a new importance.

The history of the talking picture industry
is in effect the history of the quest for qua-
lity in methods of recording and reproduc-
tion. All recent developments in film tech-
nique have aimed at creating as perfect an
illusion of reality as possible in the portrayal
of events, processes and personalities upon
the screen. The task, therefore, was to
assemble conditions such that the mind
of the spectator would lose consciousness
of the mechanism and of the fact that he
was watching a moving shadow synchronised
with a sound record. The perfect synchroni-
sation of sound and sight combined with
the strides which have been made by ex-
tending the range of frequencies of sound
which could be faithfully recorded and re-
produced, have brought us to a point
where the mechanically reproduceds sounds
are practically indistinguishable from the
original. This applies not only to the
human voice but also to the great variety of
sounds which in a modern sound picture,
where photographic quality has reached a
high degree of excellence, assist in the crea-
tion of this essential " illusion of reality "

These technical advances are in themselves

— 878 —

an interesting study. Alongside the record-
ing of sound on discs there developed the
system of recording sound photographically
on the side of the film itself. The reproduc-
tion of this sound record requires delicate
and expensive optical devices using the pho-
toelectric cell. For theatrical purposes the
sound on film method is now nearly univer-
sal, the expense involved in providing skil-
led personnel for maintenance being com-
paratively unimportant.

It appears, however, that for educational
purposes the disc method is likely to return,
since this form of reproduction is essentially
simple, a factor of major importance in the
educational field where highly skilled oper-
ators will not generally be available. Re-
cently great advances have been made in
the laboratories in improving the quality
of disc recording and the reproducing of
sound from new, smaller, unbreakable,
long-wearing discs. By reverting to the
" hill and dale " or vertical method of re-
cording, originally used by Edison in his
early phonograph, but with many refinements
not only is the quality vastly improved but
marked economies in the cost of film pro-
duction are made possible. This new me-
thod or recording will permit of the use of
small discs on which sufficient sound can be
recorded to accompany a reel of double
standard length, 1. e. twentytwo minutes
playing without a break. A further important
consideration is that the life of the sound
record will be increased to that of the pic-
ture, namely, to approximately 1200 showings
as compared with the 100 or 200 showings
which represents the longest life obtain-
able from a " lateral " disc record or from
a sound record made on the film itself.

From the educationists standpoint, then,
these developments of the talking picture
are of paramount importance. Simpli-
fication and reduction of cost are two vital
factors in connection with the use of educat-
ional films. The manufacturers of sound
reproducing equipments have recently con-
centrated on meeting the needs, financial
and educational, of the school market.

Reproducing apparatus has now become
available which makes possible the universal
adoption of cinematography in schools at
moderate cost and without involving special
technical training on the part of the operator.
The new 16 mm. reproducer will project
sub-standard film in a partially darkened
room, and will give a picture up to ten feet
wide sufficient for large school halls and
similar auditoriums. The perfection and
adoption of the disc method of recording
also means a considerable reduction in the
cost of making the original sound record,
and has brought measurably nearer the pro-
duction, at reasonable cost, of a library of
educational sound films which will perform
for the schools the functions outlined earl-
ier in this paper.

Reference has been made already to the
two methods of recording, namely, the film
method or photographic record on the
sound track, and the disc method. Much
controversy has recently taken place on the
relative merits of these two systems for
educational purposes, and since the Film Com-
mittee of the British Association is making
a special study of sub-standard equipments,
some further reference in this paper may
not be out of place.

Briefly, the principle underlying the most
common method of recording sound on
the film is that of producing variations in
the density of the sound track in accordance
with the variations of the sound waves, or,
more directly, of the oscillating currents,
produced by them in the recording system.
These variations in density (or transparency)
are caused by a light beam falling on the
negative in the recording camera, the light
varying in intensity with the variations in
the sound waves. The reproducing system
involves an exciting lamp, lens assembly
and photoelectric cell. The latter device
is sensitive to light and develops currents
which vary according to the amount of light
falling upon it. Hence, the currents pro-
duced vary exactly as the mechanical varia-
tions of the original sound and the currents
are passed along to the amplifiers and then

— 879

to the horns, or speakers, where they are
converted into mechanical energy in the
form of sound.

The principle of the disc method of re-
cording at present employed, is that a groove
is cut in a recording " wax " by means of
a sapphire stylus which moves from side
to side in accordance with variations in the
sound waves or speach currents. The
amount of movement and the rate of oscil-
lation of the stylus correspond respectively
to the volume and pitch of the original
sound. Discs are made from the " wax "
and the reproducing system employs an
electrical " pick-up " and a needle which
rests in the groove and vibrates as the
disc rotates at 33 */3 r. P- m. Thus, small
electric, currents are generated varying in
amplitude and frequency as the original
sound, and these currents are amplified
and passed on to the speakers as described
above.

These brief descriptions of two somewhat
complicated electrical processes are perhaps
sufficient to help the non-technical reader
to follow the controversy and to appreciate
the arguments which are brought forward
in relation to the two methods for educational
i. e. sub-standard, use.

While there are many advantages asso-
ciated with the recording of sound on film,
it is claimed that for non-theatrical use the
disc method has much to recommend it.
In the case of 16 mm. film (sub-standard
width) the space available for the sound
track is only a small proportion of that
available on the 35 mm. film (standard
width), which means that the amount of
amplification required to obtain an equal
volume output is very much greater. In-
creasing the amount of amplification na-
turally increases the volume of extraneous
noise, such as surface noise, or that intro-
duced by dirt. The slightest damage to
the sound track of a 16 mm. film can produce
calamitous results.

Perhaps the most serious obstacle to the
non-expert use of the sound on film system
is that much greater accuracy in making

adjustments is necessary and greater care
has to be exercised in operating. The lens
assembly, for example, must be adjusted
to collect and focus light from the exciting
lamp so that it exactly covers a slit formed
by two knife-edges situated 0.0015 of an
inch apart. An image of the slit .0005 of
an inch broad is focused by means of the
objective lens combination on to the film.
It will be readily understood that delicate
optical and electrical instruments of this
kind require constant attention by skilled
engineers if the quality of the reproduction
is not to suffer a decline.

There is a further question, important in
these days of economy in public expenditure,
of the cost of replacements which in the film
method is comparatively high, due to the
necessarily frequent renewal of exciting
lamps and photoelectric cells which are
absent from disc reproducers. As has al-
ready been pointed out, the life of a film
carrying a sound track is very short com-
pared with that of the simple picture film
employed with sound on disc reproduction.
This is so because wear results in small
scratches and the presence of dirt which,
although comparatively harmless to the
picture, affect the sound track to such an
extent as to make it necessary to renew
the film. With the sound on disc method
wear only necessitates a new disc at the cost
of a few shillings.

It will be seen, therefore, that for general
classroom use the disc method appears to
be more suitable. If expense were of no
importance and skilled operators and en-
gineering service a practical proposition in
the schools, a different conclusion might
be reached. In any event, the race between
the groups of engineers responsible for de-
veloping the two methods will undoub-
tedly continue, and it would be rash to as-
sume that the last word on this subject has
been said.

The argument developed in this paper is
that the educational function of the film
is to enrich personal experience by enabling
the pupil to comprehend phases of life

- 880

which he cannot know at first hand, and that
to achieve this end, the film in form and
content — as well as in the quality of its
reproduction — must reach the highest de-
gree of technical excellence obtainable.
The engineers and studio technicians claim
that they have developed mechanical devices
which now make universally available the
vast possibilities of the sound film as a means
of teaching. It is for the educationists to
decide what use they will make of it.

It may be fitting to conclude this paper
with a few observations upon the financial
aspect of educational cinematography. The
question which naturally springs to one s
mind is why those concerned with the
financing of film production and the manu-
facture of apparatus should hesitate about
investing money in this enterprise in view
of the widespread desire to use films in educ-
ation. It is, however, a fact that nobody
is at present willing to undertake the financial
risks involved, and it is equally true that
until this problem has been solved, no large
scale production plans for the educational
market are likely. The question turns on
the problems of distribution. No doubt
thousands of schools and educational in-
stitutions would be glad to avail themselves
of films of the kind referred to in this paper
if they were made. But the necessary
machinery for the distribution and exhibi-
tion of such films has not yet been establish-
ed. It can hardly come into existence ex-
cept by a gradual process, and the initiative
must apparently come from the educationist.

At present the situation is that the film

producers and the manufacturers of equip-
ment are prepared to make their contribu-
tion, and have already given evidence of
their interest by making adaptations in their
technical and manufacturing processes to
meet the needs of the non-theatrical market.
To set the wheels turning, an effort must
be made to attract the necessary finance.
How is this to be done ? Initially it would
appear that the most likely line of advance
would be for educationists — either teachers
or administrators — to work out in detail
synopses of a limited number of films which
are likely to command universal approval
and to be in general demand. Simultane-
ously, some definite indication of the ex-
tent to which such films would be rented by
the schools should be obtained and, armed
with this data, an approach could be made to
persons likely to be financially interested in
the project. It will be necessary sooner or
later to face up frankly to the fact that edu-
cational cinematography is a commercial
venture and that individual enterprise and
initiative are required to launch it. Films
production for educational purposes need
not be financed on the scale customary in
the theatrical field — indeed, such elaborate
plans are made unnecessary by the develop-
ments in the technique of production and
reproduction dealt with above. But we
shall continue to revolve uncomfortably in
the notorious " vicious circle " unless a
form of co-operation between all parties
is developed. Perhaps the National Film
Institute may find the solution to this
vexed problem.

— 881 -

" MY ENGLAND "
(THE FIRST EGYPTIAN ART FILM)

Unless we consider it under its educational or anti-educational aspects, (and there would be
plenty to say on this point) a purely spectacular film is evidently not within the scope of our
interests. It is therefore in an exceptional way that we are considering the scenario of a wholly
spectacular film and looking at it from this point of view.

The exception we make is justified for two reasons. The first is because the film in question is the
first attempt in the field of theatrical cinematography by a country, Egypt, which so far has figured
in the cinema art world only, as an importer of films. The desire to make films means the desire
to be able to satisfy better the taste and inclinations of the national public, and to illustrate this
taste and preference on the world screen. We are of opinion then that our readers will be
interested to learn the nature and characteristics of this first step made along the path of national
production by a country the growing consciousness of whose individuality we see evidences of every
day in its development as a modern nation.

The second reason we have for speaking of the scenario " My England " is that while allow-
ing the I. I. E. C. the first view of it, its author Mr. Zingsem de Villiers has also submitted to
the Rome Institute the plan of a film of great social significance " Drowsy Drugs " (dope) which
shows that Mr De Villiers intends to combine with this programme of spectacular films also films
of a cultural and highly educational character . At the end of the brief summary of " My England "
our readers will find the report communicated to us on the film " Drowsy Drugs ".

The action of the piece takes place in
Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the island of
Halki, and deals with a sector of the world
war that has received less treatment in lit-
erature and the drama than other aspects
of it on other fronts. The central theme
of the drama is a love story, the love story
of a British officer for a German girl nurse,
and her love for him. The drama of the
film arises out of the situation which is
implicit in the inevitable spiritual struggle
between love of the beloved and love of
one's country. The atmosphere of the
world war naturally heightens this contrast
of strong elemental feelings, and renders it
more intense and dramatic.

The scenario is made for film reproduc-
tion on a large scale, and the sunbaked desert
landscapes of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor
provide the background for the action of
the play, which has stirring moments.

Some well known historical figures are
introduced into the action. We have the
British General Townsend, who was con-
nected with the defence of Kut, and the

German General Von der Goltz as per-
sonages in the piece.

The cast is a very large one, and will
demand a rather elaborate setting. It in-
cludes British officers and soldiers, Indian
orderlies and soldiers, who formed part of
the British force in Mesopotamia, Germans
and Turks.

The setting of the drama is clearly il-
lustrated in the prologue : " the yellow
sands of Mesopotamia, on the banks of the
Tigris, near Kut, where many a British boy
is sleeping his last sleep, where the myrtles
and the oleanders grow over the tombstones
in the plain ". One sees the farstretching
monotonous desert of Asia minor's plains,
the tents of the soldiers, the trenches with
" their bug-ridden tunnels ". We see the
misery and heroism of the soldiers' lives,
and, on the whole, while as the title of the
piece leads us to expect, the author leans
favourably in his sympathies towards Eng-
land, he is fair to all the human types that
flash across his screen. The Turks he does
not spare for their ill-treatment of prison-

- 882 -

ers, but then the facts support him in as
far as this particular sector of the war front
is concerned.

Though this film-play cannot in any sense
be called a pacifist document, a note of
disapproval of war runs right through it.
It has, in fact, a curiously new kind of in-
ternational character, which seems to derive
from sympathy and insight rather than
from any philosophical or sociological bias.
There is a pity expressed for the horrors
and tragedies of war, and the evil side of
war is allowed to be clearly seen. The
heroism of officers and men is duly stressed,
and the sense of comradeship between men
who find themselves in a desperate state
is touched on. The essential futility of
war is hinted at, but its heroism is also duly
outlined.

The play opens with the siege of Kut,
and we see the background with its mina-
rets, its ruined barracks and British and
Indian soldiers moving about. We see
pictures of war, trenches and trench life,
sharp-shooters at work, the destruction
wrought by big guns, ruined huts and hou-
ses and jackals and hyenas prowling round
after the victims of battle.

We see shots of the existence of the Bri-
tish prisoners of the Turks after the fall
of Kut. The ill-treatment which they
suffered almost uncomplainingly until lack
of food or the blows of their captors drove
them to desperation is illustrated by the
author in strong lines. The comradeship
and heroism of the common troops and the
pride of the officers are revealed to us in
a series of pictures which have as back-
ground the sandy wastes of Mesopotamia
and the plains of Asia Minor.

Sister Elizabeth, the German girl heroine
of the piece arrives at a Turkish prisoners'
camp, where there is also a German business
engineering undertaking working under a
concession. Her arrival at this place of
torture and suffering is like the advent of
a good fairy or an angel. Human pity is
once again awakened, and the brave girl
who has a regular mission for her work

as nurse refuses to be bullied by the Turkish
and German officers who rule the camp,
while she protests against the bad treatment
meeted out to the prisoners. She defies the
half-mad Necub and his savage rage, which
he vents by flogging the helpless prisoners
for the perverted pleasure he finds in it.
Sister Elizabeth gradually instills some mercy
and common sense into the prisoners' camp,
and in doing so succeeds in winning nearly
everyone's respect. Indeed she wins the
love of nearly all the men, and of one man
in particular, Reggie Kilford, the hero, a
Captain doctor in the British Army Medical
Corps. Elizabeth, however, is already fian-
cee to a German officer of good family
and ample means. She does not love him,
and we learn that she only became engaged
to him when the war broke out because
he threatened to take his life if she did not.

Bit by bit, Elizabeth realizes that she
loves Reggie, just as he loves her, and when
he takes her in his arms one day, she knows
that her heart is in his keeping. Some of
the scenes show us Sister Elizabeth obtain-
ing boots and provisions from a neigh-
bouring American Consul.

Though Reggie and Elizabeth now con-
sider themselves engaged, they have not
told the camp of their love. The camp,
however, has guessed it, and the German
and Turkish officers are not over-pleased at
the idea of a German girl becoming the
fiancee of an English officer in the very
height of the war. They do their best to
break up the romance, and one of the offi-
cers even speaks to Reggie Kilford himself
on the subject. He asks the British Captain
if he is serious, and not playing with the
girl, who is giving up a brilliant marriage
with a countryman of her own to marry
an enemy subject. Captain Kilford reas-
sures the German officer, and even wins
him to his side.

In the end, a charge of spying is laid at
Elizabeth's door by the Turks, and later
Reggie too is accused of seeking to make
improper communications with the enemy.
He is arrested, and it is only by Elizabeth's

-883

submitting to a Turkish commandant's lovers looking forward to their new life in

attempts at blackmail, and by paying him India where Captain Kilford holds a post

in the end a large sum of money that Captain as medical officer at an British regimental

Kilford is set free. base. The war is about to end, and the

The play ends on a happy note, with the clouds are just going to roll away.

DROWSY DRUGS
EDUCATIONAL FILM BY E. M. ZINGSEM DE VILLIERS

BRIEF SYNOPSIS

This work purposes to show a true
picture of how drugs are dealt with and
taken in the Far and Near East. It gives
scientific descriptions and original photos of
Indian hemp, coco leaves and other neces-
sary material to explain the difference be-
tween the various kinds of most used drugs.
The film contains no romantic story but
only recollections based on true happenings
and things that occur every day. It shows
the activity of the Police in the various
countries, and how they have to fight against
the corruption that exists.

The film is a silent one in order to
permit emphasizing the various items filmed
for instruction, thus enabling the producer to
issue it in different languages without extra
cost. The only talking part is a short
address at the end at the Conference of the
Drug Manufacturing Limitation Meeting.
This address however can also be given
as a silent script, though it ought to be more
effective if the man who is supposed to
speak really does so. The author can
supply photos of drug addicts with their
typical expressions to be inserted in the run-
ning reel. The film is meant take the
place of a lecture for the educated public in
Europe and the university student. It is
said to have many possibilities in the
foremost countries of Europe that are in-
terested in the limitation idea of drug
manufacturing i. e. Switzerland, France, Ger-
many, Britain and Turkey.

Natives are seen working in the fields with
Indian hemp (cannabis sativa indica). Pic-
tures of the actual plant can be furnished
by the author for each special item of this

kind to be inserted into the running story.
The spectator sees how they rub the resin
off on a coarse cloth and get what is called
hasheesh. The whole process of obtain-
ing this is explained.

The audience is shown pictures in China
and how they deal with drugs there. Then
we see the mountain passes between Afghan-
istan and India and the traffic that goes on.
Meetings with British Police officials and
representatives of several countries take place,
and the Opium Conference in Geneva is
shown.

Exciting, vivid scenes pass before the
spectator's eye, thrilling him. Persia is
shown and the extraordinary use they make
of ' charras ". They even soothe their
poor babies with the drug, mixing it with
sugar and putting it into their mouths. They
drug prison guards to help political pris-
oners escape, and various crimes are commit-
ted in the narcotic state the drug produces.

We are shown some scenes from Egypt,
the center of the drug traffic at the present
time.

We watch the effect of cocaine, and how
mansul is used, and finally see what they do
with heroin their " grande vogue

Heroin is a morphia derivate imported
from Europe. Gangs are at work to get the
drugs into the Oriental countries. There
is more imported than would suffice to
poison 3/4 of the population of the world,
and this is the reason why the Oriental vice
of drugtaking has been able to spread there
to this ghastly extent. The Conferences in
Geneva however have already had some
result and brought about the resolution of

— 884 —

the various governments of drug manufac-
turing countries to consider a law limiting
their manufacture and having the drugs
exported severely controlled so that they are
only used for medical purposes which have
got to be proved strictly. Stricter laws have
to be created and heavier fines are to be
paid by the traffickers. By means of the
crew of certain shipping lines the gangsters
get their contraband into Egypt clandestinely.
Pictures are shown of confiscated objects
in which drugs were clandestinely introduced

from Turkey, Greece, Syria and Italy into
the drug consuming countries. A quantity
of original pictures are available as well
as pictures of some well known international
gangsters and many pictures show the faces
of addicts now in asylums.

The film ends with a demonstration
of the unsanitary way in which heroin is
introduced into the native quarters for ad-
dicts and with the address mentioned above
on the occasion of the drug manufacturing
conference limitation idea.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEAGUE OF RED GROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved, and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or 1 -
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8/-

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Velasquez, Paris VIII.

- 885 -

" PANKINE „
" SPECIAL „
" EXTRA-RAPID „
" KINEGHROM „
" AEROGHROM „
" TROPICAL „
" SUPERPAN „

" R-FILM „

Sound Recording SlocK TL 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Slock Ti. 4

for Variable Area Process

— 886 —

HEAD OFFICES

51, Via Sallustiana :: ROME :: 38, Via S. Basilio

Profits paid to policy holders for 1931
increased to 3.50 per thousand of insured capital

It is a fact that as from the company's financial year 1930, persons insured
by the " Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni „ were made participators in the
company's profits, and for that year the distribution of such profits amounted
to 3 per 1000 of the sums insured.

It was forseen that the company's excellent financial position would event-
ually permit a still larger participation in the profits by policy-holders, and as a
matter of fact

FOR THE FINANCIAL YEAR 1931

in consideration of the prosperous results obtained by the company, the Board
of Directors has decided to increase the distribution of profits to those insured
with the Institute to 3.50 per 1000.

This increase has a most important consequence, since it affects profits cal-
culated on several thousands of millions of lire of insured capital.

In fact, the sum of the profits set aside in the company's last balance sheet
in favour of the owners of savings entrusted to the Institute amounted in round
figures to

15,600,000 LIRE

so that the first two distributions of profits (1930 and 1931) show a total of

29,000,000 LIRE

paid to persons insured with the Institute, which demonstrates clearly the
increasing strength of the Company, and at the same time establishes between
it and its supporters a continually strengthening bond of interest.

Review of periodicals and newspapers

The Film and Social Problems.

Emile Vuillermoz states that, contrary
to general opinion, the German film " March
on the Sun " is not at all immoral, but is
only a document of social hygiene, free
from any suggestiveness or immorality.
(Le Temps, Paris, 1- IX- 1932).

In an article entitled " The Cinema :
king of the leisure industries " the fact
that the desire for large profits at all costs
dominates the cinema industry is deplored.
The cinema, it is pointed out, is the most
popular school in the world, and the moral
feeling of the public depends largely on
its teaching. According to the author of
the article in question the cinema so far
has failed in its mission. The waiter also
appeals to the " Jocistes " that is to the
members of the organization known as
the " Jeunesse ouvriere catholique ", urging
them to stir up criticism of the films project-
ed in their districts. This ought to help
them to distinguish good from evil and
lead them to visit only good films instead
of taking their chance with any film that
happens to be exhibited locally. The ar-
ticle is signed P. B. (Jeunesse ouvriere,
Paris, No. 109-18, 10-VI-1932).

It is urged here that the German film
March on the Sun, which is nudist propa-
ganda, ought not to be introduced into
Italy, where, for reasons of morality no one
feels the necessity of nudism in order to
enjoy the benefits of the sun. (OsSERVA-
tore Romano, Vatican City, No. 243, 17-
X-1932).

The first showing of the film " The
Child's First Right " made by the " Deut-
schen Lichtspiel-Syndicats " has been given

at Berlin with great success. The film
illustrates the problems connected with
the care of illegitimate children and mat-
ernity, which are much to the fore in these
days among the working classes and the
unemployed. The film bears the sub-
title " From a gynaecologist's diary ". Kl-
NEMATOGRAPH, Berlin, No. 200, 22-X-

1932).

The British Home Office minister has
issued a circular advising the authorities
not to issue permits for Sunday cinema
performances later than January 31. The
reason of this measure is that the law on
the so called Cinematograph Fund has not
yet been passed by the legislature. (To-
day's Cinema, London, No. 2209, 27-IX-
1932).

The police department of Chicago has
informed the local censorship regarding
the stern attitude it must take up hence-
forth in the matter of gangster films. (The
Film Daily, New York, No. 72, 24-IX-
1932).

Religion and the Film.

On the occasion of the twentythird anniv-
ersary of the Catholic cinema movement,
Dr Muckermann draws a picture of the
Catholic activity in the cinema field from
the creation of the " Volksverein " to
international movie production. (FlLM-
Rundschau, Hesse, No. 38, 20- IX- 1932).

On the occasion of the tenth anniversary
of the foundation of the Evangelical Cinema
Society " Evangehsche Bildkammer " of
Berlin, an article has appeared on Evangelical
Cinema activity during its first ten years

J Ice ins

- 888

of life. (EvANG-BlLDKAMMER, Berlin, Sep-
tember, 1932).

The religious possibilities of the film
have aroused great interest among the
clergy of Dundee. Chepinston parish church
already possesses numerous films showing
its work. (The Cinema, London, 5-X-
1932).

In a brief article entitled " Catholic Cin-
ema Societies " E. J. M. points out the
necessity of diffusing the Catholic idea in
the English cinema world through the
creation of companies having that object
in view. (The Universe, London, 10-X-
1932).

A new corporation called ' The Guilds
of Light " has been formed in England
with the object of promoting the spread
of religious films. The new association
has also decided to create a cinema library,
an information bureau and a review entitled
" Good Films " in which all the possible
uses of the cinema will be considered for
the highest human ideals. (The YORKSHIRE
Post, Leeds, No. 1754, 25-X-1032).

The Evangelical Union of the German
press (Evangelischer Pressverband) of Ber-
lin has recently given a fresh proof of its
excellent organization in the cinema field
through the production of a film entitled
" Kirche und Heimat " (Church and Fa-
therland) which shows the voluntary ser-
vices offered to the citizens by the various
philanthropic organizations of the Evange-
lischer Pressverband. (LlCHT-BlLD-BiJHNE,
Berlin, l-X-1932).

Mario Meneghini states in an interesting
article that it is necessary and urgent to
recognize the universal character of cinema
productions and take steps towards form-
ing an international ethical union with
a general legislative plan, since national
censorships no longer suffice to regulate

the manifold and different interests of the
cinematographic world. The writer also
insists on the utility of an understanding
between producers of educational films of
the various nations to divide the production
and to make arrangements for an exchange
to be calculated on national possibilities
and capacity.

The writer also believes that it would be
a highly moral and educational work likely
to meet general approval, for Catholic
bodies to create a special educational cin-
ema archive of films containing specimens,
of scientific, didactic and documentary
pictures of every nation. Such films would
then be shown to persons who cannot fre-
quent cinema halls or are far away from
civilized centres. (Osservatore Romano,
Vatican City, 16-X-1932).

Mr Mac Goldrien, President of the Ame-
rican Catholic Committee, in his report
to the International Catholic Federation,
points out that 71 % of the films shown
in 1932 fulfilled the demands put forward
by the ecclesiastical authorities. With re-
gard to the balance of the pictures, only
slight criticism was made, and only two
films were rejected. No less than 8356
films were examined and the examining
committee consisted of representatives of
1400 Catholic groups. (La Semaine Cine-
MATOGRAPHIQUE, Paris, No. 498 of Octo-
ber, 1932).

Historical - Political Films.

The Sowkin of Moscow has produced a
film entitled " The Prisoners of the Czar's
Empire ". The starting-point is the fate
of the heads of the Russian revolution of
1905 and we are shown a picture of some
of the outstanding political events of those
times and some scenes of the Russe-Jap-
anese war. (Il ClNEMA ITALIANO, Rome,

20-X-1932).

889 -

War Films.

In an article by Marcel Lapierre entitled
' Le Cinema et la guerre ", the author
deals with the pacifist or anti-war effect of
war films. He points out that all or almost
all war films have failed in their object.
A battle scene, viewed on the screen, loses
at least 96 % of its brutal effect. The
attacks and counter-attacks of the armies
look like sporting exercises. Effective pic-
tures are counted like goals. The result
is, as all inquiries on war films throughout
the world have shown, and in particular
that sponsored by the I. I.E. C, that as
a general rule war films end by exalting
and idealizing war instead of creating a
pacifist state of mind. (Cine-Document,
Paris, No. 8, October, 1932).

Documentary and News Films.

The Eastman Educational Slides Co. of
Iowa City has produced three interesting
fixed projections on France entitled res-
pectively, " The Spirit of France in Her
Costumes ", The Spirit of France in her
Architecture " and " Daily Life in France ".
(Educational Screen, Chicago, No. 7,
Sept. 1932).

Professor Hans Krieg of Munich held
a conference on October 20 last accompanied
by moving pictures at the Urania Hall in
Vienna, on the great cinema expedition
carried out in 1931-32 in the Grand Chaco
region. (Mitteilungen der Wiener Ura-
nia, Vienna, 7-X-1932).

British Instructional Films have started
filming " Contact " under the management
of Paul Rotha. The film shows the future
of the British empire, and its brilliant pro-
gress, due in great part to aviation. (The
Daily Film, London, 8-X-1932).

The Menter cinema establishment has
decided to issue a film journal of Belgian
news-pictures in order to make Belgium

better known in all its picturesque corners,
its tourist centres, its artistic marvels, its
industries, old cities and curious costumes,
its population, etc. (Revue Belce du Ci-
nema, Brussels, No. 41, 9-X-1932).

A film " The Wonderful Story " has
been produced to illustrate the beauties
of Devonshire. (Today's Cinema, London,
10-X-1932).

M. Castro is working in the Eclair studios
at producing a sound film entitled " Un-
known Brazil ". (Hebdo Film, Paris, No. 43,
22-X-1932).

The Institute of Cultural Researches of
Berlin has shown the released view of a
cultural film of geographical, historical
ethnological and propaganda character,
founded on a scenario by Director Dr. Hans
Curbs. The film is entitled " The Rhine,
German River ". (Licht-Bild-Buhne, Ber-
lin, 24-X-1932).

Among the most interesting pictures
made by Dr K. T. Schulz of the Cultural
Section of the UFA during his recent exped-
ition in Norway, Sweden and Finland,
may be mentioned a documentary film
showing the transformation of hydraulic
force into electrical power for the working
of the iron mines in Norway. (FlLM-Ku-
rier, Berlin, No. 228, 27- IX- 1932).

M. Chenal, newspaperman, designer and
cinema producer has made a film entitled
' The little businesses of Paris " the pur-
pose of which is to illustrate the humblest
and least known activities of Pans. (Sce-
nario, Rome, No. 9, October, 1932).

Mr Oliver Baldwin, son of the British
ex-Premier, is making a series of sporting
films to illustrate the games of cricket,
Rugby and water polo. (Eco DEL ClNEMA,
Florence, No. 107, October 1932).

890

The Film and propaganda.

The Western Electric Co. in collaboration
with the local railway systems of India
has conducted a campaign for a more ex-
tensive use of the railways among the na-
tives, who prefer more primitive means of
transport. In some places the result of
the campaign has been to increase traffic
200%.

The American United Air Lines use
the film extensively for impressing on the
public the advantages of flying. A 16 mm
film has just been made for this propaganda
purpose entitled " Across America in Twenty
seven Hours " in which the flight from
California to New York with the confort-
able conditions of travel available is shown
on the screen. (Public Information from
the Bell & Howell Co., Chicago, 8-X-
1932).

Le CineOPSE of Paris (October, 1932)
publishes a report on the two missions of
agricultural and hygienic propaganda car-
ried out by means of cine-ambulances in
the departments of Savoy and the Haute
Savoy. Returns show there were 9555
spectators for the pictures, despite the fact
that the projections were given in harvest-
time.

Art and the Film.

Francois Mazeline, after having in a
brief note explained the difficulty of filming
marionette shows, especially after the
triumph enjoyed by animated drawings,
praises the work of M. Gorno who has
overcome the difficulties by using mario-
nettes about one metre high and making
them move in a stage settingpro portionate
to their height. (L'Ami DU Peuple, Paris,
7-IX-1932).

Arnaldo Ginna in an interview given to
Anacleto Tanda in Film Futurista main-
tains that in order to obtain new conventions

and give life to new film tendencies, it is
necessary to effect a radical revolution in
modern theatrical systems. According to
Signor Ginna, it is no longer any use look-
ing among the old fashioned type of actors.
Search must be made in the anonymous
crowd for the actors of the future, who will
alone be capable of expressing the sentiments
and states of mind of the future. The
Futurist belives in the necessity of seeking
the development of, and fusion of the plastic
element with sound, in the Futurist Thea-
tre and in reforming completely modern
cinema scenography, suppressing the pres-
ent static paper and cardboard and utiliz-
ing lights and projections. (FuTURlSMO,
Rome, 16-X-1932).

The film " Monsieur de Pourceaugnac
based on Mohere's comedy of the same
name has been produced at the Gaumont
Palace in Paris with great success. Dis-
tinguished personalities in the world of
politics, finance, science and the arts were
present. (Le Figaro, Paris, 16-IX-1932).

Ludwig's scenario of the life of Beethoven
will be produced as a film in Germany
under the directorship of Karl Harll. The
musical part will be conducted by Tosca-
nini. The French edition of the work
will have a preface by Herriot, who is
well known as a distinguished student of
Beethoven. (Il Cinema Italiano, Rome,
No. 927, 20-X-1932).

In an essay entitled Film and Drama
(Neue Deutsche Rundschau, Sept. 1932)
the German critic Bernard Biebold attemps
to define the field of action of each art.
He states : " the real film, that is the film
which has reached consciousness of its
own style is not dramatic, but narrative.
It is not a drama, but a visual romance, a
narration translated into pictures. A biblia
pauperum, an album of mobile figures for
those who cannot read. The real film
recounts, describes, depicts, and description
and painting are graphic expressions which

- 891 -

allude directly to the visual nature of the
story. The film relates events which have
already happened and have been already
photographed, while the drama in which
flesh and blood actors appear takes place
in the moment in which we see it. (SCE-
NARIO, Rome, No. 9, October, 1932).

" Cinema et Literature " is an article
by Jacques Sempre in which the writer
points out that the creation of the sound
film has made more than ever necessary
a collaboration between literature and the
cinema if it is desired that the latter satisfy
the intellectual requirements of the cultured
public. It is to be hoped that this form of
collaboration will take further developments
in the future especially for the young
authors, whose works have already undergone
influence from the film and who make good
scenarios. (ClNE MAGAZINE, Paris, No. 9,
September, 1932).

The cultural Film.

During Education Week, held at the
Julia C. Lathrop school of Santa Anna,
California, great interest was shown in the
projection of historical and geographical
films used in the course of the scholastic
year. (Educational Screen, Chicago, N. 7,
September, 1932).

A new Information Bureau has been open-
ed, for gathering of news on visual education
at the Department of Visual Education,
1812 Illinois St. Lawrence, Kansas. Such
news paragraphs are regularly forwarded to
any American papers or reviews that ask
for them. (Educational Screen, Chicago,
No. 7, Septembre 1932).

Eugenio Giovanetti in an interesting article
discusses the experiments of the American,
Humphrey, who has resolved all the pro-
blems connected with dubbing. He has
succeeded in registering on the film signs
and artificial symbols having correspondence
with ideal voices of universal value. The

journalist states that the most surprising
part of Humphrey's amazing system is not
so much the solution of the dubbing pro-
blem, as the fact that the human voice
can be created so that in a near future we
shall arrive at the ideal voice which will
be able to be used in symphonic poems.
(La Gazzetta del Popolo, Turin, 7-X-
1932).

The documentary Soviet film, with com-
ments by Madame Gerard entitled " Kill
to Live " has been shown. We are given
pictures illustrating the constant struggle of
animals, both against the elements and each
other. The film ends with an apotheosis
of man, who has been able to make himself
master of the elements and animals in order
to live^and dominate. " (CiNEi* Journal,
Paris, 25-X-1932).

The Film for teaching.

Mr Stuart Legg has made a film entitled
The New Generation ", in which he
illustrates the new educational and scholastic
methods at present in use at Chesterfield.
According to this system, a special form of
instruction is given to every child of 1 1 in
conformity to its tendencies and tempera-
ment. When the children reach the age
of 14, they undergo an examination by an
official of the ministry of Public Works
with the object of" assisting them to choose
a career. (The Scottish Educational Jour-
nal, Edinburgh, No. 39, September 1932).

M. E. Coissac in an article entitled " La
Ville de Paris et le Cinema " gives the
information that the municipality of Paris
has granted a new subsidy to the scholastic
cinemas, and claims that Paris continues to
be in the forefront of the movement for
the development of the educational cinema.
(Le Cineopse, Paris, No. 158, October,
1932).

A public cinema exhibitor of Berlin has
been the first to organize regular projections

- 892

of amateur reduced size films. The shows
have won the approval of the public, both
from the point of view of subject and tech-
nique. (Deutsche Allegemeine Zeitung,
Berlin, No. 471-72, 8-X-1932).

The scientific Film.

University Councillor Dr Erich Ewald of
Berlin discusses in two articles " Einfuhrung
in das Luftbieldwesen " and " Luftbild und
Unterricht " the special characteristics, tech-
nique, organization and applications of aerial
photography for the teaching of topography,
geographical researches, economic geography,
history, colonial studies and architecture.
(Der BlLDWART, Berlin, July-August, 1932).

In the film called " Reminiscences of
Menlo Park " the Metropolitan Motion
Picture Co. tells the story of the most im-
portant scientific experiments that took
place in Edison's laboratories. (Educatio-
nal Screen, Chicago, No. 7, September,
1932).

" Dream Flowers " is the title of the first
film made by the Powers Picture Co. and
forms part of a series of twelve on " The
Secrets of Nature ". The series deals with
the life of plants and animals and is largely
of a micro-cinematographic nature. (Motion
Picture Daily, New York, 20-IX-1932).

The Western Electric Co. has shown a
number of scientific and industrial films
at the Science Museum South Kensing-
ton in the presence of numerous engineers.
(The Cinema, London, 5-X-1932).

During the IXth congress of the Italian
Neurological Society which recently took
place at Modena, in the first half of Octo-
ber, Professor Aiala of Siena read a paper
which was a clinical study of the behaviour
of cerebral ventricles in cerebral tumours,
illustrating some technical points for ef-
fecting ventricular punctures. The lec-
ture was given with the aid of projections
and Professor Sai of Trieste illustrated,

also, with film projections, an operation for
hecondrosis. (Il Regime FASCISTA, Cre-
mona, 9-X-1932).

At the British National Exhibition of Ar-
tificial Dental Apparatus, recently held in
London, a number of films on points of
dental surgery were projected. (The Cin-
ema, London, l-X-1932).

At the general meeting of the League
of Cinema proprietors of Berlin and Bran-
denburg, which was held in Berlin on Octo-
ber 26th last, Professor Hinderer of the
University of Berlin spoke on the application
of cinematography to science with especial
mention of philosophy, jurisprudence, nat-
ional economy, aesthetics and technical
science. (LlCHT-BlLD-BUHNE, Berlin, 26-
X-1932).

Prevention of accidents and hygiene.

At the autumn conference of the National
Fire Brigades Association, protests were
made against the variety of protective sys-
tems in use against the danger of fire in
public cinema halls. The necessity of an
uniform system was insisted on. (MAN-
CHESTER Guardian, Manchester, 23-IX-
1932).

The Pyrene Co. Ltd. of London has
brought out a new system for automatic
fire extinguishing. With this method, the
extinguisher is set in operation directly by
the fusing of the safety valve which is placed
in the nozzle of the extinguisher at the
point where any increase in temperature is
at once felt. (Film Kurier, Berlin, No. 22,
24-IX-1932).

Dr Foveau of Courmelles deals in an
interesting article with teaching preventive
measures against accidents by means of the
cinema. He states that in addition to
showing what is necessary to be done to
avoid accident it is also necessary to illus-
trate what ought not to be done. Thus

893

i/

the film will be able to prevent or remedy
a large part of the evils due to mechanical
progress. (Le ClNEOPSE, Paris, No. 158,
October 1932).

L'Hygiene du Travail of Geneva
(No. 309 of 1932) examines the various
diseases to which cinema artists and all
those who work in the movie studios are
subject. Among these are skin wounds and
cuts and injuries to the eyes.

Legislative measures, revenue duties
and the Film.

The government of Finland has commu-
nicated to the press the information that
it is disposed to reduce the tax for those
cinemas which show a minimum of 200 me-
tres of film made in Finland. (Il ClNEMA
Italiano, Rome, 20-X-1932).

Authors' rights.

The dramatist Henry Bernstein, under
the impression that his comedy " Melo "
has been badly adapted for the movie ver-
sion, made urgent application to the Tri-
bunal des Referes requesting the suspension
or stoppage of the film. The President of
the tribunal rejected M. Bernstein's appli-
cation on the ground that according to the
terms of the contract, the film company
was authorized to make the necessary al-
terations in filming the play and also on the
ground that very large sums had already
been invested in the production. The
tribunal, however, admitted the author's
right to appeal to the ordinary courts to
defend his moral rights. (Le NOUVELLISTE,
Lyons, l-X-1932).

The general management of the Austrian
State Theatres has included in the con-
tracts made with authors a condition that
for the duration of the contract, the authors
engage not to permit the sonorization of
their works for the cinema nor to sell them
to the radio. The Vienna Authors' Society

has protested against the ruling of the
State Theatre management, through its
president, pointing out that the clause in
question gravely damages authors at a
time of serious economic crisis. (KlNEMA-
TOGRAPH, Berlin, 7-X-1932).

Film propaganda.

It is reported from New York that the
big American associations of film exhibitors,
producers and renters have charged a spe-
cial committee with the task of preparing
a special programme calculated to interest
that section of the population which up to
now has shown little interest in the film,
or has even been hostile to it. Censorship
committees such as come into being in
small centres as a result of anticinema feel-
ing, will also be opposed. (FlLM KuRIER,
Berlin, 5-X-1932).

C. E. Milliken of the Hays organization
has on hand a scheme for uniting in one
association the numerous Protestant groups
dealing with cinema criticism. When such
bodies are united they may hope to exercise
a stronger influence on the moral impro-
vement of the film. (The Film Daily,
New York, 12-X-1932).

Mr Gammon has published a report
on the influence exercised by the cinema
on children. The author of the report
is of the opinion that parents ought not
only to exercise a surveillance on their
children's reading, but also on the cinemas
and theatres they see so that the young
folk may derive the greatest advantage pos-
sible from educational films. (To-DAY s
Cinema, London, 22-X-1932).

The Liverpool authorities have decreed
that minors under 16, if accompanied by
their parents, may visit cinemas where
Class A (for adults) films are being shown.
(The Daily Film Renter, London, 29-X-
1932).

- 894 -

Jurisprudence - Crime.

The Berlin police have a cinema studio
fitted with all latest developments. The po-
lice have also a rich collection of crime
films and films dealing with traffic regula-
tion. (Le Soir, Paris, 4- IX- 1932).

The film " Opernball 13" which is a
detective picture has been synchronized in
Milan in the works of the S. A. Syncrovox
with a new SARES apparatus built in Italy
under Italian patents. (Agenzia Film,
Rome, No. 39, October 1932).

Film statistics.

Eleven new picture studios have been
built in Europe this year, whereof three in
England, two in Hungary, one in Italy,
one in France, one in Belgium, one in Swe-
den, one in Austria and one in Poland thus
bringing the total of European movie stu-
dios from 42 to 53. In the matter of new
cinema halls the figures are as follows :
67 in France (154.700 seats) ; 70 in England
(105.000 seats); 60 in Germany (25,000
seats). (Scenario, Rome, No. 9, of Oc-
tober, 1932).

An American cinema statistician states
that the number of persons in the world
who frequent the cinema every week totals
on an average, 185 millions. (KlNEMATO-
GRAPH, Berlin, 30-IX-1932).

The Film for labour and industry.

The Journal du Commerce carries a
brief note on the importance of the film
in the publicity business in the United
States.

As the result of an extensive and careful
inquiry carried out by one of the biggest
advertising companies, it is learnt that all
the industrial houses which have used the
talking film for publicity purposes state they
have had 100 per cent satisfactory results.
The results for advertising with the sound

film are given as 82 per cent satisfactory.
It is stated that 1 1 per cent of the money
spent on publicity goes to film advertising.
(Comoedia, Paris, 17-IX-1932).

In view of the great interest shown by
the natives of the British African colonies
in industrial films, the cinema section of
the British Marketing Board proposes to
intensify the production of industrial films
for the colonies. (Deutscher Feuilleton
DlENST, Berlin, 28- IX- 1932).

" The Motion Picture in Industry " is
the title of a report in which the replies to
a questionnaire sent to 2000 publicity agents
are examined. Copies may be had for
asking from : The National Industrial Ad-
vertisers' Association, 420 Lexington Ave-
nue, New York City, N. Y., U. S. A. (Edu-
cational Screen, Chicago, No. 7, Sep-
tember, 1932).

Mr E. M. Newman has produced a film
called " Transportation of the World ".
(Educational Screen, Chicago, No. 7,
Sept., 1932).

The C. E. A. (Exhibitors' Association) of
Manchester remarks on the excessive num-
ber of cinema halls in certain districts where
there is no room for any more, warns share-
holders against supporting new enterprises
in over-crowded zones. The Association
suggests that would be share-holders in
enterprises of this kind should inform
themselves of local conditions before risk-
ing their capital. (The Daily Film Ren-
ter, London, 3- IX- 1932).

The industrial company, Bells Heat Ap-
pliances Ltd. has started using the film
for advertising. First film shown is " Hot
Stuff ". (Today's Cinema, London, 3-X-
1932).

A documentary film entitled " How a
Letter travels " made by the French Post
and Telegraphs ministry has been sent

895 -

to all cinema directors. (L'Ecran, Paris,
8-X-I932).

The following questionnaire has been sent
to numerous personalities of the industrial,
political and literary world in Italy :

I. What do you think of the cinema,
its present conditions, and its latest develop-
ments both in the artistic and industrial
spheres ?

II. Which films among modern sound
films have shown a sense or art and vitality
worthy of notice ?

III. Do you think it will be possible,
especially in view of the necessarily limited
nature of the market to create a cinema
industry of real importance ?

IV. In case of an affirmative reply,
which are the fundamental artistic, and
commercial ideals towards which the new
Italian cinema industry ought to aim. (Il
Cinema Italiano, Rome, 9-X-1932).

Labour and agriculture.

The agricultural section of the University
of the State of Ohio has made an extensive
use of both film and radio for an educational
experiment in rural districts. (Educational
Screen, Chicago, No. 7, September 1932).

" The Farm talks to you ,, is a new film
made by M. de la Fontaine and shows a
farm which specializes in raising live-stock
for human consumption. (Cine Journal,
Paris, 25-X-1932).

The Welsh station of agronomical studies
is preparing to make some films with the
object of spreading knowledge of the most
efficacious systems of farming and also of
special forage plants suitable for sheep-
grazmg in the hills even during the winter
months. The film will be made in two
editions : a popular version to be shown
in the public cinemas and a scientific ver-
sion to be exhibited to experts and agricul-
turists. (Actualites Cinematographiques
Internationales, Paris, No. 1059).

Technical training.

Under the patronage of the minister for
Industry and Commerce the Cinematogra-
phic Association has been formed in Brus-
sels with the object of training specialists
for the silent and sound films. (KlNEMAT-
ograph, Berlin, 6-X-1932).

The National Cinema Institute LUCE, is
showing with great success in many cinemas
in Naples, a film illustrating the activity of
the Casanova Royal Industrial School of
Naples. (Il Giornale della Scuola Me-
dia, Rome, 6-X-1932).

The programme of the courses of the
technical school for cinema operators, re-
cently formed in Brussels, has been publish-
ed. (Revue Belge du Cinema, Brussels,
9-X-1932).

Syndical organization.

The Golfing Society has subscribed 500
guineas for the fund for ill or unemployed
cinema actors. (Today's ClNEMA, London,
8-X-1932).

Nicola de Pirro has written an article com-
menting on the formation of National Tech-
nical Committee for the Cinema and the
drafting of the national contract for renting
films.

The writer states that the National Tech-
nical Committee has been formed to exam-
ine, and seek to solve all those questions
of an industrial technical order arising in
the cinema business. One of the first
matters to be discussed is the requirements
for educational cinema projectors. (SCE-
NARIO, Rome, No. 9, October, 1932).

Film companies, associations and or-
ganization.

The Spanish minister of Public Education
has approved the formation of a national
cinema centre the technical section of which

- 896 -

will be entrusted to M. Carner-Ribalt.
The plans for the centre by Dr Jose Vives-
Gmer have been approved also. M. Vives-
Gmer has gone to Paris to discuss the signing
of a commercial treaty with France on the
question of films. He has also visited
London to examine the question of the edu-
cational film, a question in which the Spa-
nish ministry is much interested. (Vo-
LONTE, Paris, 16-IX-1932).

In view of the great importance which
the new Danish law on the cinema gives
to the cultural film, it is proposed to create
in Denmark a semi-governmental cinema
company for the cultural film, which, fol-
lowing the example of the LUCE of Rome,
would engage in producing, selling or rent-
ing films of considerable historical and
documentary value as well as news-reels.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 26- IX- 1932).

Congresses, meetings, assemblies.

Under the auspices of the Film Society
of London, the meeting of the Workers'
Film Societies of Great Britain took place
at Wellyn. The members discussed among
other matters the question of film censorship,
the matter of private Sunday cinemas
shows, children's films, etc. The for-
mation of a federation open to cinema ama-
teurs for the study of technical problems
of cinematography was decided upon. (Man-
chsster Guardian, Manchester. 8-IX-1932).

The Licht-Bild-Buhne of Berlin (No. 233
of 4-X-1932) publishes the programme of
the Xlth session of the German Cinemato-
graph League, which under the manage-
ment of Dr Walther Gunther will shortly
meet in Berlin. The representatives of the
communes, schools, the cinema industry,
young men's associations, young folks help
societies and national education will be able
on this occasion to realize the progress made
by the reduced size film (silent, sound
and coloured). It is hoped that the as-
sembled persons, considering the great

advantages which the cinema briigs to
teaching, will exercise all their influence
for an intenser application of the cinema
to scholastic purposes.

On the occasion of the voyage in Sweden
of the Prince of Wales, the " Svenska Fil-
mindustri " organized at Stockholm a Swe-
dish-British exhibition in which films have
a considerable part. (The Cinema, Lon-
don, 5-X-1932).

The Royal Photographic Society has
organized a cinema exhibition which will
take place in London from November 14
to December 10. Each evening interesting
current topics will be discussed, including :
cinema advertising, the colour film, the
cinema in the schoolls, the cinema in mdu-
try. (To day's Cinema, London, 8-X-1932).

Le ClNEOPSE of Paris (No. 158 of Octo-
ber 1932) reports the opening of the sixth
Congress of the New Era, which has taken
place in France under the Chairmanship of
Professor Langevin, and states that, al-
though the enema was not discussed, nev-
ertheless, principles were approved of
which may be considered to include the
use of the film for educational purposes.
It was agreed that each country should
have an educational system of its own adapt-
ed to its requirements.

Cinema libraries, archives, museums.

In an article entitled ' The Federal
Woman's Bureau and Visual Education ",
mention is made of some films forming
part of the small cinema library of the Wo-
men's Federal Bureau. Among others may
be mentioned " Behind the Scenes in the
Machine Age ", in which female unemploy-
ment is dealt with and its causes — that is
machines — are illustrated. (Educational
Screen, Chicago, No. 7, September, 1932).

In order to prevent any suspicious of
competition, the UFA of Berlin states that

- 897

it is not interested in producing reduced
size films and that the UFA commercial com-
pany has only formed for the benefit of ci-
nema users in Germany an archive of silent
films. The company in question engages
in renting cultural and scholastic films and
requires guarantees that the films will not
be used for industrial purposes. (Reichs-
FILMBLATT, Berlin, 15-X-I932).

Through the initiative of M. Paul
Leon, Director of Fine Arts, a national
cinema library is being gathered together in
the cellars of the Trocadero. Producers
and distributors of films are invited to send
negatives of their films on the understanding
that they will remain their^ property and
the cinema library will not • make use, of
them for commercial purposes. (ClNE-
JouRNAL, Paris, 25-X-1932).

Film technique.

Mr Simon Lake has invented a new type
of submarine for making under-sea moving
pictures. Several American cinema com-
panies are already in negotiations with the
inventor for the purchase of the submarine
which can be manoeuvred by a single person.
The price is round about 18,000 dollars.
(The Film Daily, New York, 29-IX-1932).

Messrs 0. Townshend and F. Pierrard
of Wellington are seeking again the
interest and support of the New Zealand
government for a method of coloured films
which they have invented. It is called the

True-Colour ". The system, besides cost-
ing less than other systems of the kind,
allows good stereoscopic results. (Today's
Cinema, London, 3-X-1932).

It is reported from Frankfurt on the
Rhine that Engineer Paul Kirckhoff has
projected in his laboratory at Huchst by
means of a television apparatus films trans-
mitted from the station of Konigswuster-
hausen which is some 500 kilometres from

Frankfurt. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 26-X-
1932).

Film life.

For the XVth anniversary of the Soviet
Republic the following films are being
prepared in Russia :

The Bridge ", illustrating the battles
on the Eastern China railway ;

" Aviators " showing flying pictures ;
The Three Soldiers ", reproducing
episodes of the French occupation of Sou-
thern Russia ;

" General Annenko0 ", showing the
battles against the White Army in Siberia ;

" Hot Blood ", showing the life of the
troops in the Far East ;

" Perehpp ", showing fighting in the
Crimea ;

" The City is suddenly invaded by the
Enemy ", on the problems of future warfare
and the development of aviation ;

" Eastern Front ", illustrating the civil
war in White Russia. (Film Kurier, Ber-
lin, 24-IX-1932).

The government of Algeria has decided
to open a cinema department for the pro-
duction of films. The first film of the ses-
ies will deal with agricultural questions
and colonial industries. The film will be
lent gratis to all French cinemas. (Echo
d'Alger, Algiers, 5-X-1932).

Negotiations are proceeding in Berlin
between the Tobis Co. and other big Ger-
man cinema firms for a radical consolidation
of the German film market. It would
appear that it is intended to make the Tobis
a centre of influence for safeguarding all
the interests of the film-renting industry
in Germany. (Der Film, Berlin, 15-X-
1932).

In an article entitled " Sachfilm und
Spirlfilm ", Ludwig Gesek of Vienna pro-
poses the subdivision of the film into two
principal groups: those namely that are
realistic or documentary {Sachfilm) or those

- 898 -

which are theatrical (Spielfilm). The writer
suggests the formation of a third group
from a union of the other two, namely the
cultural film, and lays down the following
definitions :

The realistic film is one which takes as
its object things only. Such are research
films and educational films in the strict
sense of the word, propaganda films and
news-reels. The theatrical film means such
films as deal with relations between persons
and are characterized by a theatrical form.
The cultural film is a film which only serves
to illustrate better the object under discus-
sion.

Industrial propaganda.

According to a communication of " Bell
and Howell ", the Caterpillar Traction Co.
is the industrial firm which uses the cinema
most, not only as an advertising medium,
but also and especially as a means for de-
monstrating its products through its tra-
vellers and agents, all of whom are supplied
with a 16 mm " Filmo " apparatus and a
series of films illustrating the company's
tractors. The method, which the Cater-
pillar Tractor Co. believes to be the most
economical and useful has enabled its agents
to give useful practical demonstrations to the
governments of Afghanistan and Ethiopia.

Imitate the Operator:

Go and see for yourselves the marvellous,
comparable landscapes of Switzerland,
vihere comfortable hotels and pensions are to
be found everywhere, in all seasons and at
all prices.

For information and tickets apply to the
SWISS RAILWAY AGENCIES

(Agences des Chemins de Fer Federaux Suisses)
PARIS (2e), Boulevard des Capucines. 37
LONDON, SW 1, Regent Street lib

also to The Agents for the Swiss
Tourist Office in

ROME, Via del Tritone, 130-131
NICE, Blvd Victor Hugo, 3

Bibliography

Historia Anecdoctka del Cinema, By Carlos Fer-
NANDES CUENCA. Published by Compania Ibero-
Americana de publicaciones. Madrid, 1930.
1 Vol., 208 pp., With illustrations.

In this brief history of the evolution of the cin-
ema from its not distant beginnings the author
does not forget any important features capable of
adding to our knowledge of the subject.

The work is divided in two parts. The first
deals with creation. From the times of Archimedes
to the Brothers Lumiere the search of elemental
physical principles is the story of those who have
experimented, inquired and made attempts in the
world to get the natural vision of things. These
experiments are detailed, especially those which
took place in the second half of the xixth century
at the hands of Marey, Reynaud, Edison and Lu-
miere.

In the second half of the book style is treated.
The author follows the development of the cinema
step by step and with great exactitude from the be-
ginning to our own day.

He reviews in an able manner the manifestations
of the cinema in the various countries during the
last 30 years, and points out the important work
done by great producers and actors like Chaplin,
Lubitsch, Wiene and others.

The volume is one of the completest of a popular
kind so far issued on the story of the cinema.

Panorama of the Cinema in Russia, by Carlos Fer-
nandez Cuenca. Pubd. by Compania Ibero-
Americana de Publicaciones. Madrid, 1930. 1
Vol., pp. 174., with illustrations.

As the author says very well in his preface " the
cinema in the land of the Soviets shows a world
quite different from the general panorama of uni-
versal ^ cinematography ". It is a distinct world
which the writer discusses. Fernandez Cuenca
does not confine himself to examining the present
day Russian cinema, but goes back to the war times
and even before and to the films made by Starevitch,
Chardin, Meyerhold and the Preebraienskaia,
which on their artistic side underwent the first
influence of what was to become the Soviet film.

The author devotes a large part of his book to the

movement in favour of the cinema [begun by
Lunacharski a movement which led to the creation
of notable works such as those by Eisenstein, Pud-
owkin, Dziga Vertov and others who were a long
way ahead in the matter of artistic ideas and tech-
nique for a film, which, by its ideaological efficacy,
shaped the spirit of the Russian people.

The author lists the organs entrusted with the
task of making cultural and scientific films and the
centres where the future specialists and technicians
of the cinema are being prepared and educated.

Simba, cinema adventures in Africa. Virgin forests and
Steppes, by Martin Johnson. With 59 illus-
trations and a map. Translated from the English
by E. Alefeld. (Brockhaus, 1930).

Films on Africa enjoy great success today. In
fact, they seem like continuous variations on one
theme. The attraction exercised by the Dark
Continent on film producers and the public in gen-
eral is due in large part to the magnificent film
Simba. It is therefore very interesting to read
the memoirs of its creator, Martin Johnson, of his
trips to various part of North Kenya. Johnson
installed himself with his wife on the banks of a
little lake, and spent his days and nights observing
the animals of the steppes and the virgin forests,
in photographing and cinematographing them.
His story makes fascinating reading. The photos
reproduced are excellent, of wide interest, and add
greatly to the value of the letter-press.

The book may be warmly recommended for
gaining a better knowledge of Africa and its fauna.

Wie man filmt, by Wolfgang Gaensch. 1 Vol.,
97 pp., 92 illus. (Published by " Union Deutsche
Verlagsgesellschaft ", Berlin).

This is a short work which informs the non-ex-
pert reader of the general activities connected with
motion picture making, the developments of which
the author has followed from their beginning some
30 years ago up to the most recent improvements.
The author gives us a number of illustrations which
supplement the technical parts of the volume.
The sound film is examined in a number of pages,
dedicated to this new branch of the art.

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — • L'Universale • Tipografia Poliglotta.

— 900

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CULTURAL SECTION

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We collaborate with the most important international authorities.
Our sphere of activity embraces the following:

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international
Review,

EDUCATIONAL ONEMTOGRAPHY

ROME

DECEMBER
19 3 2

&

LEAGUE°*MnONS

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL

CINEMATOGRAPHY

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHY

LEAGUE OF NATIONS

GOVERNING, BODY.

to"

ROCCO Hon. Prof. Alfredo, Italian Minister of State, Prof, of Law at the University

of Rome, President.
CARTON DE WIART H., State Minister, Hon. President of the Child Welfare Committee.
CHRZANOWSKI Leon, Head of the Press Office of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
CURLIS Dr. Hans, Director of the Institute of Cultural Research in Berlin, President of

the Confederation of Cultural and Instructive Film Producers.
DESTR£E Jules, ex-Minister, Vice-President of the I. C. I. C.
FOCILLON Prof. Henry, Prof, at the University of Paris.
HANKIN G. T„ £s<7., H. M. I., Board of Education.

KRUSS Dr. Hugo, Director General of the Prussian State Library in Berlin.
LUMlERE Louis, Member of the Institute of France.
MARTINEZ-SIERRA Mme Maria, Member of the International Committee for the

Protection of Infancy.
MILLIKEN Carl E., Secretary General of the Motion Picture Producers & Distributors

Inc. (U. S. A.).
MISTRAL Prof. Gabriela. Doctor of Letters, ex-Director of the Girls' Lycee of

Santiago.
OPRESCU Prof. Giorgio, of the University of Bucharest.
REYNOLD Prof. Gonzague de, Prof, of the University of Berne.
YOSHIDA Shigeru, Japanese Ambassador at the Quirinal.

The Secretary General of the League of Nations,
The President of the International Agricultural Institute,
The Director of the International Labour Office,
The Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation
are present at the meetings in an advisory capacity.

de FEO Dr. Luciano, Director.

de MONTENACH Jean-Daniel, Secretary of the I. C. I. C, Secretary.

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE OF THE REVIEW.

Dr. de FEO Luciano, Director

Berne de Chavannes, Pierre Jordan, H.

de Feo, Giuseppe STORER, Edward

GlMENO, Jose Maria

APOLLONIO, Maria Elena, Secretary.

YEAR IV. DECEMBER 1932 N. 12.

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW

OF

MONTHLY PUBLICATION

OF THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE

- LEAGUE OF NATIONS -

ROME - Via Lazzaro Spallanzani, U - ROME

INDEX

Page

Thomas Edward Finegan 905

G. MouLAN ... — The Cinema and International Amity 907

C. F. Hoban ... — Possibilities of Visual-Sensory Aids in Education ... 915

Prof. Fry .... — The Teaching of Languages by the Talking Film . . . 920

TEACHERS AND THE CINEMA

The Educational Function of the Cinema (A. E. FormIGGINI-Santamaria). 923

/. /. E. C. STUDIES

Language Teaching and the Talking Film (F. Juer-Marbach) 927

/. /. E. C. INQUIRIES

A new Inquiry on the Cinema 935

LEGISLATION

Cinema Censorship in Brazil 943

INFORMATION AND COMMENT

The Industrial Propaganda Film in the Schools — Propaganda for the Ed-
ucational Cinema — The Educational Cinema in the Punjaub — The
I ndo-China Film Market — The Use of Non- Inflammable Film in Public
Cinemas — Film Censorship and Authors' Rights — News Items and
Comment — Art, Technique and Internationally of the Sound Film . 947

TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CINEMA

Recent advances in scientific Cinematography 961

REVIEW OF PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPERS 965

THOMAS EDWARD FINEGAN

With the death of Mr. Thomas Edward Finegan, which took place
on November 25 at Rochester, U.S.A., the International Institute of
Educational Cinematography loses one of its most eminent and author-
itative governors and collaborators. We feel this great loss very deeply
and sincerely, as will all who belong to the movement of which the
illustrious American educationist was one of the foremost pioneers and
inspirers.

Thomas Edward Finegan dedicated all his life to the modernization of
pedagogy. Both at the Department of Education of the State of New York,
where for 27 years he filled most important offices and as Superintendent
of Public Instruction for the State of Pennsylvania, which post he occupied
for four years, his entire activity was dominated and directed by a pro-
found belief in the efficacy of visual education through motion pictures.

Thomas Edward Finegan belonged to that class of men for whom
practical experience is worth any amount of lengthy speeches. This led
him to carry out in the schools of 12 cities of the United States, contain-
ing 11,000 students, that remarkable inquiry on teaching by the film,
the highly convincing results of which were published by him in our
review.

When he made that inquiry he was already admirably placed to
make a practical application of the principles he held in the matter of
the use of the film in teaching and instruction. When the Eastman
Kodak Co. decided to create its educational section, they offered the
directorship to Mr. Finegan. No better choice could have been made for
the post, during the occupation of which he made some 200 scholastic
films, which even now circulate in all the schools of the United States
and well as in those of other countries.

We have neither the right nor the authority to issue testimonials of
merit, but we are sure to interpret the sentiment of all friends of the
educational and pedagogic cinema when we say that Thomas Edward
Finegan deserved well of the cause he served, the cause which we too
serve silently, sometimes amid the jealousy, rancours and injustices of
men who have no justification for them, men who do not belong to the
ranks of the daily workers.

THE CINEMA AND INTERNATIONAL AMITY

By G. Moulan.

It may be said today that the cinema has overcome the most difficult
part of its development. In the beginning it was necessary to announce its
coming to all, to impose it on all the peoples, to show it not only able to
understand them but to be understood of them. It had to fight against its
detractors, who, m the early days, seeing only pictures of small interest flash
across the screen, declared at once that the latest art was only a game fit to
amuse children.

When these difficulties had been surmounted (and it took about 30 years
to surpass this period and overcome one by one the obstacles placed in the
way) a new complication arose in such an unforseen manner that the cinema
ran the risk of disaster at a moment when its fortune and future seemed
assured. The image, which is a universal language, was about to speak, and
was therefore about to lose in consequence its very first quality which more
than any other had won success for it everywhere and had held out the best
hopes to those who saw in this new art form the surest and most efficacious
means of universal interpretation and understanding.

Up till this moment, a film, whatever its country of origin might be,
could pass any and every frontier and bring to the most remote peoples a
picture of the customs, mentality and civilization of the folk where it originat-
ed. It was and remained one in form, in the sense that it did not require
different versions according to the country for which it was destined. Some
variations were possible only in sub-titles, but these on the whole contained
nothing special and only helped to stress, for the sake of the less intelligent
spectators that, which the actors' mimicry was really capable of giving by itself.

By this instrument a precious universality was obtained, a species of
illustrated esperanto from which the most fruitful results were to be expected
both from the educational point of view and from that of international amity.
What could be more suggestive or instructive than the image especially when
there was movement to lend it an appearance of life ? In the most ordinary
comedies there was often a documentary side which it was impossible to ignore

- 908 -

or pass over. From the cinema we learnt, for example, that the United States
which we had pictured as avast skyscraper or an immense factory producing
millions of tins of preserved food for the use of the world contained also
wide-spreading, endless prairies and fields of wheat, that there were work-
men there similar in everything from their mentality to their work to our
own operatives, that there existed agriculturists identical with our own.
We could see in the film that the men we had imagined to be wrapped up
solely in their business their money and profits also possessed brains and
hearts susceptible of suffering under an injustice or when ill fortune dealt
them blows. We saw that the legendary businessmen were also capable of
affection.

The silent film with its universal language compelled us to admit that
there was little difference between the races, that good and noble hearts were
to be found in every latitude, whatever might be the colour of their pos-
sessors' skins. An Indian mother weeping over her dead son was just as
affecting as a French, Italian or German mother. Sorrow revealed itself
with them all in the same fashion, with tears that there was no need to explain.
The Chinese workman struggling to gain his keep and to maintain his family
seemed to us as worthy of respect as any another worker.

Becoming in this manner well acquainted with one another, the peoples
could be brought better to understand and love one another, for we must
remember that we hate and avoid precisely that of which we know nothing.
When the film became a talking instrument it seemed to have lost every pos-
sibility of continuing its essential function. The international film became
in a moment national again, and its reach seemed bounded by the more or
less restricted limits assigned to it by the language used. An English talk-
ing film would be limited to the Anglo-Saxon countries, a French talking
film was only good for France and her colonies, with some openings in Bel-
gium, Switzerland and Canada, and the whole basis of the former world mar-
ket formerly open to good productions of any nationality seemed giving way.

Were we about to witness then the passing of this formidable means
of penetration which science had placed at men's disposal ? After 50 years
of hope, at the very moment when the harvest seemed about to be gathered,
would we have to abandon this magnificent instrument for bringing the peo-
ples together, this lever which, better than the one Archimedes asked for,
could lift up the world towards the heights of fraternity ? Had we to admit
that language given to the cinema was once again both a blessing and a
curse ?

- 909 -

There is no doubt that by becoming a talking instrument, the cinema
gained in truthful effect and interest. But by increasing its reproductive
capacity, it limited enormously its field of action. The question is still an
open one whether or not the one thing compensated the other.

By good fortune, as often happens, the anxieties of the partisans of the
film's universality as a source of fraternity among peoples met the business
folk on common ground, for the latter seeing the restrictions for the market
created by the new invention feared a menace of smaller profits, which was
far from being to their liking. They therefore set about looking for some
means which while preserving the value of the spoken word would at the
same time allow the film to cross frontiers and overcome the language
problem. As no universal language exists, recourse had to be made to sub-
terfuges, and so films in various editions were made, and translations were
used in the method known as dubbing.

But another difficulty arises here, or rather a danger. While for the
silent film the translation of the sub-titles or running comment did not present
exceptional difficulties and allowed variations of every kind, the translation
of a dialogue lends itself to all kinds of adaptations, but can also be a fruitful
source of misunderstandings. Traduttore, traditore says an old Italian pro-
verb, which finds a new and not at all desirable confirmation in the talking
film.

A recent example will suffice to illustrate the point. It took place in
Bucharest and caused the intervention of the French Legation in Roumania.
In the film Shanghai Express by the well known German producer Josef
von Sternberg, a French officer, a Colonel if I remember right, appears.
This officer, in the version shown in France is an honest if rather an insigni-
ficant individual. In the version shown in Roumania, and probably also in
other countries, he becomes an unscrupulous adventurer and a thorough
rascal who makes off with the regimental safe.

In my opinion there was no reason for making a diplomatic incident
out of the case, because there is no doubt that dishonest officers and officials
exist in France as elsewhere. If the cinema had to take every national sus-
ceptibility of this kind into immediate consideration, it would soon become
impossible to produce any scenario whatever. It is always a good thing to
omit mention of the nationality of the personages in similar cases. The fact
has, however, its serious side, for it shows there is a hypocrisy of the cinema
which we must fight against if we want to prevent incidents of this kind
ruining the structure of international good will.

- 910 -

It is quite clear that the talking film, seeking to recover the lost uni-
versality of the silent film, must always remain one in its form, that is it must
not show one version to one nation and another to another. A cinema that
was permitted a similar licence would awaken suspicion in all spectators,
and might easily cause serious misunderstandings for which it would be nat-
urally responsible. Hypocrisy is to be condemned in this connection be-
cause it is dangerous, and because it is extremely insulting to make the
audiences of a given nation applaud a work by means of a subterfuge when the
very work in other versions shows that nation or its representatives in a bad
light.

I am convinced that the author of the scenario of Shanghai Express
and its producer never had any intention of offending the French army when
they dressed their lying officer in French uniform. The thing however
assumes a different aspect when the film is shown in French cinemas, and
the author of the dialogue takes it upon himself to modify substantially the
officer's character with the object of deceiving the French public.

Hypocrisy of this kind is intolerable, and a continuation of it could not
fail to create within a short time in the cinema a state of suspicion that ought
at any cost to be avoided. It is necessary that the spectator who sees a film
made abroad is definitely convinced that the production has not been falsi-
fied and that what he sees and hears is the real film.

The talking film, if it is to be a force for international amity, must be
healthy, and must avoid all those points capable of hurting national suscep-
tibilities or causing motives for discord. It should seek rather to unite.

This, we know, is a difficult and ungrateful task, but not an impossible
one. There is an endless variety of subjects which can be understood every-
where by everybody, quite apart from the question of language. Since
translations seem generally unfaithful, if not actually misleading, would it
not be possible to find plots which could almost if not entirely dispense with
dialogue ? Some films have already shown the path to be followed. The
Miners' Tragedy and No Mans Land, for example, might serve as models
to writers of future international film scenarios.

In my opinion, the present formula (films 100 °/o talking in a given lan-
guage with dubbing for the other languages) can in no way be considered
the formula of the future. It was obviously necessary that the talking film
had to make its beginnings and to depend on local and national resources for
a start, but the period of the national film would appear to be waning and there
are symptoms that the public now shows an inclination to renew its contact

— 911 —

with the world at large and with foreign peoples, to take up once again its
magnificent trips abroad and to find once again the universality of the old
silent film.

Are we to suppress or dialogue then ? No, but we ought to reduce it to
the strict minimum necessary for understanding the plot . We should give back
to the picture, the image, its old preeminence, and only use words in the way
in which sub-titles or running comment were used in the silent film. The
translation or dubbing would then become child's play, and would not
open the door to misunderstandings.

Since, for once in a way, the views of men who see in the cinema a potent
instrument for world amity and those of the cinema businessmen happen to
coincide, we may be allowed to hope that the film will regain its old internat-
ional character and its direct influence on the world public. Thus we may
look forward to the day when every people will have a realistic knowledge of
the life of other peoples and will have but one ideal, that is to live in peace
wit bother nations knowing how alike their ideals are to its own.

* * *

So far I have sought to limit my observations to the theatrical film, to
the film, that is, which attracts the spectator through an emotional appeal.
But I should also like to express my opinion of the possibilities of the educa-
tional film as a means of bringing the nations closer together. In order to
avoid any possible misunderstandings, I should like to say at once that I
do not mean the teaching or instructional or pedagogic film, but only the
documentary film or news-reel made for adult audiences.

I do not deny, indeed I am convinced of the importance of the pedagogic
film. 1 believe the film can be a valuable assistance to the teacher, a pedago-
gic instrument as useful as the book or the lecture. It has, moreover, an
important task in the technical or occupational instruction of children for help-
ing them to choose a career or trade, or improving their knowledge of the
possibilities of any trade. It can be the easiest and pleasantest way of giving
object lessons. Better than any book or lantern slide it can afford the pupils
a thorough knowledge of the world, of the flora and fauna of any special
region. It can show the customs and ways of far off peoples and the habits
of any particular nation.

' What book, or description can equal this luminous teacher which
through a double miracle of human science, can show children the birth,

— 912 —

growth and death of plants, can give them a living picture of the budding of
a rose, take them trips without risk or fatigue to all the most beautiful parts
of the world ? What teacher can take the place of this marvel which shows
us all the peoples and races of the world with their customs and essential
characteristics ? How except through this apparatus can we see pictures of
submarine life where the marvels of life deep down in the sea are revealed
to us ?

Thus wrote Gabriel de Poissiere a few months ago in a very interesting
and well documented article on the educational film. If I have quoted his
words it is to show that I am not in the least opposed to the use of the film
in the teaching sphere, and that if I do not deal with this problem it is be-
cause pretty well everything has already been said about the matter, and there
is nothing worth while adding.

There is, on the contrary, a type of film which is much neglected while
in reality its importance is at least equal to that of the instructional or
teaching films. I refer to the social educational film, the documentary film
for adults, to which I have already referred.

A large number of documentary films have been produced since the
war and with the aid of the talking film we have witnessed a revival of
a type of film which appeared to have gone out of favour. We have been
able to enjoy half a dozen or more 'films on the Dark Continent as well as
a number of films on polar expeditions.

Is this all the cinema can do for us ? It is certainly magnificent, in-
teresting and useful to take us into the depths of inaccessible regions, to
initiate us, as the UFA scientific films do, in the mysteries of submarine
plant and animal life, but I do not think this is the final and definite work
of the documentary film.

There are other things to show us besides lions roaming about the
African veldt, more important things than icebergs and floes in the polar
regions. There is in my opinion something more beautiful than all this,
and that is just life, simple life, the infinite aspects of which we can never
know enough of.

It is certainly a pleasure to travel vicariously in the heart of Africa, to
study the lives of the pigmies and other almost unknown races and then
compare them egoistically with our own kind of existence. We learn in
this way the existence of races of which we were quite ignorant, of others
regarding which we had few ideas, or which we even despised. But to
render this kind of film really useful, it is not enough to make pictures of far

— 913 —

off peoples whom we shall never see or know at close quarters. There are
near us, often very near, peoples about whom we are profoundly ignorant,
whom we perhaps despise only because we do not know them in their
intimity.

The task of making neighbouring peoples better known to one another
offers a magnificent opportunity to the cinema, for there is an abundance of
marvellous material for thousands of documentary films. Who will give
us the documentary film on the Russian Soviets whicn must inevitably be
made with perfect objectivity and truthfulness, without any kind of political
passion or doctrinaire considerations ? Who will tell the world the story
of what Fascism nas done in Italy, with impartiality and fairness, and with
guarantees of that sincerity which the public has a right to expect ? Who
will picture for us on the film the humble but praiseworthy life of the peasant
who cultivates his soil, of the operative in the factory, without introducing
any of those artificial elements or touches of fantasy which destroy the value
of the picture and make it difficult to distinguish the real from the artificial ?
Who will produce a well knit film story allowing us to perceive those differen-
ces of mentality which more than the differences of language separate races
often enough living within the borders of one country ? The wisdom of the
Greeks urged : " Know thyself ! " To which we may add : " Learn too to
know others ", because without a knowledge of others it is perhaps impossible
to know oneself. What agent better than the cinema can take up this work
of teaching us to know one another ?

If this dream could be realized it would become necessary to change the
formula of the documentary film. Up to now pictures of this kind have
generally been either too long or too short. The first kind constrained the
spectator to an excessive effort of attention, while the other kind did not suc-
ceed in creating in the spectator that state of mind without which no lesson
can be usefully assimilated. Between films of 10 minutes and films of 80
minutes, there is the happy medium of 30 or 40 minutes. A normal length
show could thus be given, allowing also a margin for possible additions.

Another defect of the documentary film is often its pompous and mag-
isterial tone. In order that the documentary film be accepted and not only
accepted but sought after, it must abandon its tone of permanent austerity.

In other words, it must learn to speak to the heart rather than to the head.
If, for example, it is desired to illustrate how the land is cultivated in Bessa-
rabia, the actors must express the sentiments which normally animate them ;
they must show their life as they really live it and not portray it under arti-

— 914 —

ficial forms. In this way, we shall learn not only how the farmer of Bessarabia
tills the ground, but we shall enter into his intimate feelings and so we shall
make a step, even though it be a small one, towards that science without which
all the other sciences will never give us the universal felicity we seek : a know-
ledge of humanity.

In this way maybe the documentary film may become the most effica-
cious instrument for promoting fraternity and amity among the peoples.
At any rate, it will cost nothing to make the trial.

(Translated from the French).

POSSIBILITIES OF VISUAL SENSORY AIDS IN EDUCATION

By C. F. Hoban,

Director of Visual Education,
Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction.

Following the note which we published under the same heading in our September number
(page 831) and in which We briefly referred to the conference held at Atlantic City by the
National Academy of Visual Instruction and the Visual Section of the National Edu-
cation Association, Mr C. F. Hoban, director of Visual Instruction of the Public Education
Department of the state of Pennsylvania has kindly sent us the following article which com-
pletes and particularizes, through personal views, the information already published
regarding this important conference.

As a preliminary to this discussion, I quote from the report of Henry S. Pritchetts
Vocabulary Test which shows that the average college senior knows but sixty-one out
of one hundred words in familiar use by educated people ; and in connection with Doc-
tor Pritchett's report, the comment of one of the many newspapers that printed an ana-
lysis of his findings. " We are unable to think of any argument, " says the Milwaukee
Sentinel" that releases college education from the responsibility of at least providing
its disciples with a sufficient vocabulary to converse with men and women of ordinary
culture ".

I also quote from the report given at the Minneapolis meeting by Miss Elda Mer-
ton, Assistant Superintendent of the Waukesha, Wisconsin, Public Schools. Miss
Merton's data covered an investigation of the preparation of students going from ele-
mentary to junior high schools. The results showed that the children had approx-
imately a fifty percent knowledge of the subject matter of the elementary curriculum.

My personal investigations sustain the Pritchett and Merton statements. I have
tried groups with words from the elementary curriculum such as malt, skewer, latex,
Nokomis, travois and found that some of the words were absolutely without meaning
to those questioned, and other words only superficially known. These are but a few
evidences of the prevalence of verbalism in American schools.

The cure for verbalism, in my judgment, lies in the effective use of visual-sen-
sory aids both in the instruction and learning processes. But the effective use of visual-
sensory aids in instruction requires preparation on the part of teachers so that they may
know these tools of teaching, where to get them, and how to use them ; and the res-
ponsibility for this knowledge and this technique rests on the shoulders of the teacher-
preparation institutions of the country.

As comprehended in modern instructional and learning procedures, visual sensory
aids are those concerned with the visual, auditory, and tactile senses. These sensory

- 916 —

aids are regarded as essential tools of teaching and have the potential possibilities of
reducing verbalism, retardation, failure to master curriculum matter, and elimination
from school. Summarized, all visual-sensory aids are included in the following types ;
apparatus and equipment, school journeys or field trips, objects-specimens-models,
pictorial materials (flats, stereographs, slides, film-slides, films), and the miscellaneous
group such as dramatization, exhibit, pageant, etc.

The values of visual-sensory aids in the instructional and learning processes have
been definitely established through scientific investigation. During the past year, it
has been my privilege to have had close contact with a research student from Duke Uni-
versity, who, fired with a desire to carry out the plea of the director of his graduate work,
Doctor W. A. Brownell, to do something worth while, someting constructive, something
that will contribute to educational procedure, made a critical analysis of all known exper-
imental studies in the field of visual education. Every major experiment in this and
foreign countries, and all theses in the graduate schools of the United States — a total
of more than one hundred — were thoroughly studied. The analysis reveals reliable
testimony that the proper use of visual-sensory materials : increases initial learning,
effects an economy of time in learning, increases permanence of learning, aids in teaching
backward children, motivates learning by increasing — interest, attention, self-activity,
voluntary reading and classroom participation.

The frequency of these outcomes — which range from not fewer than three to more
than twenty — is eloquent testimony of the possibilities of visual-sensory aids in edu-
cation ; and right here is a challenge to every superintendent and supervising official
in this country. Instruction in the schools of our country can be improved by teacher
preparation in these techniques and attention to the use of these materials on the part
of supervisory officers.

No school official will deny that apparatus and equipment are essential classroom
tools, and that teachers should know the minimum amount of standard equipment and
apparatus necessary for satisfactory outcomes in the respective subjects and school activ-
ities. This knowledge is very important from the economic and professional view-
points. My own experience with fifty-four teacher groups — ranging in number from
fifty to eighteen hundred — during the past two years, is that a very small percentage
of the teachers know standards for evaluating materials and the minimum amount of
standard equipment necessary.

The school journey or field trip is a rich and valuable medium for instruction and
learning. Grinstead, as a result of the outcomes of his experimental studies, gives the
following illuminating conclusions :

Properly conducted school journeys : —

1 . Bring about an increased interest in school work and a sustained interest in
the topic studied.

2. Assist the pupil's comprehension

3. Clarify principles

4. Help children to organize their knowledge

5. Develop constructive thinking

6. Stimulate interest in natural and man-made things and situations

7. Help pupils to find themselves

— 917 —

8. Constitute a cooperative enterprise

9. Blend school life with the outside world

10. Enable or compel a teacher to conduct a more logical and orderly recitation.

Reports from education departments in foreign countries sustain these conclusions.
Great Britain, progressive European countries, and Japan make the school journey
central in their educational procedure. Local journeys are a definite part of their school
schedules. Long journeys are encouraged in England, Germany, Sweden, Italy, Czecho-
slovakia. Two cities in this last progressive republic — Prague and Brno — have
specially built buses to take crippled children on educational trips. The Japan De-
partment of Education reports that local school journeys are used regularly by elementary
and secondary schools. Longer or distant journeys are made at least once and some-
times twice a year.

What has been cited is convincing evidence of the possibilities of this medium
of instruction. The United States could consistently pluck a leaf from the notebooks
of foreign countries so far as school journey procedure is concerned. May I say that
as a superintendent of schools I would expect every teacher not only to know how to
organize, conduct and check a school journey or field trip, but would expect them to
make it a part of the school procedure.

Equally valuable and closely related to school journeys and field trips is the effective
use of objects-specimens-models and museum lessons. More than a half dozen of the
experiments examined testify to the worth of this type of visual aid and the museum
as an asset to school work. Especially significant is the extent to which the group of
lowest mentality children profit through the use of object-specimen-model materials
and visits to museums. Objects-specimens-models provide, for instruction, realistic
and concrete elements. They enable pupils to see and handle materials which are
being discussed, thus revealing such charateristics as three dimensions, coloring, Weight,
texture, etc. By object is meant the thing itself ; specimen means a part of the thing
— as for example, a piece of coal, wood, clothing, etc. ; model, a replica or representation
in miniature.

Museums, and they are becoming increasingly accessible to teachers and children,
have a wealth of material that, if used, will enrich and vitalize subject matter. Closer
cooperation between school people and museum officials will make these materials avail-
able to schools in the areas served. There is a growing feeling that schools should have
their own collections of object-specimen-model materials and they can be assembled
and made useful to practically every subject in the curriculum. There are limitless
opportunities in this respect in the fields of geography, history, and science. Again I
would expect teachers to know the sources of these materials, how to assemble and house
them, and an effective technique|for their use when|occasion demands.

We can profit by the practices of foreign countries, where school journeys and
museums are inter-related. In these countries, wherever museums are within reach
of the schools, they are used frequently and fruitfully.

No comment is necessary regarding the values of pictorial materials since they
are so well known and so widely used. I strongly suggest that the school people of
the country become familiar with the twenty or more experiments that have been conduct-
ed with stereographs, slides, and films. Pictures tell a story more graphically and

- 918 —

tersely than words. They bring the world and its activities to the child. In my
work with school groups, I find few teachers who are in possession of definite stan-
dards for evaluating pictorial materials. To use pictorial materials effectively in in-
struction requires that teachers know standards of evaluation, guiding principles for their
use, their adaptation and relationship to the curriculum, and when and how to use them.
Untold damage has resulted through a lack of this knowledge. It is highly proper at
this point to suggest that the great guiding principle for the use of visual-sensory
materials is that of justification. This principle should be impressed vividly upon the
mind of every person engaged in the instruction of children.

Radio is here and has a place on this evening's program. That precludes any
discussion of the subject by me. Radio-vision belongs to the visual-sensory field. Its
development thus far has been very interesting. I am referring particularly to what
has been accomplished in the fields of geography, history, literature, mathematics, music,
and science.

From the standpoint of enriching, vitalizing, and improving the quality of instruc-
tion, the possibilities of visual-sensory aids are very great. The achievement of these
possibilities rests entirely with the teacher-preparation institutions and the school
supervisory officers of our country. ,

As I approach the conclusion of this discussion, I call the attention of the pres-
idents of teacher preparation institutions and the superintendents of schools of the
country to the following four declarations made in Washington in February when the
National Academy of Visual Instruction and the Department of Visual Instruction of
the National Education Association were merged : —

1 . Experimental studies, research and surveys have revealed definite and im-
portant values for visual-sensory aids.

2. A knowledge of these visual-sensory aids and a technique for their use require
special preparation.

3. The contribution that visual-sensory aids make to improved instruction justi-
fies a requirement that every teacher in training in the public schools of the United
States take a laboratory course in visual-sensory aids.

4. Some means should be developed to train teachers in service in this course.
These are sound constructive declarations. The consensus of opinion of stu-
dents of this subject is that combination of visual-sensory aids courses, visual aids in
history, visual aids in science, etc. — is a great mistake since such a procedure results
in much confusion and duplication of effort. The feeling prevails that the core curri-
culum of a visual-sensory aids course should consist of the following elements common
to practically all subjects ; research; historial background; psychological aspects and ver-
balism ; projectors and projection ; school journeys ; objects-specimens-models and
museum procedure ; pictorial materials ; photography — still and motion picture
camera technique ; blackboard and bulletin-board technique ; administering and bud-
geting visual materials ; radio-vision ; bibliography.

I am absolutely in accord with this thought. I believe this core material should
be the initial course in visual-sensory aids and that it should be mandatory. Surely
no educator would defend repeating these common elements and techniques in art,
English, geography, health, history, mathematics, music and science. It is my firm

— 919 —

conviction that next to educational psychology, this visual-sensory aids course posses-
ses greater value, from the instructional and leaning viewpoints, than any other
professional course in education.

It may be of interest to the National Education Association's members to know that
Pennsylvania's Superintendent of Public Instruction is an enthusiastic believer in
the possibilities of visual-sensory aids. I commend his viewpoint to the other State
Superintendents of the country. Pennsylvania's Board of Teacher College Presidents
has made a visual-sensory aids course mandatory in all the State-owned teacher pre-
paration institutions of our Commonwealth. I commend their action to the teacher
college presidents of the country.

The slogan of this meeting is " Looking Ahead in Education ". The values of
visual-sensory aids as revealed in scientific studies and practice have been pointed out.
I recommend to the teachers of our country a wider use of school journeys and of objects -
specimens-models in instructional procedures.

If a course in visual-sensory aids be made mandatory on the part of every person
preparing to teach in the schools of the nation ; if superintendents of schools will en-
encourage teachers in service to take such a course — either in extension or at sum-
mer schools ; and if visual-sensory aids be used effectively in the school rooms of
America, I predict that the next years will witness one of the greatest contributions to
the improvement of instruction that has ever been made in the history of our country.

->

la ingl.

THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGES BY THE TALKING FILM

By Prof. Fry,

of « Fry's Taal Institut »
Amsterdam.

In publishing this short article, We do not think We shall be accused of over-emphasizing
the subject treated by Madame Juer Marbach now appearing in the form of a study in
this review. We publish the following note all the more willingly because Mr. Fry sent it
us before he could have seen Madame MarbacKs series of articles, but it is clear that there is
a certain identity of views between the following brief note and the longer study. We think
that Mr. Frys remarks will tend to increase the interest and usefulness of the articles which
Madame Juer Marbach is Writing in collaboration with the I. I. E. C. For this reason We
thank Mr. Fry for sending us his note.

Before engaging in an explanation of the importance of the sound and talking film
for teaching foreign languages it will be necessary to define to some extent what should
be understood by teaching languages " and what by the word " language " itself.

Every nation employs in daily use at least two languages. There is first the spoken
language which consists of utterances of sounds used to create in the hearer's mind a
mental picture similar to that which the speaker has in his mind or to bring into activity
in the listener's mind a thought or thoughts like those passing through the speaker's
mind at the moment.

Secondly, we have the written language, which is a collection of certain recognized
signs, eventually constituting symbols called words, which represent the sounds the
speaker would use to convey his thoughts to another person.

The direct association of a mind-picture with corresponding sounds, either imaginary
or in a conception of sound symbols in a certain' language is the origin of the much used
erroneous phrase " thinking in a language ". We can think of the sounds or even of
the symbols employed to express these sounds in writing, but the thinking itself even of
the sounds or symbols is merely the production of a mental picture.

The teaching of languages must necessarily be based on this fundamental truth.
Not to admit it would mean that a deaf or illiterate person would be unable to think at all.

* * *

Language, accent, pronunciation, dialect and slang therefore are merely different
names for any code which has developed naturally among people and by means of which
two or more persons are able to evoke by inter-communication similar if not precisely
the same kind of mind pictures.

921 —

No human being possesses or will ever possess the power and capacity to create in
the mind of another person to whom the sound symbols and sounds employed are quite
foreign, a mental picture which will compare in detail, faithfulness distinctness and precis-
ion with what the film can do. The artist can at the most portray persons, animals and
objects, that is nouns. He can also picture to some extent the beauty or ugliness of these
objects, that is, with adjectives, but when movement is to be expressed, that is when he
must use verbs, his efforts become ineffective and futile. The author can describe to
us in pages of print the things visualized by his imagination, but there is little doubt that
the mind pictures created in the author's brain and those aroused in the reader's are con-
siderably different. Only the actor is in a position to render every phase and movement
of life truthfully, just as he too is capable of producing perfect sound, but we cannot
expect to convert the school into a stage, and even then we should require the assistance
of the talking film to record the actor's words.

Naturally the question of the use of the direct method in teaching languages arises.
Let us admit honestly that the teacher who employs it limits himself severely. His
tuition becomes a poor attempt when compared to the possibilities that may be realized
through the talking film. Personal talent and the gift for teaching may, of course, render
one teacher more successful than another.

* * *

Until recently it had been generally accepted that in teaching languages it was not
the mind picture or the thought itself which was of vital importance, but the sounds
which the student already knew and employed through his native tongue. After what we
have already briefly said, it will be readily understood that this method known as the
translation method, necessitates working backwards instead of forwards, which latter
is more natural. The translation method also creates unwarranted and undesirable
difficulties. The student's concentration, both oral and aural, is constantly being
diverted from the foreign language he is endeavouring to acquire by the interfering in-
fluence of the sounds of his mother tongue which has to be used to evoke similar or cor-
responding mind pictures among the members of the class. The moment the student
hears the familiar sounds of his native tongue his mind is flooded with corresponding
mental images. The echo of the familiar sounds in the mind and the minute spontaneous
construction of the mind-picture obliterate almost at once the weaker and much less
familiar sounds of the new language which it is the aim of the teacher to impart.

The paramount importance of the sound and talking film must impress itself on us
when we consider the teaching of languages in its proper relation. The film can render
every conceivable mind picture perfectly. It does more. It excludes the possibility
of an imperfect conception in the mind of any of the students, which is a matter of vital
importance. It permits, moreover, the faithful reproduction of every object, making the
translation of nouns superfluous. It can weave the use of verbs into movements and
action, and can avoid the danger of misunderstandings when dealing with abstract mat-

— 922 —

ters. It will end by simplifying grammar to such an extent that grammar will eventually
take its right and proper place in the teaching of languages.

Every sound contained in any language can be faithfully reproduced by the talking
film, and every position of the lips or tongue can be shown on the film. Accents and the
diversity of dialects can be disregarded, which is not true of the methods in use today.
No human voice can maintain the impressive strength of the sound film, and no teacher
can instruct his pupils with the same untiring regularity and perfection as the reproduced
voice. No teacher, not even the best will ever be in a position to make such a universal
appeal as the talking film. Eventually, pupils learning a foreign language through the
agency of the talking film and through the auditory, visual, tactile and motile senses ought
to be able to reach an efficiency of 100 per cent.

Teachers and the Cinema

THE EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION OF THE CINEMA

By Emilia Formiggini Santamaria.

I propose to divide the discussion of the
argument into two parts : the educative
influence of the cinema and didactic utility
of the film, implicitly distinguishing the
two kinds of projection : free projections
sought after spontaneously by children
(theatrical films) and the scholastic film pure
and simple.

I.

I should like to say first of all that my own
personal observations and inquiries made in
connection with the matter in my own class-
es (upper courses of the Rome Normal Insti-
tute) have only confirmed the conviction,
common to me as to the majority of modern
pedagogues, that every individual takes from
outside of him that which his spiritual re-
quirements have need of. During the early
period of life these requirements are satis-
fied with the family surroundings. Therefore
we can only speak of the educational
influence of the cinema in so far as it can
cooperate with what is spontaneous in the
child. The fact that almost all adolescents
prefer touching or sentimental films and
those of an historical character imbued with
a strong love or sacrifice motive (films of the
Trafalgar type) while children up to fifteen
welcome adventure and comic films shows
that it is the state of mind which guides the
choice in spectacles, and not the type of
film seen time after time which gives a cer-
tain directive influence to the spirit. If
we admit this, it becomes clear that police
and detective films will not have the power
to lead a child to become a thief or to make
him engage in fraud or cruelty, if he has
been brought up in a respectable family and
is a lad of character. Similarly films which

exhibit generous acts and men or women
devoted to work do not convert the egoist
or the vagabond to better ways.

Films, however, can strengthen the in-
clination of anyone whose state of mind al-
ready turns in a certain direction. There-
fore films which give minute descriptions
of acts against property or give details of
forms of sensuality are entirely reprehensible
inasmuch as they render more concrete
already existing predispositions towards evil.

My girl students are enthusiastic about the
cinema, which constitutes for them, together
with novels, almost their only amusement.
These young girls, already accustomed to
introspection, when asked if the cinema had
any effect on their characters, denied prac-
tically unanimously that the pictures had
any great influence on them. Only in two
particulars a certain number of pupils ad-
mitted a durable effect produced by the
films : an accentuation of the tendency to
day-dream and — among the more timid
of them — an increased sense of terror of
solitude and darkness after having witnessed
terrifying films. In respect of other aspects
of the cinema, my girls have declared that
films certainly make a lively impression on
them, but an impression of so fugitive a
nature that it is practically effaced the day
after. They state that the case is the same
for their young brothers. The boys, for
instance, are enthusiastic about Tom Mix,
and may be they are a little more restive
the day after having seen him on the screen,
and they talk about wanting to be cowboys,
but in a few days they do not think any more
about the matter.

Since, generally speaking, sentiment
occupies the thoughts of young girls and

924

adventure the minds of boys, it would appear
a good thing to prepare different films for
them both in keeping with their fancy and
inclination. Since sentiment is an admirable
thing, provided that it is restrained, virile
and disciplined by reason, one ought not to
let young girls see only love story films, or
films treating of overwhelming passion,
exalting the gift of oneself even to point of
sacrificing honour for the loved man, or
films, in which mothers abandon their chil-
dren for love of a man, films in short which
make sexual love the supreme ideal in life.
On the other hand, the sentiment of maternity
which awakens such profound echos in
women ought to play a great part in films for
girls. They should be shown pictures, for
instance, illustrating the struggle of the wo-
man, who, deceived by her husband, triumphs
over herself by renouncing love, because she
remembers that without her her children will
grow up unhappy and perhaps wicked.
Other suitable subjects are : the deceived
young girl who tears the image of the un-
worthy man from her heart and dedicates
her life to others, giving and receiving more
love than she could ever find in the narrow
circle of a family, acts of heroism by wives
and mothers, historical films where the most
famous women of our risorgimento are por-
trayed, women supporters of and martyrs for
ideas (French revolution or Christian martyrs).

As for the boys who are naturally fond of
adventure, it should not be difficult to sub-
stitute for fantastic and frenzied crime stor-
ies tales of explorations, polar expeditions,
mountain climbing pictures and films of a
romantic character in which a certain moral
sense and dignity are present. Heroic legen-
dary stories might usefully be filmed too.

For the children who delight in comic
films and enjoy slapstick and animated
drawings we must make a different type of
comic film, providing a more intelligent kind
of laugh, which does not only hope to ex-
tract laughter from somersaults and antics.
Why not film some of the old stories, though
not the terrifying ones ? There would be
plenty of opportunity for creating hearty

and healthy laughs. Trained animals might
also prove to be an interesting subject for
films, especially as children are immensely
interested in all animals up to the age of ten
or twelve. For children of ten or so, it
would be an excellent idea to film episodes
which have interested and delighted them in
their reading (for example the stories of
De Amicis). Such cinema reproductions
ought, however, to be made with proper
understanding of the author's spirit and also
that of the children, so that no repetition
of the Piccolo patriota padovano may occur.
In this instance, a charming Italian lad, full
of patriotic sentiment and always ready to
defend his country's cause was turned into
a character who continually exaggerated
his patriotic feelings to the point of making
them unconvincing.

The admirable idea of the Italian govern-
ment LUCE Institute of reserving certain
hours on certain days in certain cinemas for
children's films has unfortunately not pro-
duced the good results that were to be ex-
pected. In my opinion, the lack of success
may be attributed to two reasons : first the
rather too scientific nature of the films chosen
for projection and consequently a lack of
appeal to the children and, secondly, when
the mothers take their children to the cinema
they are more concerned with enjoying
themselves than with thinking about the
educational effect of the film on their off-
spring. Anyone can convince himself of
the truth of this by observing the large
number of children present in the cinemas
when sensational love story films or risky
farces are being shown.

If it is desired that children and young
people go to see cinema shows intended for
them, we must make films which will really
attract them and seriously impose the veto
on shows unsuitable for minors. By films
unsuitable for minors one must understand
scenes in which men are shown as victims
of a passion, whatever it may be, whether
culpable or not, scenes of luxury life, or a
life without meaning and purpose. Some
years ago I saw in Hungary a notice outside

925

a cinema announcing " Children under
16 admitted". The result was that the
young people who were kept away from the
majority of other cinemas, flocked to this
one, and brought their parents with them.

II.

In teaching, the cinema has really opened
a new era. Certain ideas of natural objects
and customs which the diligent teacher sought
to impart to his scholars by appealing
to their imagination and assisting it with
postcards, illustrated books, and plastic
models can now be taught and illustrated
by the film in all their naturalness.

This does not mean, however, that this
didactic aid either can or ought to be sub-
stituted entirely for reality. First of all,
because the pictorial images have little dur-
ation and vanish as rapidly as they appear,
and secondly because the interest deriving
from the actual object in life is a different
thing altogether, as, for instance, a walk in
the country or a visit to a museum. More
than one sense is appealed to here, and the
number of spiritual impressions is greater.
But in those cases where it is impossible
to place the students in direct contact with
objects, the aid of the cinema is most prec-
ious. Especially is this so for geography
in the wide sense of the word (anthropo-
geography) and for natural science. It
would be an excellent thing for teaching
history if films existed reproducing epi-
sodes of great historical events. For phy-
sical sciences, on the other hand, in view
of the inevitable rapidity with which exper-
iments are shown on the film and the lack of
the depth dimension and colour, the results
are not important.

A real life experiment, even if made with
modest means and equipment by the teach-
er and the professor, which is slowly de-
veloped before the eyes of the students and
m which indeed they can participate is
worth more than a difficult, complicated and
elaborate experiment shown on the screen.

With regard to the procedure to be adopt-

ed, the teacher's comment — when the film
can be stopped — is better than any sub-
titles, especially for the elementary classes,
because the teacher's remarks are addressed
precisely to those pupils who already possess
that amount of knowledge — as the master
knows — which will enable them to grasp
what is being illustrated.

Subtitles, on the contrary, are addressed
to a general type of pupil and presuppose
knowledge, ideas and capacity for under-
standing which may be beyond the power
of the pupils in each special case.

I am not arguing for the abolition of sub-
titles. I only want to say that one must
not count too much on them. The master's
commentary will always be the safest ex-
planatory method. Commentary does not,
however, mean explanation. The latter
should be slow, it ought to be connected
with the preceding lessons, and it ought to
prepare future knowledge. It ought to
coordinate learning in a whole and make the
class participate, through individual efforts
in the acquisition of knowledge. Explana-
tion should not be given during the course
of a projection. At what moment then
ought the explanation to be given ? In our
opinion, it should be given before the film,
for if it is given after, it will happen that
the teacher will refer to parts of the film that
have not been grasped by the pupils. More-
over, if some memory of the film is to remain
in the pupil's minds, there must already
be in their minds some points of contact
with what they see on the film.

In consequence, the film should not be
a partial substitute for the lesson, but a
complementary part of it. The lesson, giv-
en with the ordinary didactic means and
accompanied, if needs be by lectures, will
find in the film projection its most perfect
and agreable ally.

During the showing of the film the teacher
can recall to the pupils' memory ideas pre-
viously imparted to them, and attract their
attention to certain details, or illustrate cer-
tain passages of their text books.

926

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LANGUAGE TEACHING AND THE TALKING FILM

PHONETICS

.... « especially so, since we are dealing with
the essential principle, that the senses are to he
found in the muscles ».

S. Stricker.

Studicn iiber die Sprachvorstellung, Vienna 1880.

We should like everyone to take note of this quotation and to remember above all
other things that sound dwells in the muscles, and consequently the action of the muscles
and their movements are indispensable for the emission of sound.

A movement is really quite an easy thing to describe in a film. The foregoing quo-
tation, moreover, leads us to the conclusion that the person who is desirous to learn to
make new sounds must learn beforehand to study the activity of the muscles which pro-
duce such sounds. We should like to insist on the fact that in our teaching of phonetics it
is an essential part of our programme to support the thesis based on the intimate character
of sound emission : that the hearing without the sight is incomplete. This idea, which
I propose to develop methodically later dates from a work of the XlXth century by Stricker.
In Schumann's volume on " Teaching French " published in 1896, phonetics form the
object of a methodical study. In France as a result of the impulse given to such works
by the celebrated physiologist Maray, the interest for phonetic studies has increased in
intensity.

It is not within the scope of our work to outline the history of this scientific move-
ment, because we do not propose to go into the practical consequences of this work or
to consider those teachers who have shown a certain hostility towards phonetics, indicat-
ing thereby a lack of interest for everything connected with languages. Notwithstand-
ing this, our method has nothing to fear from this negative attitude since we wish espec-
ially to take account of the practical results at which our pupils are aiming.

From the foregoing it may be argued that if there does not exist a language in ab-
stract neither can an abstract pronunciation be said to exist. In order to be as precise
as possible in our choice of terms, we will say that the purpose of this chapter is to teach
how to pronounce well. Mauthner states that there is no such thing theoretically
as a good pronunciation and that it is not possible to answer the question : ,, What is
a good pronunciation? (1) From our point of view, this remark is certainly correct,
but it constitutes at the same time an obstacle, just in the way a philosophical discussion

(I) Op. cit.. Vol. 2, page 156.

— 928 —

as to what the attention is might do. There are pronunciations which can be considered
pure, beautiful and expressive which we endeavour to select for our teaching methods.

For this reason it is especially necessary that students should be in a position to
appreciate exactly the pronunciation offered them as an example. Numerous sciences
are concerned with problems of hearing. It will therefore suffice to make some general
considerations on listening to foreign languages.

Strieker in his book speaks of the dominant theory which considers articulated sounds,
syllables and words as sound images. The sole purpose of his work is to demolish this
doctrine which has long since disappeared from the scientific field, and is only accepted
in certain cases by persons not conversant with the facts.

The man who begins the study of a foreign language, and is not at the same time a
philologist, has the clear sensation that he must listen as much as possible. He is right
in theory, but he forgets the fact that he ought also to see as much as possible. Good
teachers seek to draw their pupils' attentions to this point, but it happens often enough
that a teacher is not in a position to carry out this work as well as a talking film. Mauth-
ner takes Strieker's principles as a starting-point, but goes much further than the former
when he states that the comparative formula — to listen (understand) to speak — is in
no way a paradox but rather a precise and scientific notion based on the peculiarities of
the human organism.

In connection with this what is the explanation of the fact that many people, in fact
probably the large majority, almost always end by coughing when addressed by a person
with a hoarse voice ? What again is the explanation of the fact that it is the most practised
readers who miss the greatest number of misprints when correcting proofs, while the most
trifling error in pronunciation is infallibly corrected. This depends on the fact that
when we listen to someone, especially if we listen attentively, our talking muscles work in
sympathy with the person who is really speaking. The printed word never talks to us,
but physiologically speaking, we speak when reading mentally. When someone talks
to us, two individuals, as a matter of fact speak : that is our interlocutor and ourselves ;
the first audibly, ourselves in a voice that is not perceptible. As long as harmony reigns
in this species of duet, nothing offends our senses, but if our interlocutor who is speaking
aloud makes a mistake, we feel at once in an unpleasant manner a shock in our vocal ap-
paratus. This is the reason why listening to a fine speech affords us a distinct pleasure.
It produces in us a psychical exchange of emotions which hardly comes within the do-
main of consciousness, but is nevertheless real in as much as we are almost convinced that
we have ourselves delivered the speech. (This opens up a new field for us regarding the
so called lies of temperamental men and children). It is unnecessary to add that
the same principle obtains when we have to deal with an orator who does nothing
but stammer or fall into painful contradictions.

These observations are important in considering our method, because we may make
the natural deduction that we should use our mother tongue as little as possible. We
must therefore keep to the so called direct method. It is evident that an over frequent
changing from the mother tongue to the foreign language being taught or viceversa can-
not but help to tire the pupil's ear and tend towards confusion. This changing of sounds
and tonality may lead to the pupil abandoning his hearing almost entirely to the sounds
of his mother tongue.

- 929 —

Scientists who have engaged in phonetics have always maintained that the phenom-
enon of hearing is extremely complex and is capable of leading us into quite as many
errors as the sense of sight. It has also been realized that often enough our deficient
sense of hearing a tongue which is not our own may depend on certain elemental pho-
netic laws. We may find here possibly the explanation of that peculiar deafness to
certain sounds not contained in the mother tongue. Sievers mentioned the fact as far
back as 1885 (1). I have been able, however, to observe among my pupils that this rel-
ative deafness to certain sounds is counterbalanced by an extreme sensibility for other
sounds. Here is an example. Two Frenchmen who had little natural disposition for
studying languages listened to me with much attention when I pronounced the word
" acht ". I made them write the word which they had heard, and they wrote " archt ".
After a number of careful experiments, I came to the conclusion myself that something
which had an " r " sound could be heard between the " a " and the " ch ". There is
no doubt that in this case the two foreigners had heard too well. Something of the same
kind took place with the Word " zehn ". I tried to pronounce it with a clear long " e ",
but my listeners heard and repronounced it as " zeihn ". It can be said that they intui-
tively felt the future developments of the language. As is well known, the Latin word
" stella " contains a long " e '. This long " e " has given rise slowly through the
various subsequent languages to the following developments : " steile " " esteile "
" estoile " which has led in turn to the modern French word etoile. These examples of
ultra-sensitive or defective pronunciation on the part of foreigners ought to warn us
against the fallibility of our hearing. When we deal with combinations of sounds that
are unusual in the mother language of our students, it is necessary to begin the study vis-
ually while the physical muscular difficulties to which the words in question may expose
the scholars should be pointed out. The students will in this way be able to render
their listening conscious and therefore more exact.

A very expressive popular saying speaks of " reading the words on the lips ". The
teacher often enough invites his pupils to read the words from his lips, but he can never
be as effective for this purpose as a talking film, and must also fight against an obstacle
which can, however, be eliminated without much difficulty. A teacher must teach
through his personality.

This is inevitable and presents undoubtedly certain advantages such as observation
of the master's movements and mimicry. But when it becomes a question of lipreading,
it is certainly better from the methodological point of view to concentrate the student's
entire attention on the mouth and vocal apparatus. The talking film can yield these
results, because when it is necessary to allow certain sounds or combinations of sounds
to be heard, the head or the mouth only of the speaker can be shown in close-ups. All
the lighting and all the attention will be focussed on the mouth that speaks. If we also
use slow motion projection in our demonstrations, we shall obtain notable results from the
pedagogic point of view. The suggestive power and imitative stimulus obtained from
pictures of this kind is much greater than is supposed. I have seen during the courses in
phonetics at the University of Paris silent films which convinced me of the great impres-
sion they made on the public.

(1) Sievers. Grundziige der Phonetik, p. 7.

- 930 —

A word or two may now be said about the teaching of languages by radio. A consid-
erable number of persons condemn this method of teaching altogether because it does
not allow of lip-readmg the teacher's words or seeing his mouth. It may be granted that
there is a disadvantage here, but it is only an apparent one. I have often had occasion
to observe that language communicated by means of the radio, when the teacher is a suit-
able person, exercises such suggestion that any pupil possessing even the minimum of
hearing and fantasy sees in some sort of way the mouth that speaks. It need hardly be
insisted on that the film which shows a close-up of the mouth of such a size that it seems
to be alive offers superior advantages.

We Will now show by means of some examples how we understand the teaching of
phonetics. What follows should only be considered in a general illustrative way, for it
is not our intention to deal with the teaching of any particular language or with students
having any particular mother tongue. In every case, whatever language is being taught,
the sounds in the foreign tongue which have the closest affinity with other sounds in the
mother tongue should be used to commence with.

The students should commence with the pronunciation of the consonants, not be-
cause they are more difficult to learn, but because it is necessary to know their importance
in the language. Attention should be drawn to the fact that every word, even those which
apparently begin with a vowel really begins with a consonant produced through the
explosive sound of the vocal cords. The Greeks, who felt nature much more than we
do, and had a profound knowledge of language, indicated the initial consonant in their
writings with the spiritus lenis. Great orators and elocution teachers have always recognized
this fact. The Belgian poet Legouve calls the consonant the armour of the word.
When we impress on our pupils the necessity of pronouncing the consonants as exactly
as possible, and even exaggerating them to begin with we ought at the same time to point
out to them their importance and stress the fact that especially at the end of words when
the speaker's voice drops in tone, the consonants sound less clearly also. It will become
necessary then in making talking films for use in our method to attenuate this fault
as much as possible. Thus, for example, I remember a case of a girl student who
understood very well but who heard " Aten " when I was certain I had said ' Atem .

I will now give some examples of the method used by Albert Liebmann for mak-
ing stammering children pronounce the consonants and combinations of consonants.

It is of small importance that Liebmann's pupils were stammerers, that is to say ab-
normal subjects, because the person learning a tongue foreign to him or her does not
behave in at all a normal way, as will easily be recognized if we make a Japanese pronounce
the letter " u " for example.

Liebmann states that with regard to the correct pronunciation of " f ", w , and
" sch ", that the " f " and the " w " can easily be obtained by placing the lower lip against
the upper incisor teeth and inhaling strongly in this position. To get the " sch sound
the upper jaw should be pushed out and the lips pressed in trumpet shape. When the
child breathes out strongly, the tongue withdraws from the lower teeth, allowing the
" sch " sound to come forth. (1)

(1) Albert Liebmann. Stotternde Kinder, p.

— 931 —

It may be added that we have numerous possibilities of demonstrating the exact
pronunciation of sounds. One of them consists in showing the speech it is desired to
teach with slow motion pictures of the mouth in enlarged close-ups. A second way
lies in a demonstration of the sounds with a talking film. A third method is animated
drawings accompanied by the pronunciation of the desired sound. This latter system is
useful for showing the working of the larynx which an individual cannot examine in
his own body.

With regard to the pronunciation of the German group of " ch " sounds which are
always difficult, as for example in the word " Ich ", Liebmann states in another work
of his, entitled " Die Sprachstorungen geistig zuriickgebliebener Kinder " (page 18): "I
have been able easily to obtain it {Ich) making the pupils turn the point of the tongue to
the back of the mouth and then breathing out strongly. In this case it is useful to show a
representation of an animated head. Strieker's studies on this point are very precious
because they depend on precise observations made by himself.

With regard to the consonants, p, b, and m, for example, he writes : " For the let-
ter m, the seat of sensation is in the anterior part of the lip which is covered with skin.
For the letter p, the sensation is in the back part of the lip which is covered with mucous
membrane, while for the letter b, the seat of sensation lies in an intermediate position
at the point, that is, where the upper and lower lips meet when the mouth is closed in a
normal manner. " When these sounds, p, b„ m give rise to difficulties, a demonstration
of the position of the lips should be given slowly, and will certainly be more efficacious
than a simple lesson through the hearing.

Through personal observations, Strieker has determined very exactly the difference
between d and t . ' The movement of the tongue in pronouncing the d not only differs,
in my opinion, from the tongue's action in the letter t in the degree of force with which
the tongue is placed between the teeth. The letter t requires the action of a larger por-
tion of the tongue than d. Moreover, the tongue is placed in quite a different position
for t and d. It is, however, very difficult to observe clearly the various positions and forms
of the tongue.

In Rivista di Foneticd (1) Ziind-Burguet describes an invention of his which has this
particular object in view. He calls it the " Tongue Guide ". We do not doubt the
value of this invention, but we cannot devote more space to it because it could only be
utilized for the instruction of a single pupil or a small group of pupils and could not be
of service to large groups of persons.

We should like to draw the reader's attention to some other considerations. It is
very essential to take care that at the beginning of the teaching a number of difficult
sounds and combinations of sounds almost impossible to repeat do not perplex the pupil.
Anyone who tries to make a Frenchman of medium culture repeat too rapidly words
like Fenster or Bleistift, will see at once what difficulties he is creating. Thus the first les-
son of the Berlitz method, which begins for all languages with the meaning of the word
pencil is a grave error.

In pronouncing the letter z, care must be taken that the pupils do not simply un-
derstand t . The letter z in fact is t plus s. I have dictated the word hurz to a French

(1) Rivista di Fonetica, 1929, Vol. VI, page 41 et seq.

- 932 -

lady, and she repeated kurU moreover writing the word in the same way, thus showing
she had not perceived the s followed by a t.

The study of the German ch offers the greatest difficulties to almost all foreigners,
because many pupils are inclined to omit or slur over difficult sounds. They say nit
for nicht an / for Ich. An animated drawing will show how in the pronunciation of
these sounds the tongue rests against the lower teeth and is arched strongly about the
middle.

The same attention and exactness are evidently just as necessary for the vowels as
for the consonants. If institutes of Phonetics were interested in these problems, some
form of collaboration would be possible and desirable. Since every phonetic institute
would like to have a description of the spoken sounds, both as regards the correct
pronunciation and false pronunciations, could not this bond of common interests be trans-
formed into some effective form of collaboration ?

Our observations on the vowels, like our earlier remarks on the consonants must
only be considered a simple indication of what may be done along these lines.

Liebmann (1) says: " I have derived o from] ou, making the children increase the
roundness of the opening of their mouths in pronouncing the ou sound until a maximum
aperture suitable for the u sound was reached. The [vowel e can be derived from i by
teaching the children to separate the two lines of teeth a little more than in making the i
sound. I have taught children the u sound, making them pronouce i and then rounding
the lips as in ou. These hints may prove very useful, because every time we start from a
determined vowel in one language to learn another, we must know the pronunciation of
a vowel capable of acting, according to Liebmann's method, as a starting-point for other
vowels.

Schmidt, speaking of the nasal e of the French alphabet says (2) : " In teaching
beginners who speak slowly, articulating every word, it will be necessary to pronounce
each silent e not definitely elided by the subsequent letter. Later, when the students
learn to speak in a normal way they will correct their pronunciation themselves. It is
quite easy to allow the difference between rapid and slow speech to be appreciated by
using the slow motion projection. With regard to difficult nasal sounds... " in order
to teach the pupils to pronounce the nasal sounds correctly, we must point out to them
that after the pronunciation [of a nasal vowel the mouth must remain for an instant
completely immobile as any movement is capable of spoiling the pronunciation ".

There is no doubt that a well trained teacher can demonstrate this to his pupils,
but may we not ask, how many well trained teachers exist ? And could even the best
trained of them make as effective a demonstration as the film ?

Strieker draws our attention especially to the explanation of the vowels. (3) : " The
sounds in a are the first which the child pronounces and the last that remain to sick
people afflicted with paralysis who lose bit by bit the power of speech .

These facts Well known to the science of phonetics supply us with a precious basis
for the construction of our teaching method.

(1) Op. cit.

(2) SCHMIDT. Methodik des franzosischen Unterrichts, pag. 6 & 10.

(3) Op. cit., ppg. 7.

— 933 -

It can never be repeated too often that each language has a phonetics, grammar and a
method of teaching peculiarly its own. The three following groups of vowels in the
French language, each of which derives from the letter a form in fact a single example,
drawn from the work by Chabert and Labernadie, on defective pronunciation and the
possibility of improvement. These two authors consider the a sound as the simplest.
The three groups of vowels they derive from the a sound are : 1°) a, o, ou ; 2°) a, eu, u;
3°) a, e e ; i. It will be admitted that it is not difficult to find simple and even monosyl-
labic words in sufficient quantity to understand the pronunciation of the foregoing cases

It will be well to examine once again, if only briefly, the function of the talking film
in phonetics and the limits of its usefulness. Slow motion and speeded up projections,
close-ups of the head or even only of the mouth or the vocal organs, according to the
case, systematic animated drawings, accompanied by examples of pronunciation of various
sounds lie within the possibilities of the talking film as used for teaching.

The student has also his memory assisted in a triple way, a point we have not made
so far. The memory is aided without doubt through the double effect of mimicry and
sound (image and sound). Another aid is available from what might be well called the
motor memory, for, even at the cost of repeating ourselves, it is necessary to insist that
the origin of the sounds is in our muscles.

What are the limits of usefulness of the talking film for our purpose ? There is no
possibility of showing the sounds in the act of issuing from the larynx. Important for
the study of phonetics and teaching as the perception of sound at the moment of its is-
suing from the larynx might be, it must be admitted that for the moment it is not prac-
ticable for a large number of students.

There are, sounds, such as the German au regarding which Strieker declares that he
does not yet know if their muscular origin is simple duplex or variable. If people are
not always in a position to determine exactly the sounds of their mother tongue, how can
foreigners be expected to obtain better results, however intense their desire for study ?

Here, as in all other fields of work, there are limits which it is not permissible to
exceed.

(to bz continued).

JUER MARBACH.

934

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/. /. E. C. Inquiries

A NEW CINEMA INQUIRY

The Karl Borromaus Institute of Altdorf
in Switzerland, having learnt of the inquiries
undertaken by the I. I. E. C. into social pro-
blems relating to the film and especially
pedagogic questions, recently decided to
offer a practical contribution to our work,
and to follow in the path which we have
pointed out to all our collaborators ever since
the three questionnaires were issued in the
pages of the review for students, educational-
ists and mothers of families.

It was therefore decided to give a thesis
to the students of the Institute to prepare
as part of their class work. The choice of
subject was their opinion on the cinema.
The students were allowed to develop the
argument with perfect freedom of thought
and criticism, without any interference on the
part of the teachers.

The management of the Institute then
wished as an act of courtesy to send the orig-
inal essays resulting from the inquiry to
the I. I. E. C. for any purposes that might
prove useful.

The Altdorf inquiry has not much value
from the point of view of the number of
the answers to the questions, but in other
respects it possesses considerable importance.
This is so because in the first place, the in-
quiry which took place in an institute of
a religious character arrived at conclusions
formulated with the greatest objectivity. The
results of the inquiry contain precious sug-
gestions and indications for both the educa-
tional and recreational film. The replies
came from young people and children of
every age from 1 1 to 27, revealing a variety
of replies corresponding to the great diver-
sity of age. A third reason why the replies
may be considered as having a certain im-

portance is that they came from individuals
of four nations and reflected therefore the
spiritual and psychological impress of their
different families and races.

The statistics of the inquiry

Leaving on one side those essays not con-
taining expressions or thoughts of a certain
degree of interest, the compositions which the
I.I.E.C.has thought it advisable to utilize num-
ber 61, divided by nationality and age as fol-
lows : German nationality 38 (whereof one essay

written in Espe-
ranto).
French nationality 9
Italian nationality 1 3
Spanish nationality 1

Age:

From 11 to 12 years . .

. . 4

From 13 to 15 »

. . 22

From 16 to 20 »

. . 31

Over 20 » . .

. . 4

General results

The results of the inquiry may be div-
ided into two groups, general and specific,
according as they contain synthetic opin-
ions capable of being classified statistically,
or according as to whether the views and
opinions were expressed in a more analytic
form capable of affording a wider vision of
the problems of cinematography.

The results of the questionnaires were in
general as follows : —

Favourable to the cinema without distinction 57
Contrary to the cinema without distinction 4

Ice ingl.

936 -

The very variety of these replies as well
as those that follow is a proof of the absolute
liberty which was given to the inquirees.

Regarding the two contrasting types of

cinema we

have :

Favourable to the theatrical cinema . 31

Contrary to the theatrical cinema. . 28

Favourable to the Scholastic Cinema 60

Contrary to the Scholastic Cinema . 1

Regarding particular scholastic subjects
adapted for being taught with the aid of the
cinema, the divisions of opinion among the
students queried were as follows : —

Geography 47

History 39

Natural Science 35

Religion 18

Technical and Scientific subjects 15

Hygiene 7

The students answered that the cinema
projections assist understanding and facil-
itate study (8 replies) and that the film has
proved especially useful to backward chil-
dren who are difficult to teach orally. (5
replies).

Other kinds of films not included in the
foregoing table had also groups of enthusiastic
supporters. The results show :

Documentary films 27

War films 5

Naval Fighting Films .... 3

In respect of the merits of the sound and
silent film respectively, there were only six
answers, all of which expressed a favourable
opinion for the sound and talking film as
compared with the silent film on the ground
that the former greatly helps the understand-
ing of things and actions seen, and especially
so in the case of pedagogic films.

The cinema also won the highest approval
among all other forms of recreation or amuse-
ment. There were only three replies from
students of between 1 1 and 1 3 to the effect
that they liked the cinema next after football.

An original reply came from three young
boys to the effect that " there is nothing like
the cinema when it rains ".

Specific Answers

a) Technique. — The question of the
nature of the projection was touched on by
12 students who observed that the images
are often lacking in clarity, that the light
ought not to be blinding especially during
the intervals between one section of a film
and another or between two distinct films.
Eight replies alleged that projections can
provoke a sense of tiredness or weariness for
the sight, owing to the flickering motion of
the images or because the sub-titles are hard
to read and demand no little effort to un-
derstand.

It may be recalled that a similar observa-
tion was considered when the results of an
inquiry carried out among 25,000 Italian
children on the phenomenon of fatigue
caused by seeing movie pictures were pub-
blished in the pages of this review in numbers
1 to 12 of 1930, and numbers 1 and 2 of
1931. On that occasion also a small per-
centage of the students remarked on the
phenomena referred to in the scholastic
compositions of the Altdorf students, and it
was then noted that the deficiencies com-
plained of constituted technical defects easily
overcome with a little good will on the part
of the manufacturers of machines or their
agents, and were not due to any direct serious
defect in cinematography itself.

b) Brain Fatigue. — A phenomenon of
intellectual fatigue, essentially of a ner-
vous origin, is remarked on by a young man
of 19. He points out that attendance in
cinemas halls ought to be subject to a regime
of moderation.

" Anyone frequenting cinema halls ex-
cessively is subject to a high nervous tension,
his fantasy becomes over-excited to the
detriment of his intellectual development ".

Two other youths protested against exces-
sively lengthy shows, declaring that cinema
performances ought not to exceed certain

— 937 —

limits. In their view, one hour is enough
in general for the duration of a movie pic-
ture. After this period of time, according to
them, fatigue sets in. This, in their opin-
ion, applies without any distinction regard-
ing age, and they insist that even a few min-
tes over an hour is too much.

The remark is undoubtedly correct in its
general lines, but must, at the same time
be considered in regard to its practical ap-
plication in another way. The phenomenon
of tiredness, it is well know, is all the more
marked in inverse ratio to the age of the
spectator. This for obvious physiological
reasons.

c) Cinematographic morality or immorality.
— On this point, which is of capital import-
ance for the study of film problems, the in-
quirees' fancy allowed itself some extrava-
gances. By a considerable majority the
possibility of an immoral influence from cin-
ema shows of a theatrical nature was ex-
cluded. Six students declared outright that
they had never seen any immoral films. This
is probably an exaggeration, or proves that
the young people had only witnessed shows
specially chosen for them.

In other replies we see the admission that
there may be immorality in determined parts
of films rather than in one complete picture (4)
and that in any case, it is the theatrical film
which is likeliest to be a source of immorality.
This is judged to be so because its creation
is inspired by motives of gain (3), calculated
to excite the less healthy appetites of the
public, and also because it is a cheap form
of amusement (9), and must therefore offer
for financial reasons satisfaction to the less
commendable desires of the public. A youth
of 1 3 stated that the danger only existed for
children up to 1 1 years of age — a somewhat
ingenuous answer in view of the age of the
person giving it. The following are among
the opinions best worth quoting :

The film often does harm to itself. In order to
put an end to all the stupidities filmed, it is neces-
sary to desert the cinema which corrupts youth.
Present day films are not worth very much. It
is natural that in presenting good, it is inevitable

to show something of evil, but evil should not be
presented in such a way that it may seize upon
weak souls and disturb them.

The fault of immorality in the cinema may be
traced chiefly to parents. They supply the chil-
dren with the necessary money to go to the cinema,
or they do not exercise a proper watch over them ,
thinking it enough to send them to the cinema
to amuse themselves. Children who are not under
control and surveillance seek out all possible sexual
stimuli.

Certain intimate scenes of human life ought
not to be shown on the film because they only
excite the senses. They ought only to be illustrated
in scientific surroundings. On the other hand,
the statement that the public is only interested in
films that have a sexual character is false. This
is proved by the fact that the cinemas of the cities
project often for weeks on end and with packed
houses films to which no possible exception can
be taken on grounds of morality.

The sexual side of a film-play is often stressed
not so much in the plot as by the dress or the im-
proper gestures of the actors.

We must remember that children have a great,
even an excessive fantasy. For this reason they
should only be given cinema recreation with great
discretion. Every attitude or scene having sensual
or criminal characteristics is accentuated by the
children's fantasy to extreme limits.

d) Religion and Politics. — There were few
replies, but all of them agreed that politics
ought to be banned from films intended for
the masses, and that religion ought not to
be shown in any way calculated to defame
it or diminish its prestige. The scholars
point out that they have witnessed films
where sometimes there have been scenes in
open contradiction with the religious convic-
tions of the spectators, whether they were
Catholics or not.

Three scholars point out also that theat-
rical films often represent a danger from
the point of view of spreading revolutionary
ideas, and that an official censorship over
films should take this matter into account.

e) Pedagogic Films. — The problem of the
pedagogic film was considered in a very
special manner by the scholars of Altdorf.
In addition to those who recognized in a

— 938 —

general way the value of the film in education,
there were others who went into precise and
specific details.

The utility of the cinema as a means of teaching
is, alas, only understood by very young pupils
and the masters. For children, the most suitable
age for this aid to teaching is between 7 and 14,
for when this age is passed, the educational cinema
is generally considered as a simple pastime and
often enough despised or laughed at. This is
understandable enough. The older scholars who
consider themselves as no longer children but
finished graduates already accustomed to the cin-
ema, look upon these educational and instructional
films as childishness, especially when they compare
them with the not at all instructive films they have
seen in public halls and theatres.

It is possible to learn national customs through
the pedagogic film. There is also the possibility
of seeing something that will be useful in life.
Last year I attended the Third School of Higher
Education in the Ticino canton, and the teacher
showed us a film on cleanliness. Observing the film
carefully, I saw a boy cleaning his teeth on the
inside, a thing I did not know was done until then.

Film instruction has excellent sides to it, espec-
ially for backward children. At the same time,
mental work must not be neglected, a fault which is
often charged to the educational cinema.

genarian without a stick, and seemed to be consid-
ering the distance which separated him from one
jump to another, and appeared to be wondering
if it were worth while going on with what he was
doing.

Another youth of 1 7 concludes his remarks
on the value of cinema instruction with a
truth that has been known for centuries

One thing is certain : one remembers better
what one has seen than what one has read.

Another adolescent examines a precise pro-
posal regarding the utility of the film for
educational purposes, a proposal, which with
due modifications and retouchings might well
be taken into consideration. And in any
case, the proposal shows the suggestive
efficacy which the cinema has even in the
closed circles of the school.

I do not know if societies have been founded for
the spread in schools of the educational film. The
scholars could be made to pay 20 centimes a month
t owards hiring a machine for instructional films.

Each month an operator could make the round
of the schools to project films which the professor

would explain during the lesson in the particular
subject.

Three of the pupils noted the importance
for pedagogic methods of the use of the slow
motion and speeded-up projections. Their
observations show that these methods of
using the cinema projector permit a better
and more particularized study. In one essay
we read :

The slow motion projection is as valuable as the
speeded up film for assisting learning. I saw a
film on tropical vegetation. Magnificent flowers
were shown to us budding. The stem coming
out of the earth before our eyes, unfolded one
by one its petals, allowed the seeds necessary for
future plants to fall to earth, and then brusquely,
as if by magic faded and disappeared. The slow
motion projection has also its peculiarities. In
pictures of bird flight we see them suspended as
it were, in the air, showing all the movements,
even the minutest, of their wings. Thus a horse
was seen galloping with the slowness of an octua-

Various ideas on the Cinema

The cinema is in itself a pleasant recreation for
the people. It keeps the spirit and the fantasy
gay and alive. A good well made film cannot
but cheer humanity. A bad film cannot but cor-
rupt it.

The cinema is like a poison. Used by the doc-
tor with knowledge, and in the right measure, it
can be most beneficent. So is the film if it is in-
tended to promote good morals, respect for autho-
rity and the fear of God.

Ours is the age of the cinema. The cities are
f ull of them, and everyone is anxious to frequent
t hem. The workman sets apart a little of his
weekly savings in order to enjoy a spectacular
film on Sunday. The apprentice foregoes tips
on that day in order to be present at a show. The
woman worker too awaits Sunday almost entirely,
one might say, for the film. The soldier looks
forward to his hours of liberty for the same pur-
pose. How is it that the cinema exercises such

— 939

an attraction ? Because first of all, it offers amuse-
ment at a cheap rate, allows one to see new things,
opens fresh horizons of life hitherto unsuspected
and gives to the spirit a healthy repose, and a know-
ledge and understanding of things.

One boy summed up his idea in one sen-
tence :

The cinema is a formidable power in the hands
of those who possess and use it.

These are the results of the brief inquiry
among the pupils of the Karl Borromaus
school of Altdorf. They are interesting syn-
thetic expressions of the states of mind of
children adolescents and youths of various
ages and nationalities. The replies are in-

teresting because they constitute a contrib-
ution to the examination of the social prob-
lems of the cinema.

The last quotation given is one of the most
definite. The cinema is a formidable power
in the hands of those who own it. This power
may find its expression for good or for evil
according to the will of the man who puts
this power into operation, and according
to the impulse he may wish to give it. If
there are films in the world which contain
elements of danger and corruption, or in-
citement towards criminality, it is now defin-
itely made clear that the cinema in itself and
of itself cannot wreck damage to youth. This
false statement went unchallenged overlong.
Today, calm criticism has rendered justice
to the film.

- 940

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VENICE-MESTRE: V

a Martiri Fascjsti 13

a Montebello, 9

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a Priv. Cesare Mangili,

a Cesare Battisti, 53

a Emerigo Amari, 132

a Napoli, 21 A

a Arcivescovado, 18

a Valdirivo, 2

a Piave, 33

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— 941

OBJECTIVES

for cinema photographs

BIOTAR

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Further information toill be given on request by

CARL ZEISS, JENA

Cable-address : Zeisswerk, Jena

LONDON W. 1, Mortimer House 37-41 Mortimer Street — NEW
YORK 485 Fifth Avenue — LOS ANGELES, Cal, 723 So. Hill
Street — BERLIN W. 9, Potsdamer Strasse 139-1 1 1 — HAMBURG
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- 942

Metro

Goldwyn

Mayer

Legislation

CINEMA CENSORSHIP IN BRAZIL

In Brazil, the cinema censorship was put
into force by article 39 and articles 35 and
61 of the decree of December 10, 1928,
No 18,527 regarding public entertainments.

All films must be submitted to the com-
petent officials, attached to the ministries
of the Interior and Justice. Only educa-
tional and scientific films are exempt from this
formality. At the same time, when a film
of this type contains scenes of marked realism,
the exhibitors are obliged to affix notices
informing the public that the picture in que-
stion is not suited for children or young girls.

Films are supposed to be examined by
the censors in special halls and as they are
submitted. Only news-reels can be given
preference in the matter of censorship exam-
ination. The party interested (producer,
distributor or exhibitor) must present, at
least four days before the date for releasing
the film, a request to the Chief of the Police,
who will inform the applicant within 48
hours whether or not his film has been ap-
proved.

Regarding films submitted to them for
approval, the censors may either :

1 . authorize the projection without any
conditions ;

2. authorize its being exhibited on
certain conditions or with certain cuts ;

3. refuse the permit to exhibit altogeth-
er for films which even when cut would not
be acceptable, or for which modification
would change their character entirely.

The permit to exhibit is delivered to the
party interested in as many copies as he
wishes. It must contain :

a) the title of the film and the name of
the producers ;

b) names, Christian names, and status
of applicant ;

c) length of film and number of parts ;

d) conditions or cuts imposed by the
censors, and all other indications for identify-
ing the film.

Permits to exhibit are detached from a
register with numbered counterfoils. All
the indications on the permit are repeated
on the counterfoil.

The party submitting a film for censorship
must pay a fee of 105 milreis per film.

All advertising matter, posters, and mani-
festoes must also be submitted to the cen-
sors for their approval.

The same regulation applies for the sub-
titles or running comment, which must be
in Portuguese, according to article 52 of
the decree.

Naturally, no alteration or modification
can be made in a film after it has been ap-
proved by the censorship, without the per-
mit of the police. (Article 61).

No authorization to project a film is to
be considered definite and final ; the police
reserving the right to suspend at any time
either temporarily or definitely the projec-
tion of a film already authorized or to insist
on modifications or cuts. The Chief of
Police may also, in case of need, give in-
structions to the censors in view of temporary
or occasional reasons.

In short, the Chief of Police has the
amplest powers in the matter of cinema
censorship. It is he, moreover, who hears
appeals against refusals to permit films by
the censors. Such appeals must be made
within five days from the date of the adverse
decision of the censors. No further appeal
against the decisions of the Chief of Police
is admitted.

Protection of young People.

Like nearly all other countries, the legis-
lation of Brazil in the matter of public en-

944 —

tertainments considers as of chief importance
the moral and spiritual protection of in-
fancy and youth.

In this connection, the decree of Septem-
ber 10, 1924 is based upon the Minors' Code
and especially on Chapter X thereof, which
deals with the safeguarding of children.
In articles 128 and following articles of the
Minors' Code, it is expressly stated that
minors of less than 14 years cannot enter
cinemas unless accompanied by their relat-
ives, tutors or other responsible persons.
Children, however, may attend afternoon
cinema shows specially organized for them,
the programmes of which only contain in-
structional or recreational films duly approved
by the competent authorities.

In any case, the presence of children under
five is not permitted in any cinema hall at
any hour, while the attendance of children
of under 14 is not tolerated in any hall after
8 PM.

When the censors are of opinion that a
film is not suitable for minors of a certain
age, the fact must be made known to the
public by means of public advertisements
duly affixed at the entrances of all halls giv-
ing the show in question.

Reasons for censoring films.

The censors have no concern with the
artistic merits of films. The motives for
censoring, indicated in article 39 paragraph
5 of the decree of September 10, 1924, are
as follows :

a) Public Order : Films offensive to
national institutions are to be banned,
also films containing allusions or scenes
casting ridicule on representatives of the
public authority or holding them up to
public contempt are forbidden. Similarly
films tending to provoke or excite race
antagonisms, and films likely to further the
spread of revolutionary ideas are to be
banned.

b) Foreign Policy : Films offensive to
foreign countries, their institutions and re-
presentative personalities are to be forbidden.

c) Religion : Films bringing into deris-
ion or public contempt any religious faith
or its ministers or cult or symbols are to be
forbidden.

d) Criminality : Too suggestive crime
scenes are to be banned, as well as scenes
justifying or exalting persons guilty of
criminal acts.

e) Morality : The censors are specially
urged to exercise their attentive control over
films in the matter of morals in view of the
principles inspiring the protection of infancy
and youth.

Every scene contrary to good morals, or
capable of perverting the spirit or hearts
of young folk, or of destroying their filial
piety and their sense of the family and human
dignity, and the relationships between per-
sons must be strictly forbidden.

Paragraph 4 of article 128 of the Minors'
Code had already laid down that all cinema-
tographic shows should be forbidden to
minors of 18 when there was any reason to
believe that such shows might have any per-
nicious effect on the young people's mental-
ity or their moral or intellectual develop-
ment, or might dangerously excite their
imaginations or act on them through force
of suggestion.

These regulations place the obligation
on cinema managers, as we have pointed
out, to let the public know by means of
manifestoes if their programmes are suitable
for minors.

Penalties.

Besides the police measures contem-
plated in the decree of September 10, 1924
directors of cinema halls who break the reg-
ulations of the decree of paragraph 7 and
following paragraphs of article 128 of the
Minors' Code are liable to the following
penalties :

Cinema proprietors or managers ad-
mitting minors to shows not authorized for
them will be punished by a fine of from 50
to 200 dollars per minor which penalty will
be doubled in case of a second offence.

— 945

The same penalties may be extended not
only to the staff of the cinemas, but also to
the persons accompanying the minors to
the performances banned for them, or those
who permit minors in their charge to attend
such performances.

Continued offences of this nature on the
part of the cinema proprietor or manager
may lead to the closure of the hall, on re-
quest by the police or the judicial authorities,
or to the suspension of the license for a
period of six months.

One sees from this that the Brazilian leg-
islation is very severe in the matter of pro-
tecting youth, and as a result, society in
general, from the dangerous effects of cer-
tain spectacles.

Statistics.

According to the information supplied in
official form to the I. I. E. C. by the Brazil-
ian government, 1447 artistic films, repres-
enting a total length of 1 .766.695 metres
of film were submitted to the censors last

year. The statistics do not reveal the quan-
tity of film banned or censored in a general
way, or banned for minors only. On the
other hand, we are told the origin of the films.
Apart from 38 films of Brazilian production
1268 films came from the United States,
1 1 4 from Germany, 29 from France, 8
from England, 5 from Russia, 4 from Austria
3 from Spain, 3 from Argentine, 2 from Italy,
1 from Poland, 1 from Chile and 1 from
Turkey.

From a special report of the State of Sao
Paolo, extracts from which were published
in La Cinematographic Francaise in the
number of May 2 1931, the local censorship
organs and the police authorized the projec-
tion of 2279 films of various kinds as against
2674 in 1929.

The larger part of the authorized films
came from the United States, followed in
order of numerical importance by German
films and French films. The Brazilian
production furnished 5 % of the films, but
this production was nearly all news-reels.

REVIEW AND INFORMATION BULLETIN

MONTHLY^ PUBLICATION

OF THE

LEHGUE OF RED CROSS SOCIETIES

2, Avenue Velasquez - PARIS (VIII)

The monthly review of the League of Red Cross Societies is published in English,
French and Spanish.

This publication is intended to serve as a link between Red Cross Societies and
to inform the public in the different countries of the work the Red Cross is doing. The
first part consists of articles on all matters relating to Red Cross work in time of peace.
The second part is made up of notes on the current activities of national Red Cross
societies : first-aid, hygiene, nursing, Junior Red Cross.

Copyright is not reserved, and any individual or association may quote or re-
produce articles, provided they mention the source.

Price of each number: 25 cents or 1/-
Annual Subscription: $ 2 or 8/-

All cheques and money orders should be made payable to the League of Red Cross
Societies.

For specimen copy and a full list of the League's publications, apply to League of
Red Cross Societies, 2, Avenue Velasquez, Paris VIII.

— 946 —

UUmA
CParamowi£

* m

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PARAMOUNT

SHATTERS ALL PAST RECORDS WITH
SURGE OF GOLDEN PICTURES

mm

Information and Comment

THE INDUSTRIAL PROPAGANDA FILM IN THE SCHOOLS

A plan proposed by the Bureau of Visual Instruction, University Extension Division,
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, to provide adequate and especially prepared visual
instruction material covering Kansas industries for use in the public and private schools of
the state.

The problem.

School-children of Northwestern Kansas
may know little of the mineral, agricultural
and manufacturing developments in the East-
ern end of the state. Pupils in Eastern
Kansas might well imagine that wheat-rais-
ing is almost the only activity west of To-
peka. It is quite probable that they know
little or nothing of the important salt in-
dustry of central Kansas or of other impor-
tant industrial activities. Those who travel
considerably are apt to be concerned largely
with getting to some resort in Colorado,
the Ozarks, or in Minnesota, rather than with
learning more of their home state.

Visual aids to instruction, including mo-
tion pictures, glass slides, film slides, still-
films and exhibits, have proved their value
in the schools of all parts of the world.
The teachers of Kansas are anxious to use
such valuable teaching tools and are espec-
ially anxious for suitable materials covering
the industries of the state. At present,
there are very few such materials available.

The appropriation of funds for the use
of the Bureau of Visual Instruction is not
sufficient to permit the production of the
needed materials and their organization
for school use. Although the schools are
anxious to use such materials and would
be willing to pay nominal service fees and
transportation charges, they are not able,
financially, to pay fees which would cover
production costs eventually.

The great value of such activity to the
industries themselves is evidenced to a maj-
or extent by the fact that the Bureau of
Visual Instruction has in its loan library
of motion pictures and slides more than a
hundred subjects which have been furnished
by various industries without charge. The
list of motion pictures contains such sub-
jects as

Cane Sugar, Civilization's Fabric (Cotton),
The Conquest of the Forest (Lumbering),
Enamelware (Bath Fixtures), The Magic
Jar (Glassware), Pillars of Salt (Salt Mining),
Our Daily Bread (Wheat), The Romance of
the Lemon), The Romance of Rayon (Ar-
tificial Silk), The Romance of Rubber, The
Story of the Airship, The Sugar Trail
(Beet Sugar), A Wollen Yarn (Wool Industry
The World of Paper.

In addition, there are glass slide sets
covering :

Australian Industries, Banana Land,
Building Batteries from Niagara, The De-
velopment of the Modern Watch, From Ore
Mine to Sheet Metal, The History of the
Incandescent Lamp, The History of Photo-
graphy, Home Canning by the Cold Pack
Method, The Manufacture of Cotton Cloth,
The Manufacture of Paper, The Story of
Cotton, Tea Growing in Japan, The Woollen
Industry.

It is interesting to note that the above
motion picture reels and sets of glass slides
have been kept in use almost constantly,
indicating, again, the great interest among

- 948 -

schools in securing the most effective teach-
ing devices. It is our contention, therefore,
that these materials should be supplied by
the industries within the state, in so far as
it is possible.

The pupils in the schools should be taught
to think of salt, oil, coal, lead, zinc, stock-
raising, fruit-raising, the raising of grain
and forage crops, the manufacture of air-
planes, the refining and transportation, of
oil and other minerals, meat-packing, organ
manufacturing, publishing, etc., as industries
within the state, rather than as industries
of New York, Texas, Wyoming, Louisiana,
Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, or of other
states where there are similar activities.

The solution.

The Bureau of Visual Instruction has
complete facilities for producing 16-mm.
motion pictures and photographs from which
glass slides or other still pictures may be
made. Furthermore, the staff of the Bur-
eau is competent to handle the construction
of scenarios, photograph the scenes needed,
edit the films or slide sets, and prepare the
materials finally for the use of the schools.
All this could be handled by the Bureau
at much less than the usual charge for such
service.

Those who produce industrial motion
pictures professionally charge from $ 1 .00
to $ 1 .25 per foot of negative, plus the cost
of prints. On the basis of the 35-mm. neg-
ative used, this cost would range from
$ 1000 to $ 1250 for one reel of 1000 feet,
with an extra charge of $ 75 for each print
made therefrom. A careful estimate of
the cost of producing a similar reel of mo-
tion pictures on 16-mm. stock indicates that
the Bureau could handle the production,
exclusive of necessary travel expense, at a
cost of $ 1 50 to $ 1 75 for a one-reel subject
with an extra charge of $ 20 for each addit-
ional print. In most cases, the travel ex-
pense should not be more than $ 25. Photo-
graphs for slides could be made at the same
time and at nominal cost.

Distribution of the films and slides among
the school of Kansas and of neighboring
states would be handled by the Bureau of
Visual Instruction at the University of
Kansas, thus relieving the industries of any
concern in the matter. Furthermore, the
Bureau would report to the owner of each
film or set of slides the showings of that
subject during each month.

It is altogether likely that three to five
prints of each subject can be kept busy
among the Kansas schools alone. In ad-
dition there is some demand for such subjects
from among clubs and other organizations
in the state. It is possible, also, that some
cities outside Kansas, as well as other state
service bureaus, may desire to have cer-
tain of the subjects for use among their
schools. In such cases, special arrangements
could be made which would cover the cost
of furnishing additional prints.

The motion pictures or slide sets would
not be of the usual strictly advertising type,
but would be, in so far as possible, a true
presentation of production and distribution,
including sources of raw materials, transpor-
tation to manufacturing centers, the manufac-
turing processes, and the finished product,
ready for the market or for exportation.
Actual mention of trade names, factory
names, etc., would be kept out of the picture,
except as they might appear in close-ups
of the plant. At the beginning of each reel
of motion pictures or set of slides, there would
be one credit title similar to the following :

This picture furnished to the schools of
Kansas through the courtesy of the Carey
Salt Company, Hutchinson, Kansas.

If two or more firms or organisations
should be engaged in the manufacture and
distribution of similar products, perhaps
these firms might cooperate in the produc-
tion of suitable films and slides, and the
credit line could include the names of all
who were thus interested.

The procedure as outlined above could
be altered to fit almost any industry or in-
dustrial enterprise. The Bureau of Visual
Instruction will reserve the right of final

— 949 —

decision as to subject matter and its arrange-
ments, titles, etc., but will follow, as nearly
as possible, the suggestions of those who are
sponsoring the films or slides.

Many of such pictures make excellent docu-
mentary and instructive films.

In our opinion this fact fully justifies their
use in schools, especially as in practically all
countries no definite agreement has yet been
come to as to what the didactic film should be
in spite of the fact that considerable progress
has been made in this department. The gen-
eral tendency of educationists is in favour
of a film production that should be in keeping
with the scholastic programme, that is, a
programme which should be the direct comple-
ment of the text books used. We may there-
fore suppose that the didactic film output of
the future will not contain films of the type
used for industrial and commercial advert-
ising.

We believe that good films of this type,
that is, good films documenting various branches
of an industry can always be usefully employed
in the schools, independently of the films
specially prepared for teaching purposes,
either with the object of illustrating a point
in economic geography or of increasing the
students' general practical store of knowledge.

Educationists ought therefore to follow
with the greatest attention the production of
advertising films, a large number of which
might well find a place in the film libraries
of the schools. This is the deduction to be
drawn from the communication of the bureau
for Visual Instruction of the University of
Kansas.

As we have mentioned, there are advertising
films and advertising films, and it is the task

of the educationists to use discretion and
judgement in making a choice.

Notwithstanding its purely local interest,
we have decided to publish the foregoing com-
munication from the Bureau of Visual Instruc-
tion of the University of Kansas.

The question of the utilization of industrial
and commercial propaganda films in teaching
has been under consideration for some time and
more especially so since certain certain firms
have perceived the advantage to be obtained
from the cinema as a means of publicity, while
on the other hand educationists have seen
how useful such films might prove for their
objects in the schools, in view of the lack
of films specially produced for such purpose.

More recently, however, the manufacture
of strictly scholastic films has considerably
increased, and as a result some educationists
have condemned, rightly or wrongly, the use
of advertising films in the schools.

It is not wise to state categorically that such
condemnation is either right or wrong, espec-
ially as there are various kinds of advertising
films, and there was probably good reason
why certain educationists opposed the use
of advertising films in the schools. At the
same time, we know of several advertising
films which make excellent documentary
films, the instructional value of which cannot
be gainsaid. Such films come into the class
of what are generally known as "films with
a disguised advertising tendency ". These
films stress the value and uses of determined
manufactured products instead of extolling
any special mark or brand.

Many of these films arc made with general
propaganda ideas and with the united help of
several firms belonging to one industrial corpo-
ration — consequently with plentiful means.

950

PROPAGANDA IN FAVOUR OF THE EDUCATIONAL
AND TEACHING FILM

(A lecture by JEAN BENOIT-L£VY)

M. Jean Benoit-Levy is not only a cinema
producer well known for his films of many
kinds in the fields of social propaganda,
education and school teaching, but he is also
a indefatigable propagandist of the ideas
which our Institute is endeavouring to make
triumphant in all the countries of the
world. Yesterday in Algiers or at Bordeaux,
today in Lyons or Marseilles, tomorrow
somewhere else, Jean Benoit-Levy carries
around with ardour and faith the good
word of propaganda. The films he exhibits
are the most convincing and eloquent de-
monstration of what may be looked for from
the cinema as an instrument of general
progress.

The lecture recently given at Nice by the
Secretary General of the French committee
of the I. I. E. C. merits especial mention,
not only because M. Benoit-Levy s work
was particularly useful, in view of the pub-
lic to whom the lecture as addressed,
but also because it reveals the existence in
a city generally considered merely a city
of pleasure of a group of friends of the type
of cinema we are engaged in supporting.
In fact, the meeting before which our friend
developed his ideas on the possibilities and

necessities of getting the cinema out of the rut
in which it is stuck at present, and of using
the new technique for the good of humanity
was held under the auspices of the group
known as " L'Effort cinematographique ".

Jean Benoit-Levy pointed out the various
fields in which the new technique has been
utilized for these purposes, and the fields
in which it could be usefully employed.
For example, the speaker referred to the
use made of the film by the French ministry
of agriculture for educational purposes re-
quiring an annual loan of some 20.000 films
or about 10,000,000 feet of film.

The same effort ought to be made, accord-
ing to M. Benoit-Levy, in other directions
and especially for vocational training and
technical instruction.

We know that the French cinema expert
is firmly determined to continue along the
path he has set himself to follow, and that
he intends to utilize for his propaganda tours
in favour of the educational and scholastic
film the brief hours of liberty that remain
to him from his work as an artist devoted to
a class of production, which, to use his
own words " utilizes the new technique in
the interests of humanity .

THE EDUCATIONAL CINEMA IN THE PUNJAUB

Official reports which have been courteous-
ly forwarded to the Rome Institute by
the Public Education Department of La-
hore in the Punjaub afford an excellent idea
of the development of the educational film
for children and young folk in one of the
most progressive states of British India.

The educational cinema has made marked
progress during the last few years in the
Punjaub. Some time ago, the Punjab Text
Book Committee bought, as a mere exper-

iment, a Kodak projection machine and a
certain number of films. It also made
arrangements with an expert operator that
he should travel round all the centres of
the province giving free scholastic cinema
shows limited to films of a scientific, geo-
graphical and historical character.

In order gradually to develop this work,
the Text Book Committee included in its
budget a sum totalling several thousands
of rupees for the purchase of films to be

-951 -

chosen among the best put on the market.
In this way, it has been able to establish
a film library of several hundreds of films.

A number of other institutions have pur-
chased film projection apparatus, and the
Text Book Committee lends them gratuit-
ously any films they may wish to show for
the purpose of study or research. Among
institutions possessing projections machines
and borrowing films from the Text Book
Committee may be mentioned the Lawrence
College of Ghoragali, the Bishop Cotton
School of Simla, the Lawrence Military
College of Sanawar and the Central Training
College of Lahore.

This latter institution, which is the only
one in the Punjaub concerned especially
with the instruction of High School teachers,
has prepared on its own account several
interesting films illustrating various educa-
tional activities in the fields of sport and the
local tourist industry. During the school
terms, the films in question are not only
shown to the students, but are used as sub-
jects for debates and conferences.

There is another organization in the Pun-
jaub, the Rural Community Council, the
object of which is to look after the education,
both occupational and general of the agri-
culturists of the region. For some time,
and in fact until the work had to be suspend-
ed for financial reasons, the Council sent
an auto-cinema to the country districts
to give free performances in the open air,
using for the purpose besides the films of
the Text Book Committee, other films
supplied by various state departments for
agriculture, the cooperative movement and
hygiene.

Three years ago the Central Training

College made the experiment of sending
a cinema car through the outlying villages
to show the inhabitants what was being done
elsewhere through the educational cinema.
The government helped in the purchase
of the requisite apparatus and the engaging
of an operator. The machinery was placed
in large cases capable of being carried on
the backs of camels or in other ways. A stu-
dent of the College was instructed to travel
through the district and to give open air
projections everywhere on hygiene, coop-
eration, methods of disease prevention and
agricultural methods. A certain number
of the films were of a recreational and amus-
ing nature in order more easily to attract
the interest of the population.

The experiment was so successful that
not only was the Central Training College
obliged to rent out its machine and its
operator on several occasions, but several
other district offices considered the advis-
ability of following the example of the
Training College.

These are only, as we have remarked,
early reports without any pretence at com-
pleteness and do not therefore permit a
proper consideration of the work proceeding
in the Indian peninsula. It is the Institute s
intention, however, to return to the subject
as soon as possible, and to extend everywhere
its inquiries into the matter with the idea
of giving in each number of this review
as exact a picture as possible of how the
far from easy problem of adapting the film
to the education of the people is considered
in various parts of the world.

THE INDO-CHINA FILM MARKET

Louis Saurel in Cinematographic Fran-
gaise (N° 725 of 24-XI-1932) publishes a
series of interesting commercial notes and
statistics on the film market in Indo-China,
which have also the merit of novelty. We

4 — Ice Ingl.

see how even in the furthest off Eastern
countries the film has spread in a way that
until recently was not to be expected.

There are about 100 cinemas in French
Indo-China, the larger part of them showing

- 952

silent films. In the cities like Saigon, Ha-
noin, Cholon and Pnompenh, the cinemas
give daily performances, while in smaller
centres pictures are shown only two or three
times a week. At Saigon, the three largest
halls are the Eden, the Majestic and the Cas-
ino. The first of these, rebuilt in 1931,
is the largest in the country, and holds
1200 spectators. At Hanoin, there is the
Palace with 600 seats, the Majestic and the
Vanetes. At Hai-Phong there are two halls
giving talking films, the Eden and the Coli-
bri. At Phompenh there is one talking cin-
ema hall, the Excelsior. The other halls
are distributed in the smaller towns and vil-
lages.

The writer comments on the public taste,
which, as regards the native crowds, runs to
adventure, war and documentary films,
especially when they contain dramatic epi-
sodes. Chaplin's comic films are also
favourites.

The talking film is not especially popular
with the natives for the reason that barely
a quarter of the country population under-
stands French. For the same reason the
sub-titles of silent films pass unnoticed and
are not understood. The pictures tell the
natives the story.

The foregoing is a resume of Saurel's re-
ports. One thing is lacking which was

however, outside of the writer's plan, that
is to let us know something of the psychol-
ogical influence exercised by Western films
on Oriental peoples. The point is an im-
portant one.

We have on more than one occasion re-
ferred in the pages of this review to the dif-
ficulty and delicacy of projecting before a
public different from that of the country
of the film's origin pictures which with their
strictly Western plots and aspects of drama-
tic or sentimental life offer something not
easily understood by Oriental peoples. The
question is both a delicate and a danger-
ous one, for it may happen often enough
that films evoke impressions not suitable
for Asiatic public which may thus get an
inexact idea of Western morality or its
psychology, customs and manner of life.

The danger arises of reciprocal mis-
understanding, which is the most effica-
cious means for demolishing every idea of
peace or good will among peoples (know-
ledge means understanding). The matter
becomes worse when we are dealing with
peoples having a different mentality from our
own, who do not take account of the fact
that good and evil exist all over the earth
and come to judge the Western world from
what they see of it in gangster films, or films
portraying criminality or disordered passion.

THE USE OF NON-INFLAMMABLE FILM IN PUBLIC CINEMAS

The Bulletin of the French Syndical
Chamber of Cinematography states in its
October number that following a move taken
by the President of the Syndical Chamber,
the Minister of the Interior has decided to
postpone until January 1 , 1 934 the enforce-
ment of the ministerial circular of December
30, 1931 according to which the use of non-
inflammable film became obligatory in
France as from October 1st last.

In the letter informing M. Charles De-
lac, the president of the Syndical Chamber
of the decision, the Minister of the Interior
M. Chautemps recalled that the substi-

tution of non-inflammable film for nitro-
cellulose film was originally to become ef-
fective in January 1st, 1925 by ministerial
order of 20 March, 1922. The enforce-
ment of the decree was successively post-
poned, following requests of the Syndical
Chamber, to January April and October
of 1928, then to January 1930, then to Oct-
ober 1932, and now finally to January 1934.
At first sight the considerations inspiring
the recent ministerial decision may seem
to interest only the French cinema industry.
A certain passage in the letter of M. Chau-
temps to M. Delac, however, shows that

953 -

the matter has a wider interest, and we
therefore deem it opportune to quote the
passage in question.

" The matter, moreover, goes beyond
our own frontiers and takes on a world in-
terest. You point out to me that France
is the only country which up to now has
deemed it necessary to consider imposing
an obligation for the exclusive use of non-
inflammable film, and it is due to this
that our manufacturers have shown little
interest in producing a film of this type in
commercial quantity and quality. You also
point out to me the advisability of our re-
presentatives in the League of Nations
attempting to induce the League to decree
the obligatory use of non-inflammable film
supports throughout the world.

" I must remind you that my predeces-
sors have anticipated your wishes. If
you will refer to the letter which M. Sarraut
addressed you on November 3, 1928, you
will find that after alluding to the work done
abroad in favour of the use of non-inflamma-
ble film support, especially in the United
States and Germany, where this type of film
is obligatory for documentary educational
and scholastic films, the clear intention
of the government to bring the question
before the League of Nations and have it
examined by the Bureau International de
Travail is revealed. You were requested
to furnish to this office a complete, well
illustrated and documented statement on
the condition of the French industry of
non-inflammable and incombustible film,
on its advantages and disadvantages as
compared with celluloid film, of the duration
of such film, on the analytic composition
of the emanations and poisonous qualities
of the combustible gases. This was the
result of an inquiry decided on by the Syn-
dical Chamber on July 10, 1928.

" This material was never produced, and
was again requested on February 1, 1929,
following the fire at Berne. I have not yet
received it.

" In any case, the government continued
its action on more than one occasion with

the League of Nations, and in April 1929,
following a new communication from the
technical counsellor of the French dele-
gation, reporting a series of fires which had
taken place the year before in cinema halls
where celluloid film was used, the Com-
mittee for the Protection of Infancy attached
to the League of Nations repeated its re-
commendations for the use of non-inflam-
mable and incombustible film, which re-
commendations were also approved of by
the B. I. T. of Geneva and the I. I. E. C.
of Rome.

" You should take due account of the
fact that in the case in question the League
of Nations could not do more than make
its recommendations, leaving it to the in-
dividual governments represented in it to
promote the necessary legislation towards the
end desired in as complete a form as possible.

" I will also remind you that, although the
United States do not belong to the League
of Nations, they have also considered the
problem, because in addition to the ace-
tate which they produce themselves they
import a certain quantity from France for
film-making.

" Moreover, the introduction of the talk-
ing film has completely modified the export
conditions of film production. Apart from
certain specialized halls, where films are given
in their original languages, it is necessary
to make positives of films in the language
of the country into which they are imported.
The obligatory use of non-inflammable or
incombustible film would give a notable
advantage to French producing firms for
foreign negatives, while the export of French
acetate film would enjoy fresh facilities
which might afford appreciable advantages

These remarks of the French minister
of the Interior show through the work
carried out by the government of France
with the League of Nations the international
character of the problem, illustrated by one
single national instance.

The Rome Institute only wishes to re-

954

affirm its attitude in the matter, mentioned
by M. Chautemps, and to state once again
its wish to see the use of acetate film become
in a not too distant future a universal fact.
The Institute does in this face of the fact that
modern productive technique seems direc-

ted towards definite possibilities of producing
a type of film, which, while possessing the
undoubted advantages of non-inflammable
film, maintains, from the point of view of
the art of the cinema, all the essential char-
acteristics of the cellulose film.

FILM CENSORSHIP AND AUTHORS' RIGHTS

The following two news items, one taken
from a Geneva paper, the other from a
Paris review merit a brief comment.

Three years ago the censorship commis-
sion of Valais forbade the exhibition of the
film " La nuit est a nous ", based on Kister-
mackers' play, because the film advocated
free love and attacked the principle of mar-
riage. Learning that a new request for
approval of the film had been recently pre-
sented to the same censorship commission
for a fresh and naturally expurgated version
the Courrier de Geneve of October 29, 1932
pointed out the absurdity of these revised
editions patched up in order to escape the
censors' ban. The film in question is one
of those films which cannot be mutilated
at all, and which ought either to be projected
in its original form or forbidden altogether.
In such cases, the censors have either to
uphold their previous decision at the risk
of being accused of intransigency or else
authorize the projection with cuts and show
their lack of good sense and artistic taste.

" L'Ecran, of Paris (N° 859 of November)
publishes a note regarding the right of ex-
hibitors to change the titles of films they
project. M. Georges Leveque looking at
the matter from the commercial point of
view, maintains that the right to alter titles
cannot be seriously contested, provided
the new title does not alter the essential idea
of the film and succeeds in attracting the
public to it.

Both points are interesting, and while
the first is concerned with a substantial
criticism of the censorship systems existing
in almost all states, both touch the matter
of authors' rights.

The fact complained of by the Courrier
de Geneve in connection with censorship
commissions is unfortunately true. The
severity of the censors, often enough justi-
fied and based on motives of a political or
moral character, contrasts with the interests
of the producer or renter. The former has
made, often at great expense and the latter
rented at a high price a film which they are
both unwilling to see suppressed by the cen-
sorship, which as a result is accused of
stupidity or Puritanism.

It is then that recourse is had to the system
lamented by the Geneva newspaper. Some
individual as often as not unfit for the task
is entrusted with revising the film and en-
deavouring to follow the suggestions and
policy indicated by the censors. A botched
up affair is produced which resembles
the original work about as much as some
monster resembles a healthy child. The
attempt is then made to put this piece of
contraband goods on the market under the
specious pretext that public and private mor-
ality or political ends have been adequately
protected.

The censorship commissions, especially
when they do not include in their number
some genuine art or cinema dilettante, fall
into the trap and the paying public protests
because it understands as a regular frequen-
ter of the cinema and through that peculiar
intuition which never seems to fail it even
among uncultured masses that it is being
shown something badly done and badly
altered which ought never to have been
shown on the screen.

The problem becomes even more serious
when the original film is written by some

-955-

author of repute or is adapted from some well
known book or play which ought not to
undergo mutilation. As in the case of Kis-
termackers' play, any alteration or adapta-
tion may be quite absurd and amount to a
literary betrayal. There are works which
cannot be cut or altered. It does not matter
what their central idea may be, or what
their aims are, whether they are dangerous
or not politically or socially, but no one can
be given the right to suppress them except
the sovereign authority of the state in cases
when they constitute a danger to it. A work
of art cannot become the subject of botched
changes and clumsy alterations, which could
not be made perhaps even by the author
himself without destroying the value of the
work.

We must not forget that the authors'
rights to protection for their films often
comes into the question here. A more or
less arbitrary alteration of a work of art may
lead to a regular deformation of it, to a
falsification of its true character, at the same
time gravely damaging the reputation of the
original author, esteemed for being able to
produce works out of the ordinary. Injuries
of this kind, moreover, are always more
serious for the author in the case of films, for
no other medium appeals to such a vast public.

In another number of this review when
discussing the authors moral rights even
wider claims for the author have been made.
It has been argued that a work of art, if such
it really is, constitutes part of the spiritual
capital of the nation within the frontiers
of which it was created. Consequently
it has had been urged that the state or
those charged with its delegated authority
have the right to intervene against a too
material or crassly businesslike attitude of
the author in view of their interest in the
work. This right to intervene in such cases
has, according to those who maintain its
existence, a parallel with the now admit-
ted right of the state to control the export
of notable works of plastic art.

In the case under consideration, the deli-

cacy of the matter is obvious. At any rate,
the author in such cases ought to be allowed
to authorize or disapprove the reshaping of
his work by indicating where alterations
are possible and superintending their carrying
out. He would thus free the censorship
commissions from the task — for which they
are generally little inclined — of effecting
a really artistic revision of the film, for it is
absurd that a film which has been cut and
mutilated of its central idea should be al-
lowed to be shown everywhere as the au-
thor's original work. Such a travesty of
the facts is likely to cause serious damage
to an author, both with regard to his past
and his future work.

The view on the changing of the titles
of films supported by the eminent Parisian
lawyer M. Leveque can be admitted with
certain reserves and qualifications, especially
if the right to change the title of a film has
been recognized in the renting contract
But what about the case when there is no
such clause in the contract ? There is no
doubt — theoretically, at any rate — that
the title is not the work- It is also true
that the censorship can insist that an au-
thor change, substantially or formally, the
title of a film of his for reasons of superior
public order. This was the case with the
film '" Rasputin ", which the French cen-
sors would only pass under the title " The
Man with the Green Eyes ". But since the
title of a film ought to be — as M. Leveque
has recognized — the synthesis of the pic-
ture itself, it seems logical that if an exhib-
itor of films thinks it to his advantage to
change the original title of a film for a more
striking one that promises to be a better
" seller ", he ought not under any circum-
stances to use a title which, apart from
leading the public into error as to the nature
of the film, betrays the intentions and
thought of the author.

In the absence of a special clause in the
contract between producer and exhibitor,
the possibility of allowing the substitution
of a similar title may be admitted. The

- 956 -

whole question should however, be carefully be permitted when the film is an adaptation
examined with all due caution and in our of some literary or dramatic work without
opinion in no case should a change of title the author's consent.

NEWS ITEMS AND COMMENT

Two writers, one French, the other Italian
have discussed recently some questions af-
fecting the respectability and sincerity of
the cinema. These two journahsts, M. Rene
Bizet and Singor Mario Meneghini have no
intention, we may be sure, of trying to stir
up again the old criticism which proclaimed
the cinema " the sole cause of all the vices
and evils of the century '. They confine
their attention to two different aspects of
the cinema, and are able to justify the criti-
cisms of those who want to rid the spectac-
ular film of its less admirable features and
make it a source of sane and honest enjoy-
ment.

Rene Bizet in an article entitled " Le Ci-
nema de la peur " (La Depeche, Toulouse,
7-X-32) in reviewing the film " Vampire ",
criticizes the whole class of films of a terri-
fying character.

" Vampire ", a film by the producer Carl
Dreyer, author of " Le Maitre du Logis "
and " Jeanne d'Arc ", which had a big
success in France, does not win M. Bizet's
approval.

" The cinema is not made for creating
states of terror ", be writes " or piling up
before the spectator's eyes frightful and
painfully realistic, gruesome pictures. If
from the beginning to the end of a film we
see little but skeletons, skulls, coffins and
corpses, it is inevitable that a reaction will
take place in the guise of a sense of amuse-
ment which is out of place, but is at the same
time in reality a protest of our healthy moral
and physical nature against the imaginings
of a morbid spirit.

We must also remember that apart from
the harm which films of this type cause to
the minds of normal persons (Frankenstein
was another film of this kind) there is also
to be considered the case of persons who are

spiritually ill or enfeebled or are not protected
by the power of reacting and criticizing
pictures of a gruesome or terrifying nature.
The case becomes even graver when neuro-
paths, women and children are concerned.
The possibility that spectacles of this na-
ture can cause phenomena of individual or
collective fear must be considered, with
consequences of nocturnal hysteria and other
results not difficult to imagine.

The works of Edgar Allan Poe can rightly
enough be considered as an exceptional
form of literature, as an original art which
finds echos in novels like Oscar Wilde's
" Portrait of Dorian Grey " to mention one
example. But if the works of Poe, Wilde
or Baudelaire have an undoubted artistic
value, this does not mean that they are there-
fore suitable subjects for filming and throw-
ing on the screen for hundreds of thousands
of persons.

Still less suitable for film adaptation are the
so called masterpieces of sensational liter-
ature, made up chiefly of detectives, gangsters,
police court scenes and Far West adventures.
Films taken from novels of this class can be
dramatic, impressive and terrifying — indeed
they generally are — when they do not be-
come ridiculous, which is often enough their
fate. We may say that such works have
about the same relation to works of art as
a child's drawing to a design by a great artist.

It seemed recently that this type of film
was losing popularity, and the cinema
was reaching out towards a purer and ser-
ener form of art. It seemed that a tendency
was forming favourable to producing
something nearer to real life and art in the
cinema, something calculated to gladden our
spirits and to give us the sensation that life
holds something less tragic and miserable
than that which we are obliged to read of in

— 957 —

the press or in our cheap contemporary
novels.

This permitted the supporters of a free
cinema to protest not only against the abuses
allowed in certain films, but also against
the current systems of cinema censorship,
and to urge and plead that the cinema could
not be considered a danger for children and
the masses. A return to the old abuses
with all the advantages for productive meth-
ods furnished by recent film improvements
would be a retrograde step.

Stories like " Vampire " and " Franken-
stein " may be expected to catch the fancy
of film producers, but they cannot be shown
to the general public without some discrimi-
nation. There are now in many countries
cinema clubs and special cinema halls where
such films as the censors do not judge fit to
be shown to everybody can be screened for
a limited public. There is no necessity for
films of an exceptional character to be pro-
jected in all and every kind of cinema.

In the other article we referred to at the
beginning of this note (Osservatore Romano
Vatican City, 23-X-1932), Mario Meneghini
examines again an old cinema question con-
nected with one of the social problems in-
herent in film production and projection,
namely cinema publicity.

Signor Meneghini points out how immoral
this kind of publicity can sometimes be, and
in support of his case cites a number of exam-
ples. In one cinema visited by him he saw,
he tells us, a film announced with huge cha-
racters as "a hallucinatory film " "a film
that becomes an obsession ". The film
in question belonged to the " yellow ,
sensational type, and no doubt the exhib-
itor supposed that he had not extracted the
last advertising value out of the piece un-
less he persuaded his public that he was
able to give them big thrills of a more or
less permissible nature.

This form of cinema advertising is not
limited to wall posters inside the cinema

itself. It includes photographs of a most
suggestive and detailed character which are
exposed to catch the eye of the passer-by
and excite him. Often these photos are
chosen from among those banned by the
censors for projection, in the hope that their
exhibition outside the cinema may pass
unnoticed by those whose duty, in theory
at any rate, it is to see that such abuses are
not committed.

This kind of cinema advertising is the
most dangerous of all. It allows the public
to suppose there are things in the film which
in fact are not there, or it exaggerates them
one hundred per cent if they do exist in the
picture. And all from the financial but il-
logical desire to look after the day's takings
without thought of the minds and mental-
ities of the audience, all for the love of one
thing only — money.

This attitude is wrong, absurd and dan-
gerous. It can arouse hostility among res-
pectable spectators when they see advertised
in posters or photographs connected with
the film, scenes not to their taste, even when
such scenes form only a secondary and non-
essential part of the film.

The matter of special projections for mi-
nors is an often debated question as creating
a way for the eventual elimination of the cen-
sorship. But with publicity and advertis-
ing of the kind complained of which ignores
the basic elements of good sense and moral-
ity in its hunt after dangerous and exciting
attractions, will not the campaign for free-
ign the film from tutelage be seriously
retarded ?

The answer is obvious. The industrial
element in the cinema business often wants
to forget what it owes to the paying public.
It looks only for a Box Office success. May
be it will regret this attitude on the day when
the authorities will be obliged to take radical
and definite measures for insuring the moral-
ity of cinema shows intended for our
women and children.

— 958 —

ART, TECHNIQUE AND INTERNATIONALITY OF THE SOUND FILM

special indications to be projected together
with the words to be said, such as " louder"
" softly ", " closer to the microphone ",
or " aside ".

Even more important in our opinion than
the description of the system are the remarks
of Betz regarding the revolution which
" rhythmography " may create in the cinema
world. Equally interesting are the criti-
cisms made in the subsequent number of
the review by Mr. Kurt London on Betz's
assumptions.

Betz states that the sound film production
which does not only depend on technical
improvements is today both from the bus-
iness and the artistic points of view in a
state of arrested development. To free
itself from the position in which it is it
needs new energy and new ideas unless it is
to be reduced to the level of a mere pastime
for the lowest intellectual section of the
public. The new development, according
to Herr Betz, cannot be expected from the
industrial producers, who only lately have
seen that it is no longer possible for them to
continue on the beaten track. Neither is
much to be hoped for from the intellectual
vanguard which engages in debating pro-
blems of pure aesthetics and is crazy about
the Russian type of collective production
without being in any way able to imitate it.

During a lecture given by Herr Blum based
on the point in Betz's article, and broadcast
by the Berlin radio station on the problem
of the successive and reciprocal influences
between the art of the cinema the art of the
theatre and modern technique, the idea was
put forth that the art of the cinema, now
dominated by technique, ought, in order to
free itself from this, find a new style of its
own based on new laws.

" Technique has taken possession of art
— declared Blum — and has no intention
of being merely its humble handmaid. Con-
sequently today we find ourselves witnessing
a struggle for the creation of an individual
cinema style or manner. But how is it
going to be possible to come by this style,

The various requirements of a technical
nature, in connection with the acoustic
registration, the optical apparatus, and the
artistic needs of a film have for some time
now been recognized as making dubbing
a very difficult problem. It is undeniable
that, theoretically at any rate, the separ-
ation in time of the operations relative to
the optical taking of the pictures and the
sound registration allows the producer a
great liberty since they eliminate the dan-
gerous interferences and sometimes also the
contrasts capable of arising from the different
requirements of the two divisions of the
sound film apparatus.

The difficulties attached to successful dub-
bing are very great. Numerous systems and
plans have been suggested and tried for
overcoming the difficulties connected with
the process and most of them have dis-
advantages compensating their advantages.
Technical and trade papers have often de-
voted space to these various systems.

In the October number of " Der Film, "
H. W. Betz, one of the members of the re-
view's staff, publishes a long article entitled
" Revolution in the Art of the Cinema ",
in which the possibilities of the new system
of post-synchronization devised by Carl
Robert Blum known as " Rhythmography "
for solving many existing film difficulties
are explained.

Without going into the technical aspects
of the system, it will suffice to mention
the fact that in the " rhythmographic "
system, the words of the dialogue, suitably
prepared and adapted to the movement of
the lips and gestures of the actors, are thrown
on a screen and read directly by the actor
or his substitute before the microphone ;
a method offering several practical and art-
istic advantages. The projection is made
with a special apparatus called the " Rhyth-
monome Projector " as opposed to other
systems where a table " rhythmonome " is
used. The words for each actor are thrown
on the screen in different colours so as to
avoid confusion. The system also allows

- 959 -

how are we going to free the artistic and
literary side of production from the tyran-
nical hegemony of technique without taking
advantage of the immense possibilities of-
fered by this very technique ? How are we
to restore the sovereignty of the spirit in
face of the deplorable but inevitable collusion
existing between the spiritual side of the
undertaking and the iron economic com-
mercial laws of the industrial side of the
same ? How are we to join art and technique,
seeing that from the nature of things they
cannot be divided one from the other ?

The answer to these questions can, ac-
cording to Mr Blum, only come from tech-
nique itself.

Betz, paraphrasing Blum s ideas, main-
tains that from now on technique ought to
abandon its position of superiority and rec-
ognize the sovereignty of the spirit, placing
itself at the service of pure art, and rec-
ognizing its absolute supremacy. In this
way, the technique would no longer be at
end to itself, but simply the means for
creating the work of art, which would find its
own style, based on its own well defined laws.

The " rhythmographical " system would
therefore appear to be the best means
available for reaching this solution . Through
the technique of " rhythmography " the
art of the cinema could be purified and vivi-
fied, and the cinema industry would be able
to find, by solving the problem of how to
render the sound and talking film properly
international, a new impulse for its develop-
ment. According to Betz, the inventor of
the new system has shown the path to col-
lective production, because with this method
it is possible for the picture and sound
operators to collaborate at the same time
maintaining their independence.

Kurt London who, as has been mentioned,
discusses the matter in subsequent article
seems less enthusiastic and less categorical.

He states that while he is an admirer of
the results obtained by modern technique,
nothing can be considered more dangerous
than giving technique an over-ruling im-
portance. He thinks this danger is espec-

ially grave in the art of the cinema, for, if
it is true that the machinery of the films
completely revolutionized the business in
1929, this is not a sufficient reason for plac-
ing the machinery and technique of the in-
dustry above the spiritual element in the
film art. There is no doubt that " rhyth-
mography ", the " Tropoly " system and
all the other devices of post-synchroniza-
tion constitute important elements of mod-
ern cinematography. At the same time,
it cannot be said that they have revolutionized
the sound film. They have merely supplied
it with subsidiary if indispensable means.

While recognizing the undoubted advan-
tages of the post-synchronization systems for
original editions, especially for out-of-door
shots, which present certain acoustic diffi-
culties, Mr London believes that these pro-
cesses do not introduce any new principles
for the sound film, but rather conduct it
back to the old principles of the silent film.
He considers it a complete mistake to think
that the sound film can be made an internat-
ional thing by dubbing. There are some
works where this expedient is possible, while
others, when dubbed are not more than
shadows of their originals.

" It would be an unpardonable error to
think ", writes Mr London " that technique
alone can give back to the film its lost
internationality, or that it can revolutionize
the art of the cinema. What is technique after
all without an informing spiritual content ? "

The rennovation, the revolutionizing of
the film can only come from an idea, in the
spiritual sense of the word, whether such idea
has a political, social or artistic character.

The writer concludes by saying that the
man of today tends to give excessive import-
ance to everything material or mechanical,
even in the limits of human existence, just
as in the past there was an excessive urge
towards exclusively spiritual values.

In attempting to unite the two forms
of energy in a harmonic synthesis, we
take care above all to keep the right path
without excessive fears and even at the risk
of becoming unpopular.

— 960

" PANKINE „

SPECIAL „
" EXTRA-RAPID „
" KINECHROM „

AEROCHROM „
" TROPICAL „

SUPERPAN „
" R-FILM „

Sound Recording Slock Ti. 3

for Variable-Density Process

Sound Recording Slock TI. 4

for Variable Area Process

Technical Notes

The Berlin review Filmtechnik publishes
in its number of November 5, a series of
very interesting studies regarding the use
of cinematography as a means of research
and inquiry in the technical and scientinc
fields. The continuous improvements of
specialized cinema apparatus and the manu-
facture of more or less complicated mach-
inery for research work have permitted
most important results to be attained
in numerous kinds of technical and
scientific problems. A.s well as in the
fields of explorations, travel, sport and med-
icine, there are today numerous other
branches of human knowledge in which lib-
eral advantage is taken of the possibilities
of the cinema.

The development of cinematography as a
means of study of very rapid or very slow
movements, or for astro-physical or micro-
scopic research has reached such a degree
of perfection that the technique of each of
these branches of science may be considered
a thing to itself, well defined and limited.
For example, the special modern apparatus
with optical compensation, of the incised
or spark variety, allows the taking of photos
in series in which the interval of time be-
tween one image and the next is not more
than 1 /30,000th second, if the machine is
equiped with optical compensation, while
in spark cinematography a interval of three
millionths of a second can be reached in
cases where a few successive images are
sufficient for the study of the motion.

The Thun gives an interesting practical
example in this connection. Let us suppose
that in an automobile motor the springs of the
valves are not working properly. We must
find out if the springs are making parasitic
oscillations and to what extent. If the
motor makes, for instance, 2400 revolutions a
minute, equivalent to 40 revolutions a sec-
ond, and if the form of the cams allows

the movement of the valve to take place
in 1/1 5th revolution, the duration of the
compression of the spring will be 1 /6000th
of a second. In general, a dozen photograms
are sufficient for a proper analytical study
of this movement, which is to say that the
frequency of the taking of the pictures must
be about 6000 images a second. This is
a frequency perfectly within the possibilities
of modern, ultra-high frequency apparatus.
Cinematographing the stars has developed
greatly of late, thanks particularly to
the important optical and mechanical im-
provements recently introduced, as well as
to advances made in the matter of photo-
chemistry and the manufacture of sensitive
material. Naturally the technique of star
cinematography differs substantially from
that of terrestrial cinematography, and
even long distance cinematography. In the
case of the latter, even when we are deal-
ing with photos made in the stratosphere,
the distances are rarely greater than a few
hundreds of kilometres. Astronomical cine-
matography is quite a different matter.
The nearest distance is that of the moon,
which, as is known, is some 400,000 kilo-
metres away. The difficulties in this branch
of cinematography have been summarized
by Gramatzki in the following fashion :-
2) The objects are always seen at a
very narrow visual angle, necessitating the
use of apparatus with great focal length.

2) Between the cinema camera and the
object, there is always a thick atmospheric
stratum. The lack of optical homogeneity
and the torbidity of this stratum are a great
obstacle to successful picture-making.

3) The smallest oscillations which are
of no importance in normal cinematography
are the cause of grave instability in the im-
ages in very long distance cinematography,
owing to the great focal lengths required.

4) Owing to the earth's rotation, the

- 962 -

camera must follow the celestial body so
that its image remains always m an extreme-
ly restricted field of vision. This neces-
sitates the use of complicated auxiliary
motor apparatus.

The degree of sensitivenes of the emul-
sions used creates further difficulties, and
some firms have made films with special
emulsions for this work.

The progress made in micro-cinemato-
graphy has been more than once illustrated
in this review, and there is no need to go
into the matter again. We may, however,
mention that the apparatus made by the
Askania-werke Co. of Berlin and the De-
brie Co. of Paris are among the most perfect
on the market.

The Askania apparatus built with the aid
of Dr Hofer of the Charite of Berlin allows
slow motion and speeded-up picture taking
within the limits of one picture every ten
hours and 100 pictures a second.

The machines produced by the firm of
Debrie for the Central Scientific Laboratory
of Boulogne and manufactured according to
plans made by Professor Comandon, whose
studies in micro-cinematography are well
known, consist of a Debrie G. V. apparatus
to which is attached a connection for slow
motion cinematography, permitting a varia-
tion of proportions between the time of
exposure and that of transport up to 5/1
as compared to the time proportion of 1/1.

Interesting results in micro-cinemato-
graphy have also been obtained in America.
Mr Mitchell of Chicago reports some
micro-cinematographic experiments on the
Brownwinian movements effected with re-
duced size film with a " Filmo ' machine,
allowing an enlargement of the image up
to 600 diameters. According to a report
made by Lucas, the Bell Telephone Labora-
tories have built an ultra-microscope with
which enlargements up to 5000 and 6000
diameters are obtainable. The instrument
can also be used for micro-cinematography.

In this interesting field of science we
may mention the researches of Professor
Kolle of Frankfurt in the matter of cellu-

lose as well as those undertaken by Professor
Storch of the university of Vienna, who
was the first to project micro-cinematographic
pictures taken at high frequencies.

Cinematography continues to make pro-
gress in the medical field also, especially
in Roentgen rays cinematography and in
films of the internal organs of the human
body.

In connection with the first of these pro-
blems we may refer to the researches car-
ried out by Gramatzki and Miiller. The
former made a special optical apparatus
adapted to the purpose, while the latter
prepared a Roentgen tube capable of giv-
ing for 20 seconds an effective output of
70 KW and 50 MA. More recently the
firm of Joachim Grassman & Co. of Berlin-
Halensee has manufactured an apparatus for
taking cinema pictures with X rays, having
containers for 60 metres of film, and allow-
ing pictures to be taken at a frequency
varying from 5 to 25 images a second. The
film used is of an ultra-sensitive type. The
luminous screen which supplies a notable
intensity of light measures 30 centimetres
by 40. Results of experiments of X ray
cinematography with fluorescent weak light
screens have been usefully employed in
other directions. Thus it has proved pos-
sible to cinematograph the weak light of
the aurora borealis by using similar methods
(lenses and emulsions) to those used for
X ray cinematography.

This review has mentioned before the
systems followed especially by Stutzing for
taking cinema pictures of the interior of
the bladder. The principle followed by
Stutzin in this matter has been imitated
by others in similar experiments. For
example, Siebert used it for his cinema
pictures of the inside of the thorax, regis-
tering on the film the movements of the
respiration of the lungs.

We will close this brief review recalling
the interesting results obtained in America
by Russell and Tuttle, and in Prague by
Hala and Honty on the vocal cords, already
referred to amply in these columns.

— 963

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Hip Gompany Limi

Capital : 100 million lire, fully paid up

General Management : 187, Via Luisa del Carretto - TURIN

Telephone: 52-121 • 52-122
52-123 - 52-124

c@^^:>

^=^ Telegrams : ^=^=
ANONIMA PITTAL,UGA

Works

R O M E : « Cines », (Sound, Singing and Talking Film Factory) — 51, Via Macerata (outside Porta S.Giovanni)
TURIN: « Positiva » — Cinematographic Printing Works — Via Luisa del Carretto.

General Agencies in Italy

ROME : 43 Via Viminale — Telephone : 40-568 — Telegrams : Sasp.
NAPLES : 53, Via Cesare Battisti — Tel. 13-159 ; 25-526.

General Agencies Abroad

BERLIN S. W. 48 : — Italafilm G. m. b. H. — 235 Friedrichstrasse — Telegrams : Italafilm.
LONDON : Mitre House, 177 Regent Street, W. I. — Telegrams : Pittafilms.
PARIS : Avenue Victor Emmanuel III, N. 61 — Telegr. : Inter film — Paris.

10 — Film Renting Agencies — 10

TRIESTE — Via F. Crispi, 4 — Tel.: 72-8
— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

VENICE — S. Benedetto Calle Benzon, 3932 —
Tel. : 30-40 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

MILAN — Via Privata G. Mangili, 1. — Tel. :
64-341 and 64-342 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

TURIN — Via Arcivescovado, 18. — Telef. :
50-248 ; Telegrams : Pittafilms.

GENOA — Via Granello 39 rosso. — Telegrams :
Pittafilm.

BOLOGNA — Via GaUiera, 62 — Tel. : 28-45

— Telagrams : Pittafilms.

FLORENCE — Via MarteUi, 4 — Tel. : 25-617

— Telegrams : Pittafilms.

ROME — Via Viminale, 43 — Tel. : 41-869 —
Telegrams : Pittafilms.

NAPLES — Via Cesare Battisti, 53 — Tel. :
25-526 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

PALERMO — Via Emerigo Amati, 312 — Tel. :
13-109 — Telegrams : Pittafilms.

Local Agencies — 7

BARI — Via Malta, 6 —Tel.: 52-793 — Tel-
egrams : Fimbord.

TRENTO — Via Belenzani — 15 Tel. : 5-26.

ANCONA — Via XX Settembre, 42 — Tel.:
5-40.

SPEZIA — Via Roma, 2.

CAGLIARI — Via Roma, 20 — Telegrams
Pittafilms.

CATANIA — Via Coppola, 3.

UDINE — Via Carducci, 2 — Tel. : 2-009.

Agencies for Projection on Board Ship

GENOA — 6, Via Malta — Tel.: 52-793
Telegrams : Filmbordo.

TRIESTE — 4 Via Francesco Crispi — Tel.
72-80 — Telegrams : Filmbordo.

Review of periodicals and newspapers

Social Problems.

Morality and Immorality of the Film.
During the 27th annual conference of the
Parent-Teachers' Association, of Columbus,
Ohio, the cinema was accused of fomenting
child criminality and of being an obstacle
to the teaching of morality and civic virtues.
(Motion Picture Herald, New York,
N°4, October 1932).

Sir James Openshaw, President of the
Lancashire Quarter Sessions, refused to take
the word of a prisoner who alleged that the
films had been the original cause of his
association with crime, and stated that on
the contrary the remarkable decrease in
drunkenness in recent years was attributable
to the cinema's good influence. (The Daily
Film Renter, London 2-XI-1932).

Mrs. C. T. Owens, President of the Cinema
section of the department of Education pre-
sented a motion at a convention held by the
State Federation of Pennsylvania urging the
prohibition of cinema pictures where actors
were seen in the act of drinking wines or liq-
uors. (The Film Daily, New York,
3-XI-1932).

Father General M. S. Gillet of the Dom-
inicans, after having in the course of an
address explained the opinions of Bossuet
and St. Thomas on the right of human
beings to amuse themselves, the first deny-
ing such right and St. Thomas asserting
it, made reference to modern entertainments.
Bossuet, he declared, would have protested
violently against the spectacles given today,
their immorality and perversity, while, fol-
lowing the lines of St. Thomas, we ought
to seek to substitute evil amusements with

moral ones< Religion and art ought to
come to the aid of outraged morality. (Choi-
SIR, Paris, 18- IX- 1932).

Prevention of Accidents and Social
Assistance.

Much good work is being done by means
of lantern slide propaganda in teaching
children how to avoid accidents. It has
been proposed to extend the system by organ-
izing projections in places where children
gather in numbers, as in public gardens
toy-shops, etc. (SECURITAS, Milan, 31 -X-
1932).

The Commander of the gendarmerie at
Sousse in Tunis has had a propaganda film
made illustrating the workings and useful-
ness of the traffic rules in the colony. (L'Echo
de Paris, Paris, 25-X-1932).

The " Calig " Company (Caritas-Licht-
bild G. m. b. H.) of Freiburg in Branden-
burg is finishing a substandard size film on
Catholic propaganda in Baden as directed
by Dr. Theiss. The film shows the desper-
ate conditions of the unemployed young peo-
ple, and the efforts of sympathisers and vol-
unteers to lessen their sufferings. (Film
Kurier, Berlin, 29-X-1932).

Willi Zielke is producing a film on the
unemployed at Munich, The actors and su-
pers will be drawn from the ranks of the
workless who are without experience of
acting. The criterion for engaging the cast
and supers will be their desire to do some-
thing big, original and disintered.

All profits from the exhibition of the film
will go to the Unemployed Fund, and the
basic idea of the picture is work (man against

966

machines) and the results of unemployment.
(Film Kurier, Berlin, 29-X-1932).

In an article on still projections published
in the November number of Safety Educa-
tion of New York, H. Louise Cottrell points
out the great value of slides in teaching chil-
dren how to avoid street accidents.

The Documentary Film.

The Dutch cinema producer Joris Ivens
has terminated a documentary film called
' Youth " which will be shown in Moscow
this winter. The music for the film is
by the composer Eisler, and the theme-song
by the poet Tretjakow. (NlEUW Week-
BLAD VOOR DE CINEMATOGRAFIE, The Hague,

21-X-1932).

The Film and Political History.

Robert Bigot makes some further consider-
ations on the effects which war films produce
on children and the public in general. He
points out that the tone of some of the best
known war films produces reactions which
are far from being pacifist. A master took
his pupils to witness one of these films and
saw the boys become enthusiastic about the
pictures of French troops attacking German
trenches. Children, moreover, love and
appreciate glory, even if it is shown them in
the form of a mutilated, tattered but vic-
torious soldier. A special art and technique
are required if the desired pacifist result is
to be obtained. The heroic and glorious sides
of war should be attenuated and its brutality
revealed. In connection with this point, the
films " Des Croix de Bois " is mentioned.
Here with an admirable technique, the
actors have faithfully reproduced the cries
of anguish, the groans and the sufferings
of the wounded. The film, writes M.
Bigot, is a lesson for the young people that
shows them the truth of a tragic phase of
life without unduly exalting or depressing
them. (Le Radical, Marseilles, 8- IX- 1932).

We learn from an article entitled " Films
for National Minorities " that the govern-
ment of the Soviets does not impose the use
of the Russian language in provinces of the
Union having their own tongue, but respects
the sentiments of the minorities. It pro-
poses, moreover, to give regions such as the
Ukraine and Turkestan their own national
sound films in the form of dubbed versions
of original Russian films. (INTERNATIONAL
FlLMSCHAU, Prague, 31 -X- 1932).

Reports from Prague, we are glad to learn,
confirm the news that the Czech film of a
political nationalist, character " Zapadli
vlastenci ", (Forgotten Patriots) the plot
of which unfolds during the Czechn ational-
ist movement of 1840-50, and therefore
might have given origin to anti-German
sentiments and remarks slighting to Ger-
many, has been produced in a way that does
not offer any offence to German susceptibili-
ties. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 1 -XI- 1932).

The International side of the Film.

In an article entitled " The Pen, the
Sword and the Film ", the power of the
press and the film is remarked on, and their
capacity to influence the national mind for
or against international amity is stressed.
The agitation caused by the exhibition of an
American war film at Tokio is given as
example. The Japanese believed themselves
represented as the " enemy " of the film
in question. (CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR,
Boston, 2-IX-1932).

Hugh Bays in correspondence from Tokio
states that it is the love scenes which prevent
American films from enjoying complete
success in Japan. (The New York Times,
New York, 2-X-1932).

Religion.

The British cinema press carries the news
that it is proposed to install in London a
commercial bureau subsidized by the Cin-

— 967

ema committee of the Catholic Church for
the sale and installation of sound appara-
tus as invented by a German priest. (La
ClNEMATOGRAPHIE FrANCAISE, Paris, 29-X-

1932).

The Reverend H. R. Ferger has produced
several films illustrating the work carried
out by the Protestant misssions in Siam,
the Philippines, China, Korea and Japan.
The films are used for propaganda purposes
by the Bureau of Foreign Missions of the
Prebysterian Church of New York City.
(Movie Makers, New York, N° 10, October
1932).

B. R Hamilton, pastor of the Baptist
Church of New Albany has made a film
of a documentary religious character entit-
led : " Palestine Pathways " intended for
religious meetings and groups (Movie
Makers, New York, N° 10, October 1932).

The Cultural and Pedagogic Cinema.

The Scottish Educational Journal
of Edinburgh (No 41, 7-X-1932) publishes
the programme of the " Scottish Educational
Cinema Society .

The society's object is to develop the
educational cinema, which it proposes to
help by means of lectures, projections, crit-
icism, etc.

Jean Brerault remarks on the limited spread
of the teaching film in France and says that
the efficacy of visual sensory educational
aids is still a subject of discussion in France
notwithstanding the successful experiments
made in Italy, England, Germany and Rus-
sia. The article contains remarks on the
best format for teaching films and on the
number of educational films existing in
France. (L'Ecole LlBERATRICE, Paris,
8-X-1932).

The recent archeological researches and
excavations carried out in the Agora of
Athens have been accurately filmed by

amateurs. (MoviE MAKERS, New
10-X-f932).

York,

Special lectures on cinema and theatrical
spectacles have been included in the pro-
gramme of studies for the first half year of
the National High School of Breslau.
(Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst, Berlin,
2-X-1932).

The International Cinema League has
been founded in New York with an address
at 729 Seventh Avenue. The object of
the League is to assist the development of
the educational cinema and form a film
archive. (The New York Times, New York,
22-X-1932).

A news item from Leningrad announces
the formation of a bureau, the Techkino,
for educational films. The Techkino will
organize projections in the schools and tech-
nical institutes. The first films are already
booked ahead a couple of months. (ClNEMA
Education, Paris, October 1932).

The Cinema and Art.

The Persic Phono-Roma studios are mak-
ing a dubbed version in Arabic of the Egyp-
tian film " Salma " with Ines Falena in the
lead. This first dubbing in Arabic is being
made by a group of Egyptian actors sent to
Rome by the Odeon firm. (Agenzia Film,
Rome, 20-X-1932).

In the course of instruction organized by
the Gaumont-British-Picture Corporation for
British cinema directors and technicians,
a lesson on make-up and facial alterations
as required for the screen has been included,
Up to now this special branch of work has
been carried out in British studios by for-
eign experts. (The Times, London, 20-X-
1932).

Raymond Berner deplores the abuse of
music, songs which have nothing to do with
the situations, and bad musical productions

5 — Ice ingl.

— 963

in sound films. " L argent a passe par la "
he writes, " corrupting the spirit of the pro-
ducers, editors and alas a number of musical
composers. The authors' fees derived from
the cinema have completely deformed the
purpose aim and raison d'etre of music in
the cinema, favouring production in series
to the total damage of the artistic value " of
the music. (La Cinematographic Francaise,
Paris, 29-X-9132).

Science.

In order to facilitate the work of geologists
who, under orders from the Central Geo-
logical Library of the Soviets, are exploring
Russia for scientific ends, an experimental
film is in course of production at Moscow
showing the text of scientific books for con-
sulting purposes, so that such text can be
later projected page by page by a portable
projector. (Deutscher Feuilleton Dienst,
Berlin, 17-XI-1932).

Dr. Carl D. Anderson has succeeded in
making more than 10,000 pictures of the
traces of mist on atoms charged with elec-
tricity launched into space by cosmic irra-
diation. To judge by the traces of cloud
or mist to be found in some instances in
these photographs, there would appear to
be a much smaller number of particles pos-
itively charged than might reasonably
be expected according to modern theories
on the structure of the atom. During a
lecture before the Astronomers' and Phy-
sicists' Society, Dr Milliken pointed out the
importance of these scientific observations.
(The New York Times, New York, 2-X-
1932).

At a meeting of the " Deutschen Kinotech-
nischen Gesellschaft " (German Cine-tech-
nical Society) Dr Meyer reported on an Arc-
tic expedition and certain experiments made
by the A. E. G. on the nature of the aurora
borealis. An A. E. G. film was shown il-
lustrating the experiments made in the
Kirkland and Stormer laboratories on the

aurora borealis and demonstrating the
similarity between the results obtained in
the laboratory with hose under direct obser-
vation. Dr Meyer also pointed out the
connection that exists between the period
of eleven years for sun spots, the protu-
berances and terrestrial magnetic distur-
bances and the aurora borealis. (Film Ku-
RIER, Berlin, 29-XI-1932).

Hygiene.

Speaking of the Hygiene Section inaugur-
ated at Washington in 1922 in the United
States National Museum, and the proposal
to extend the idea to all American cities,
Mr Charles Whitebread maintains that vis-
ual education is the most effective means
for fighting superstition and spreading
hygiene. (Educational Screen, Chicago
6-X-1932).

Under the auspices of the Hygiene Bur-
eau of the Dental Society of Chicago,
Mr M. F. Kruse, director of the Educational
Department of the Bell and Howell Co.
has ordered the making of a film to be
called " Grandfather Molar ", in which the
students of a Chicago school take the various
roles. (Movie Makers, New York, 11 -XI
1932).

Medicine and Surgery.

Professor Walter Kolle, in the course of a
lecture which he recently gave to the Berlin
Urania Society on Goethe and his import-
ance as a self-teacher and student of nature,
showed some very interesting micro-cine-
matographic films dealing with cell research.
The films were made by Georg Speger-Hans
of Frankfurt, and showed cell division and
the development of cellular tissue in cultures
of muscular tissues and heart tissues. The
films permitted excellent observations or
embryonic development and the fecundation
of eggs. (Film Kurier, Berlin, 29-X-I932).

The Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Medicine of London (No. 12, October)

— 969 —

deals with an interesting cinematographic
illustration of an operation for cancer of
the thyroid gland.

Film Archives, Libraries and Museums.

The Pedagogic Museum has installed a
number of district film libraries to facilitate
the hiring of educational films. The pic-
tures are loaned freely to members of the
public teaching system. (L'EcOLE ET LA
Vie, Paris, 15-X-I1932).

Legislation, Cinema Censorship.

The Lutheran Church of America, con-
vinced that modern films incite to crime,
has urged the government to institute a
federal film censorship. (Motion Picture
Daily, New York, 3-X-1932).

Mr E. C. L. Moncure, Chief of the Vir-
ginia Censorship Board, states that the im-
proving moral tone of recent films has lim-
ited the number of cuts insisted upon by
the censorship. (The Film Daily, New
York, 6-X-1932).

J. M. D., film writer, publishes an article
against any relaxation of film censorship.
He is contrary to those who want to limit
censorship to pictures threatening danger
to the State or its organs. Morality exists,
he declares, and is not only religious but
dwells in every man's conscience. De-
pressing morality, or turning it into ridicule
means corrupting youth. (LT.CHO DE LAU-
SANNE, Lausanne, 9-X-1932).

tX

Authors' Rights.

Recalling the conference held in Rome by
the International Federation of Authors and
Composers, Mr P. N. Harle discusses the
author's " moral rights ". He stated that
the " modification of the Berne convention
establishing the existence of the " moral
right " will shortly be adopted, it is feared,
by the French parliament for cinema adap-

tations of literary works. Harle states the
kernel of the question lies in recognition of the
film producer as the real author of the film.
(La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris,
5-XI-1932).

Cinema Taxes.

The Irish Free State has placed an addit-
ional tax on cinema seats costing 2 shil-
lings or more. Variety shows, where the
film part of the spectacle is only an extra,
are exempted. Result : the cinema houses
are all running variety for two-thirds of the
programme. (To Day's ClNEMA, London,
10-X-1932).

Customs dues for importing films into the
British Empire are fixed at the following
rate : Great Britain : positives (sound or
silent) one penny per foot. Sound films
without pictures, 5 pence a foot. Australia :
positives or negatives : 4 pence, per foot,
plus 10 per cent ad valorem. South Africa :
first positive or negative copy : 3 pence a
foot, plus 12 per cent ad valorem. For other
copies : 2 pence a foot, plus 12 and 1/2 per
cent ad valorem. (La Cinematographie
Francaise, Paris, 15-X-1932).

Opening Hours for Cinemas.

A proposal will shortly be laid before the
Entertainments (Licensing) Committee of
the London County Council to permit the
opening on Sundays of cinemas at 3.30 PM
instead of 6.30 PM. The extra hours would
enable the London cinemas to pay to various
charities the sum of £ ! 50,000 a year. (The
Times, London, 31 -X- 1932).

In a letter to the London County Council
three Protestant bishops have protested
against the Sunday opening of cinemas at
3.30 PM instead of at 6.30 PM. Reason
given was that such earlier opening would
diminish the attendance of children at the
afternoon catechism lessons. (The ClNEMA,
London, 2-XI-1932).

— 970 —

Statistics.

The United States Department of Com-
merce has published statistics showing that
85 per cent of the films shown in Brazil come
from the U. S. (Motion Picture Daily,
New York, 26-X-1932).

According to the report of a commission
appointed by the ministry of Finance, the
return for the state entertainment tax in
France for September 1932 was Fr. 5,890,000
as compared with Fr. 10,551 ,000 for Septem-
ber of 1931 , showing a drop of Fr. 4.661 ,000.
According to figures published by Cinema-
tographic Francaise, the entertainment tax
return for the last seven years of the finan-
cial year was Fr. 127,891,000 in 1931-32,
as compared with Fr. 133,398,000 for the
same period of 1930-31. The latest returns
for the six summer months of 1932-33 show
Fr. 43,733,000. (La Cinematoraphie Fran-
caise, Paris, 29-X-1932).

According to statistics prepared by Mr R.
Canty, America only exported 62 films into
Germany during the 1931-32 season, as
against 101 in the preceding year. France,
on the other hand, exported 21 films in the
1930-31 season and 26 in 1931-32. England
exported 7 in 1930-31 and none at all dur-
ing the last season. The German market
is therefore limited to barely 230 foreign
films. (La Cinematographie Francaise,
Paris, 5-XI-1932).

It is learnt from a report on the economic
conditions of New Zealand published by
the British Over-Seas Trade Department
that 20 per cent of the films shown in New
Zealand come from England. Exporters
are therefore advised to increase their exports
to New Zealand in view of the favour in
which British films are held. (Today's
Cinema, London, 7-XI-1932).

The Film in Industry.

The CINES Co. of Rome has completed
a " short " by Umberto Barbaro entitled

: Gli Uomini del Cantiere " (Shipyard
Workers). The author has endeavoured
to show the intense, vigorous work of the
shipyard hands on a ship getting ready to be
launched. Man and ship are shown in the
film as two distinct elements, which are
complementary to each other. The man
represents constructive force and tenacious
will, the ship incalculable brute force. (Agen-
zia Film, Rome, 2- IX- 1932).

Really good documentary films are most
favourably received by the public, as witness
the success in the Paris cinemas of a German
film produced by the G. F. F. P. on metal-
lurgy and entitled " Steel ". The film shows
the various operations in steel-making from
the extraction of the coal from the mines to
the handling of the iron, also a number of pic-
tures of steel objects such as sky-scrapers,
bridges, doors, shipyards, vessels, etc. The
film, which is a kind of apotheosis of steel,
was warmly applauded by the Parisian pub-
lic. (La Cinematographie Francaise, Paris
29-IX-1932).

The General Electric Company has made
a film on the lumber trade entitled " Conquest
of the Forest ", (Movie Makers, New York,
10-X-1932).

The Frederick H. Roekett Co. has made
a film entitled " From Sand to Suds ".
Film treats of soap-making. (MOVIE MAKERS,
New York, 11 -XI- 1932).

Publicity.

In a short article entitled " Architecture,
Life and the Film " James Burford and
Oswell Blakeston attempt to demonstrate
the great possibilities of the film from the
point of view of advertising modern archi-
tecture (Architectural Review, London,
N° 430, September 1932).

The Charles High Production Co. has
made a film entitled " Canning the Finest ",
in which the latest methods approved of

- 971

by the United States Department of Agri-
culture for making canned foods are shown.
(Movie Makers, New York, 11-XI-1932).

Domestic Economy.

Eugene E. Sullivan of St. Louis has pro-
duced a short film of 200 metres on domestic
economy, illustrating the best way of mend-
ing clothes. (Movie Makers, New York,
N° 11 of November, 1932).

Workmen's Leisure.

The French National Committee of the
Workmen's Leisure Association has estab-
lished a cinema bureau so as to be able
to lend new films to the local committees.
(Cooperation, Basle, 6-X-1932).

The " Compania Cinematografica Vene-
zuelana ,, has been formed in Venezuela for
the manufacture of national films. (La ClNE-
matographie Fran?aise, Paris, 24-X-1932).

Government Subsidies.

Numerous artists in France belonging
to the Art Alliance of the Cinema have sent
a protest to the ministry of Labour in de-
fence of their class against the dangerous
action of some film directors and the wrong-
ful employment of foreigners in picture
establishments. (Oeuvre, Paris, 22-IX-1932).

Michel Coissac, laying stress in an article
on the moral and social influence of the cin-
ema and the importance of industrial cine-
matography exhorts the French government
to give the French industry all its support.
He cites the cases of other nations which
have understood what a source of wealth
and what a marvellous educational instru-
ment the cinema is. He mentions the United
States, Italy and Russia. (Le ClNEOPSE,
Paris, N° 159, November 1932).

Congresses, Exhibitions, Lectures.

The first film made by the Atlas Education-
al Film Co., and forming part of the series
called " A Century of Progress ", is entitled
" Washington, Wonder City of the World "
The film, besides illustrating the monuments
and special sights of the city, contains an
invitation to visit the International exhib-
ition " A Century of Progress " scheduled
to take place in Washington in 1933. The
film is of a national and patriotic propaganda
type and will be lent gratis to all who
ask for it. (Educational Screen, Chicago,
November 1932).

What the Public Wants.

M. Brezillon, director of numerous cin-
emas in the Paris district, and honorary
president of the French Syndicate of cinema
managers, recently made some interesting
declarations to the press. Although there
is a distinct improvement in business, the
returns from the cinemas are inferior by about
30 to 35 per cent as compared with last
year. This fact is due to the crisis, and to
unemployment. M. Brezillon maintains
that there is a certain discontent among the
public with the class of film being shown.
The short films shown in the early part of
the programmes are inadequate, while
the full length films are often mediocre.
The documentary films often weary the public
through their monotonous character. Ac-
cording to M. Brezillon, the public has had
enough of niggers and their various forms of
activity. Those who go to the cinema do so
in order to pass away an evening pleasantly
and not to see one film. M. Brezillon
thinks that in order to satisfy the public
the first part of a performance ought to have
a pleasant film of about 120-1300 metres
length, some news-reels and perhaps some
animated drawings. (La ClNEMATOGRAPHIE
Francaise, Paris, 12-XI-1932).

Dr. LUCIANO de FEO, Editor and Responsible Manager

Rome — « L'Univenale » Tipografia Poliglotta.

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GENERAL INDEX OF CONTENTS

JANUARY - DECEMBER 1932

ART AND CINEMA

BRAGAGLIA A. G. - « Orlando Furioso »,

Cinema Poem page 11

BARNICK C. H. — The Cfose-up : one of the
Greatest Technical and Artistic advances
made by the Film » 517

DIAS PLAJA G. — Cinema Aesthetics . . » 553

Editorial Notes by the Institute

A course in Cinema Culture in Barcelona . page 309

CONGRESSES AND EXHIBITIONS

Editorial Notes by the Institute

The Tenth Assembly of the Swiss Institute for

National and School Cinema . . . page 147

An International Exhibition of the Electro-
acoustical Industry » 148

An Exhibition of Publicity Films . . . page 229
The First World Recreation Congress . ; » 221
The Florence Cinematographic Exhibition . » 556

DOCUMENTARY CINEMA

EVA ELIE — The Reign of the Documentary

Film - « Indiens nos freres » . . . page 348

Editorial Notes by the Institute

» The True Face of Africa » . . . . page 468
» Tumgu » (In the country of the Kariakis) . » 625
Art Films » 869

EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION

GUNTHER W. — What we can expect from

the Educational Sound Film . . . page

HANKIN G. T. — An Exhibition of Mechanical
aids to Learning »

LAMPE F. — Geography Teaching with Films »

LOMONT A. — Film and Textbook

LINKE KARL — Still Photographs, Silent or
Sound Films for the School ? . . . »

BRUNEL A. — The film Director and Education »

FINEGAN THOS. — The responsibility of Super-
vision for the Use of Silent and Sound
Motion Pictures »

30
253
335

421

424

505

RENNER C. — The Educational Cinema in the

Technical Schools page 585

HAKKI ISMAIL — The Reform of the Technic-
al Schools in Turkey » 590

EMMERT V. — Core of a visual-sensory Aids

Program. ■ » 760

* * * — Visual Aids in Classroom
Teaching » 840

HOBAN C. F. — Possibilities of visual-sensory
Aids in Education »

Prof. FRY — The Teaching of Languages by
the Talking Film »

— l

SCIENCE AND THE CINEMA

B. HALA and L. HONTY — The Use of the
Cinema in the Exploration of the Human
Voice page 173

ZURUKZOGLU S. T. — Statistics on the Screen > 270

COMANDON J. — The Evolution of Micro-
Cinematography » 413

KOLLE W. — The importance of Cinemato-
graphy in biological Researches and espe-
cially in cells and cell cultures . . » 749

Editorial Notes by the Institute

The Cinema and Bacteriology
A voice made by science : New film that des-
cribes the artificial Lari ....

page 230

731

SOCIOLOGY AND CINEMA

DE VUYST P. — Family Education . . page 340

LEGRAS G. — The Cinema and the Rural

Exodus » 497

EVA ELIE — Open Letter to the Director of

the I. I. E. C » 604

DE VUYST P. — Rationalization in Education,
Teaching, Domestic Economy and Busin-
ness Management » 679

JACOBS F. — Wholesome Films for Children,

a great and growing need ...» 767

MOULAN G. — The Cinema and International
Amity .... ...»

FORMIGGINI SANTAMARIA E. — The Edu-
cational Function of the Cinema . • »

Editorial Notes by the Institute

Social Problems of the Cinema
Propaganda Films for the Abolition of Traffic
in Woman and Children .

What kind of life should the Cinema show ?
« What Woman Can offer the Cinema »
« Children not admitted » ....

« Drowsy Drugs » : Educational Film (by E. M.

Zingsem de Villiers

The Indo-China Film Market

News Items and Comments ....

page 59

» 227

» 306

» 471

» 729

» 883

I. I. E. C. INQUIRIES

Young people's impressions of War Films

(G. De Feo) . . page 37 - 121 - 204 - 273 - 357
Public Attendance at the Cinema (G. de Feo) page 769 - 845

Editorial Notes by the Institute

I. I. E. C. Investigations in Progress . . page 201

What French Teachers think of the Cinema

(Inquiry by Brerault) page 219

How practicable are Motion Pictures in Schools

(Inquiry by A. H. Covell) ...» 224

Inquiries (by Dr. A. Assagioli) ...» 473
A London Inquiry on the Cinema ...» 726
A New Inquiry on the Cinema ...»

TECHNICAL SECTION

WEINBERGER J. — This thing called « Per-
fect Sound » page 107

NAMIAS R. — Colour Cinema . . . » 313

THIELMANN E. — Acoustics in Educational

Sound Films » 512

EVA ELIE — « Dubbing » . 764

Editorial Notes by the Institute

Orien-

Technical Instruction and Professional

tation

Portable Sound Projectors
New Substandard Projectors .
The Standardization of Sound Films
A New Type of Air Cooler : « Bauer »
Preservation and Regeneration of Films

page 60
» 153
» 154
» 234
» 235
» 236

An optically compensated portable projector,
the " Simplicine Gaumont

Fast Motion Cameras

The Patin Photo-Electric Cell

Technical Notes

Present Day Problems of the Sub - Standard
Film

Lenses with Variable Focal Length

Technical Secrets

Advances in Colour Cinematography

The Debrie Super-Parvo

Examination of Children's hearing

The Western Electric Company and the Inte-
gral Reproduction of Sound

The new Western Electric Apparatus for 16m/m
Films

Recent advances in Scientific Cinematography

page

237

»

313

»

314

»

397

»

468

»

475

»

476

»

561

»

562

»

734

»

737

»

805

4 —